Definition of Ecology

Ecology- Etymology is oikos+ logy. Oikos means house or dwelling.

Ecology is the study of relationships and interactions of living organismswith other living
organisms and its surrounding environment.Thus its the study of house of an organism (its env +
other fellow beings)

Thus there are 3 things that we study in ecology-

1. living organisms
2. Relationship & interactions with other organisms. E.g whether there is symbiotic
relationship like rhizobium and legume plant roots, or Competition among herbivorous
animals for food.
3. Relationship & interactions with surrounding environment. It means how it responds to
climate, soil, topography, water availability, atmosphere. e.g Animals in deserts have long
ears to increase heat loss and keep themselves cool while animals in cold areas have small
ears to prevent heat loss. It also includes Energy flow(Food chains/Food web) , nutrient
cycles and Ecological succession.
____________________________________________________

Environment refers to the surroundings. It has 2 components biotic and abiotic.

Biotic includes - surrounding plant & animal communities and micro organisms. Abiotic factors
includes- soil, sunlight, topography, water, atmosphere, nutrients etc.

____________________________________________________

Ecosystem is a functional unit. It includes env (biotic+ abiotic) and ecology(how living organisms
interact with each other and the environment).

Thus Ecosystem= Ecology+ Environment

Ecosystem can be as big as our Earth or as small as a drop of water (water + micro-organisms).
 History of Ecology
 late 1700's Antoine Lavoisier, a chemist, discovered Oxygen and Carbon and their importance to
living things
 1852 Robert Angus Smith connected acid rain to air pollution
 1869 Ernst Haeckel coins the term ecology
 1875- Eduard Seuss defines the biosphere
 1879 Symbiosis is first described by Albert Bernhand
 late 1800's animal camouflage studied and described
 1900 Henry Chandler Cowles studies ecological succession
 1915 Ecological Society of America founded
 1926 Vladimir I. Vernadsky in his book entitled The Biosphere, redefined biosphere as the global
ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with
the elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
 1927 Charles Elton makes the concept of food chains and webs part of ecology
 1933 Aldo Leopold writes Game Management, beginning the discipline of wildlife management
 1935 The Dust Bowl crisis re-focuses ecology on practical land usage practices
 1935 Arthur Tinsley defines ecosystem
 1940's Ruth Patrick studied interdependence of organisms, particularly freshwater ecosystems. She
developed methods to measure the health of a stream.
 1950's People first become aware of the harmful effects of pollution on ecological systems and on
people.
 1951 Nature Conservancy is founded.
 1953 Eugene Odum, Howard Odum wrote the first ecology textbook and ecology becomes a
university course.
 1970’s James Lovelock’s idea of Gaia, that the whole earth is one living entity and will ensure its own
survival even if humans destroy themselves
 1971 UNESCO launched the research program Man and Biosphere in the goal of increasing the
awareness of humans about their relationship with nature.
 1972 Acid rain effects on lakes is discovered and studied by Harold Harvey
 1978 Conservation Biology established as a discipline focusing on environmental management
 1980’s Scientists discover hole in the ozone over Antarctica
 1980’s Water pollution seriously reduced due to new sewage treatment practices
 1980's Air pollution reduced in cities as unleaded gas and catalytic converters are used in autos.
Biological Spectrum
Atoms

Acellular level
Molecule Groups of atoms
and
Pre-cellular level

Biomolecular
Groups of (bio)molecules
complex

Sub-cellular
Organelle Functional groups of biomolecules, biochemical reactions and interactions
level

Cellular level Cell Basic unit of all life and the grouping of organelles

Super-cellular
level
Tissue Functional groups of cells
(Multicellular
level)

Organ Functional groups of tissues

Organ system Functional groups of organs

The basic living system, a functional grouping of the lower-level components, including at
Organism
least one cell

Population Groups of organisms of the same species

Community
Interspecific groups of interacting populations
(or biocoenosis)

Ecological levels
Groups of organisms from all biological domains in conjunction with the physical (abiotic)
Ecosystem
environment

Continental scale (climatically and geographically contiguous areas with similar climatic
Biome
conditions) grouping of ecosystems.

