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Baking Equation

Ingredients
+
Equipment
+
Baking Process
=
Perfect Baking Process

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Baking Ingredients
- Major
Flour – 100%
Water – 50-55%
Yeast – 1.5%
Salt – 1.8%

- Optional
Sugar – 8-10%
Fat – 1.6%
Improvers – 1% (malt extract, egg, milk, conditioners etc.)
Cassava/Maize/Rice/Rye flour
Soya bean flour
Malt flour
Preservatives
Flavourings
Colourings

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Functions of Ingredients
- Flour – water absorption
 An important quality factor in bread baking is the degree to which the flour absorbs water.

 The amount of water which can be absorbed and carried by a flour varies with the type of
flour, its age, treatment and stability.

 Generally, for bread making, high water absorption values are preferred because it increases
production yield and also influences favourably the shelf life of bread.

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Functions of Ingredients

‐ Water
 Water to be used for all food processing operations in Nigeria must be clean.
 Hard water may also create a tight dough or slightly slow the yeast fermentation. Bakers
therefore need to know the composition of the water to be able to adjust recipes and process
conditions when developing new products.
 If the water content is insufficient, a ‘tight’ dough is produced, and the bread lacks volume
and has a heavy texture. Hard water may also create a tight dough or slightly slow the yeast
fermentation.
 Water constitutes the second largest ingredient in a typical baked product as bread.
 The first function water is in the mixing process to produce a homogenous mass (dough) and
in the development of the gluten network in the dough.

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Functions of Ingredients
- Yeast
 Yeast cells ferment sugars in the dough to produce carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. In baking,
it is the gas that is important, and the small amounts of alcohol are evaporated by heat in the
oven
 Compressed yeast requires refrigerated storage. It loses its activity more quickly than dried
yeast.
 Dried active yeast can be activated before use by mixing it in five times its weight of warm
water with little sugar and leaving it to stand until the water becomes cloudy and gas bubbles
are visible, before adding it to other ingredients.
 Instant Dry Yeast is added directly to the dry ingredients without the need for activation
because it is easier to store and has a longer shelf life.
 The other factors that affect the rate of dough fermentation are:
1. Temperature and water content of the dough
2. Time of fermentation
3. Quality of the flour
4. Amounts and types of other ingredients
 The temperature of fermentation also affects the amount of yeast that is needed and/or the
time of fermentation. As a general rule, a change in temperature of about 1oC requires a
change in fermentation time of 10%

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Functions of Ingredients
- Salt
 Salt (sodium chloride) should be pure white crystals
 Salt is hygroscopic (easily absorbs moisture from the air) and should be stored in a dry place
off the floor. In regions of high humidity, it should be stored in moisture-proof containers.
 Salt has three main functions in bread making:
1. It controls the yeast fermentation rate which in turn affects the crust and crumb colour. Too little salt
will cause the yeast to work quickly and use up all its food before it is actually required. Too much salt
will slow down yeast function too much and this will slow down the production process and may lead
to many different product faults

2. It stabilises and strengthens the gluten. It helps retain moisture and so reduces staling. The water
retaining properties of salt cause the gluten strands to become tougher and thus aids the mixing and
processing (handling) proper ties of the dough. A dough prepared with no salt will feel sticky and soft
and a first reaction by impulse may be to add flour to stiffen the dough; but when salt is blended in,
the dough reaches the required consistency.

3. It gives taste to the baked product.

 Salt must be distributed evenly throughout the dough to prevent it coming into direct contact
with the yeast and killing it. This can be done either by dissolving the salt in water before
adding it to the flour, or by sieving the salt into the flour before mixing.
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Functions of Ingredients
- Sugar
 Sugar such as sucrose, glucose, fructose, maltose and lactose not only have nutritional value
but also function as plasticizers, colour and flavour producers through the browning
reaction, flavour-binding agents and sweeteners.
 Nutritionally, sugar supply 4kcal/gram of energy in the diet.
 Microorganisms can ferment sugars to CO2 and alcohol, thus providing the basis for
leavening action and alcohol production.
 White granulated sugar is suitable for most bakery use
 In bread making, natural, granulated sugar has three major functions – in dough stage,
during baking and in finished product.
1. Sugar is food substrate for yeast for the fermentation process
2. Sugar aids crust colour development during baking. The shiny, light brown crust of baked products is
largely due to the reaction of sugar in or near the crust with the heat of the oven (caramelisation) and
the sugar-protein reaction (maillard browning). Without sugar, it would be difficult to or impossible to
achieve the same crust colour.
3. The third and obvious function of sugar in the final baked product is that it provides taste. However,
the taste contribution depends on the sugar level in the product.
 Note
 Sugar first serves as (potential) food for yeast and as such only the sugar that is left when the yeast
stops working contributes to crust colour and to taste.
 In No-Time (Straight Dough) Bread Making Process, the time for the yeast to convert added sugar to gas
and alcohol is limited and very little or none of the added sugar is converted by yeast.
 Only when there are delays in the no-time dough process in bulk/during resting/over proofing; or
when the yeast activity is too high does yeast convert the added sugar.
Functions of Ingredients
‐ Fat
 In theory, fat is not compulsory in bread making but the addition of fat at 0.5 – 1.0% of weight
of flour increases loaf volume and gives a more tender and thinner crust, a better crust
colour, a softer crumb and an improved flavour.
 The primary function of fat in baked bread is that it gives it a specific eating quality
characteristic known as “short bite”, which literally means that the product can be bitten in
one bite and that it is not “chewy” or tough. Baked products with a low or no fat content can
become very tough, especially the crust.
 Fat in dough makes it more machinable and gives more process tolerance and stability and
allows the dough to be worked using modern machinery with relative ease.
 Products containing fat, such as bread, have a longer shelf life because the fat keeps the
product softer for longer.

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Functions of Ingredients
‐ Improvers
 The functions of chemical improvers (oxidizing and reducing agents) are that they help to:
 Shorten dough resting time
 Increase bread volume
 Increase gas retention
 Speed up proofing time
 Improve crumb texture
 Improve shelf life
 Oxidizing Agents
 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) – Usage: 75 – 100 ppm
 Azodicarbonamide (ADA) – Usage : 10 – 25 ppm
 Reducing Agents
 L-Cysteine (Amino acid) – Usage: 25 – 35 ppm
 Sodium Metabisulphite – Usage: 10 – 20 ppm

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Bread Production Flow Chart
Flour and Other Ingredients

Weighing

Mixing Resting

Kneading

Dividing/Moulding

Proofing

Baking Cooling Slicing

Packaging

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Weighing/Recipe Formulation
 Accurate weighing of the ingredients is an obvious requirement in the baking process

 This is the first right step in ensuring that the product is good and perfect

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Mixing
 Ingredients are put into the mixer according to their group specifications on the recipe and
properly mixed with correct Speed and Time

 There are two types of mixing

1. Manual
2. Machine – with mixers

 Mixers are of different types

- Non spiral mixers
- Two speed spiral mixers
*** The best is the two speed spiral mixers

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Mixing (Local Mixing)
Mixing (Spiral Mixing)
Spiral Mixing contd.
Stages in Bread Production
‐ Objective of Mixing
 Mixing distribute the ingredients evenly and create structure of air bubbles capable of
expansion within the dough

 Mixing produce a dough of good machinability

 Mixing must produce dough with temperature between 28⁰C– 31⁰C

 Mixing must produce dough with properly developed gluten network that is able to retain gas
produced during fermentation

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Spiral Mixers
 Spiral mixers have two stages:
1. Slow stage mixing – ingredients dispensing
2. Fast stage mixing – dough development
Slow stage
Slow mixing stage is 2mins during which all ingredients are blended together
Fast stage – optimum dough development
 Take a small piece of the dough and stretch it between your hands until thin film can be
formed. If the dough tears easily, it is not yet well developed.
 The dough in the mixer will appear smooth and soft and start forming a flow in the spiral
mixer.