Biosphere or
All life on Earth or all life plus the physical (abiotic) environment [3]
Ecosphere
Planet Earth and its Composition
The understanding of '-sphere- in this situation means 'to surround or encompass'
The following help us understand the mean of the four spheres :

 Lithosphere - litho referring to rocks and minerals

 Hydrosphere - hydro referring to water
 Biosphere - bio referring to life
 Atmosphere - atmo referring to steam and vapor

THE LITHOSPHERE -

It is believed the lithosphere evolved about 4.6 billion years ago. The lithosphere refers to the solid,
rocky crust that covers the entire planet. This solid, rocky crust is composed of a number of different
rocks that have been hrouped into three categories based on how they are formed. These three
groups include:

 Metamorphic rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and / or pressure from pre-
existing rocks.
 Igneous rocks – igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of hot molten rock also known as
magma. When the hot magma cools it begins to harden meaning once it had fully cooled it
create what is known to be an igneous rock.
 Sedimentary rocks – sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks. When rocks erode
and mix with other dirt, clay and particles then settle together the mix together to form a
sedimentary rock.

The lithosphere includes a various number of different landforms such as mountains, valleys,
rocks, minerals and soil. The lithosphere is constantly changing due to forces and pressures such
as the sun, wind, ice, water and chemical changes.
The earth’s surface is composed into two types of lithospheres. There are known as the oceanic
and continental lithospheres.
The oceanic lithosphere includes the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a thin yet
heavy oceanic crust. This is where the hydrosphere and lithosphere meet.
The continental lithosphere include the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a thick yet
light continental crust. This is where the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere meet the
lithosphere.
THE HYDROSPHERE -
The hydrosphere refers to the most important resource which I water. The hydrosphere includes
all forms of water in the Earth’s environment. The forms of water include things such as the ocean,
lakes, rivers, snow and glaciers, water underneath the earth’s surface and even the water vapour
that is found in the atmosphere. The hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through the
movement and flow of water in rivers, streams and the ocean (beach). Plant and animal
organisms rely on the hydrosphere for their survival as water is essential. The hydrosphere is also
home to many plants and animals and it believed that the hydrosphere covers approximately 70%
of the earth’s surface

THE BIOSPHERE -

The biosphere is composed of all living organisms, including; plants and animals. It is believed
that all life exists in the biosphere. Most of the living organisms are found from up to three meters
below ground to thirty meters above it and also in the to 200 meters of the ocean and seas. The
biosphere could not survive if it wasn't for the other spheres as all organisms need water from the
hydrosphere, minerals for the lithosphere and gases from the atmosphere. Energy flow is
essential to maintain the structure of organisms by the splitting of phosphate bonds.

THE ATMOSPHERE -

The atmosphere referrers to the air that surrounds the earth. The atmosphere is always in motion
and constantly changing. It’s believed that there are about 14 different gases that make up the
atmosphere. The atmosphere is also responsible for the weather as the weather occurs within the
lower atmosphere.
The bottom layer of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. The troposphere is where the
weather happens. It is the warmest near the Earth because of the heat rising from the earth’s
surface but it becomes colder with altitude. This layer is separated from the next by what is know s
as tropopause. The tropopause is the point in which temperatures will begin to change due to the
increase of altitude.
Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. The stratosphere is where there large concentration of
ozone gas is found. The ozone gasses are essential as they absorb a large percent of radiant
solar energy, protecting the earth from harmful ultra violet rays also known as UV.
The coldest of spheres is known as the mesosphere this is where the water vapor often freezes to
create clouds that are purely made of ice. The mesosphere is separated from the thermosphere
by the mesopause.
The topmost layer is known as the thermosphere, this is where many satellites circle the earth.
Due to the thin air and proximity of the sun, the temperatures in the thermosphere tend to rapidly
increase and decrease.
Components of Ecosystem
Biotic components or biotic factors, can be described as any living component that affects
another organism, or shapes the ecosystem. This includes both animals that consume other
organisms within their ecosystem, and the organism that is being consumed. Biotic factors also
include human influence, pathogens, and disease outbreaks. Each biotic factor needs the proper
amount of energy and nutrition to function day to day.
Biotic components are typically sorted into three main categories:

1. Producers, otherwise known as autotrophs, convert energy (through the process of

photosynthesis) into food.
2. Consumers, otherwise known as heterotrophs, depend upon producers (and occasionally
other consumers) for food.
3. Decomposers, otherwise known as detritivores, break down chemicals from producers and
consumers (usually antibiotic) into simpler form which can be reused.

Abiotic components of an ecosystem consist of the nonorganic aspects of the environment

that determine what life forms can thrive. Examples of abiotic components are temperature,
average humidity, topography and natural disturbances. Temperature varies by latitude; locations
near the equator are warmer than are locations near the poles or the temperate zones. Humidity
influences the amount of water and moisture in the air and soil, which, in turn, affect rainfall.
Topography is the layout of the land in terms of elevation. For example, according to the
University of Wisconsin, land located in the rain shadow of a mountain will receive less
precipitation. Natural disturbances include tsunamis, lightning storms, hurricanes and forest fires.