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Optimum Dough Development
 After mixing, the dough may be dusted with a very thin layer of flour and must be removed
from the mixer immediately.
 The temperature of the dough should be taken at the end of mixing by inserting the
thermometer deep into the centre of the dough.
 Development time of the dough should be fairly standard for each bakery and product type
based on recipes used.
 Differences in flour, water and temperature changes may influence optimum development
time.
 Each bakery is expected to and should test dough development time to be able to adjust
accordingly when the need arises.

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Resting
 Resting step or time depends on the production method used.
 It could be immediately after mixing in the bulk fermentation process or after dividing and
rounding in the Straight dough method.
 As the dough is allowed to rest for the predetermined duration, the fermentation process
relaxes the dough and makes it more extensible and allows shaping or moulding of the
dough into a loaf or other product without tearing or shrinking.
 Note: During resting time, if the dough is dusted lightly and covered with a plastic sheet
during resting, it prevents skinning of the dough and ensures a better final product.

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Dividing
 The dough is divided into small weights. This is done by using scales

‐ Rounding
 The dough is rounded into smooth even surface and placed inside the pans .
 The purpose of smoothing is to have even surface final product.
 The process is also to eliminate excess air trapped inside the dough

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Moulding
 During moulding the rounded dough that has rested is shaped, rolled into final shape
 Moulding is done by hand or automatic moulder – which is faster and produce more uniform
products

‐ Stages of Moulding
1. Flattening of dough to release excess carbon dioxide
2. Dough rolled into cylindrical shape
3. This is rolled again under pressure to ensure that it sealed tightly

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Panning
 In panning stage, the moulded dough is placed in the pan (previously oiled) in which it will
go into the prover/proofing chamber.
 Bread dough pieces are placed centrally in the bread pan with the moulding seam at the
bottom and as straight as possible.
 Other products are placed on baking trays or pans.
 The basic principle is to leave as much space so that the products can proof and be baked
without touching or interfering with adjacent products; but the space should be utilised as
efficiently as possible since oven space is limited and expensive.

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Proofing
 Proofing is the stage or time necessary for the yeast to produce adequate supply of gas to
increase the volume, add flavour, and condition the dough prior to baking or frying.

 Optimum proofing conditions depend on the type of products and formulation used. For
example, yeast-raised doughnuts are typically proofed under dryer conditions than breads.

 The prover gives the yeast the ideal environment to achieve the optimum fermentation rate
and the dough piece the right conditions to expand during fermentation.

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ Baking
 The bread is fully baked when the core temperature reaches about 97oC.
 Moisture loss from the dough during baking is approximately 10% but varies depending on
the recipe, dough moisture, baking temperature, time and size of loaf.
 It is important during baking to use the right temperature and the required temperature
should be reached before loading the oven.
 Bread baking temperature ranges from 200 – 230oC although baking at 180 – 200oC for a longer
time is also done in traditional bakeries using earthen (mud) ovens.

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Stages in Bread Production
‐ De-Panning, Cooling and Wrapping
 After baking, the products are removed from the pan or baking tray and allowed to cool
before wrapping or packaging.
 For bread, the loaf is de-panned almost immediately after removal from the oven to prevent
sweating and becoming soggy.
 Products on baking trays (e.g. bread rolls, meat pies) also tend to sweat on the bottom but are
generally left on the baking trays.
 Bread must be allowed to cool down to room temperature before wrapping otherwise it will
sweat and this will accelerate spoilage.

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Bread Making in Action (Local Kneading with Rollers)
Bread Faults

 Identification
 Causes
 Solutions at the Bakery level
Optimal Loaf

6. Short Bite
Blisters of Crust
Side of Bread Collapsing
Bread Sticks to Pan
Collapsed Bread
Flying Top
Holes Under Top Crust
Badly Shaped Bread
Lack of Volume
No Oven Spring
Rapid Staling
Too Much Volume
Uneven Texture
Wrinkled Crust
Thank you