Basic Laws in Ecosystem

LAW OF LIMITING

Every living organism has limits to the environmental conditions it can endure

Environmental factors must be within appropriate levels for life to persist

These factors are primarily responsible for determining the growth and/or reproduction of an organism
or population. It may be a physical factor such as temperature or light, a chemical factor such as
particular nutrient, or a biological factor such as a competing species. The limiting factor may differ at
different times and places.

The Law of Limiting factors states that too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent
growth of a population of a species in an ecosystem
Examples of limiting factors of a population growth
A. Terrestrial Ecosystem
1. Temperature
2. Water
3. Moisture
4. Soil nutrients

B. Marine Ecosystem
1. Salinity
2. Temperature
3. Sunlight
4. Dissolved Oxygen

LAW OF THE MINIMUM

Proposed by Justus von Liebig in 1840.

It says that the success of organism determined by crucial ingredient that is in short supply.
As abundance of one resource increases another resource may become limiting.
Also known as Liebig's Law of Minimum - a system maybe limited by the absence or minimum
amount (in terms of that needed) of any required factor.

What this law states is that the rarest requirement of an organism will be the limiting factor to its
performance.

As an example a crop's yield is restricted by the lack of a single element, in this case lets suppose the
soil is low in Nitrogen, adding more phosphorus will not improve the crops yield. Once the soil has
nitrogen added crop yield will increase until another element becomes the limiting factor. And no
further improvement in yield is possible until more of that element is made available.

LAW OF TOLERANCE

Proposed by Victor Shelford in 1913.

This is an extension of the Law of the Minimum.
It refers to the upper and lower bounds to physical environment an organism can tolerate.
These boundaries affect the ability to function, grow, and reproduce. These changes can be broad
and narrow.
There are seasonal shifts in tolerance ranges, but within physiological limits.
Implication - no organism can live everywhere.

The law of Tolerance states that the existence, abundance, and distribution of a species in an
ecosystem are determined by whether the levels of one or more physical or chemical factors fall
above or below the levels tolerated by the species.
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
Energy has been defined as the capacity to do work. Energy exists in two forms potential and kinetic.

Potential energy is the energy at rest {i.e., stored energy) capable of performing work. Kinetic energy
is the energy of motion (free energy).

It results in work performance at the expense of potential energy. Conversion of potential energy into
kinetic energy involves the imparting of motion.

The source of energy required by all living organisms is the chemical energy of their food. The
chemical energy is obtained by the conversion of the radiant energy of sun.

The radiant energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves which are released from the sun during
the transmutation of hydrogen to helium. The chemical energy stored in the food of living organisms
is converted into potential energy by the arrangement of the constituent atoms of food in a particular
manner. In any ecosystem there should be unidirectional flow of energy.

This energy flow is based on two important Laws of Thermodynamics which are as follows:

(1) The first law of Thermodynamics:

It states that the amount of energy in the universe is constant. It may change from one form to
another, but it can neither be created nor destroyed. Light energy can be neither created nor
destroyed as it passes through the atmosphere. It may, however, be transformed into another type of
energy, such as chemical energy or heat energy. These forms of energy cannot be transformed into
electromagnetic radiation.

(2) The second law of Thermodynamics:

It states that non-random energy (mechanical, chemical, radiant energy) cannot be changed without
some degradation into heat energy. The change of energy from one form to another takes place in
such a way that a part of energy assumes waste form (heat energy). In this way, after transformation
the capacity of energy to perform work is decreased. Thus, energy flows from higher to lower level.

Main source of energy is sun. Approximately 57% of sun energy is absorbed in the atmosphere and
scattered in the space. Some 35% is spent to heat water and land areas and to evaporate water. Of
the approximately 8% of light energy striking plant surface, 10% to 15% is reflected, 5% is transmitted
and 80 to 85% is absorbed; and an average of only 2% (0.5 to 3.5%) of the total light energy striking
on a leaf is used in photosynthesis and rest is transformed into heat energy.
Energy flow in Ecosystems:
Living organisms can use energy in two forms radiant and fixed energy. Radiant energy is in the form
of electromagnetic waves, such as light. Fixed energy is potential chemical energy bound in various
organic substances which can be broken down in order to release their energy content.

Organisms that can fix radiant energy utilizing inorganic substances to produce organic molecules are
called autotrophs. Organisms that cannot obtain energy from abiotic source but depend on energy-
rich organic molecules synthesized by autotrophs are called heterotrophs. Those which obtain energy
from living organisms are called consumers and those which obtain energy from dead organisms are
called decomposers (Fig. 3.7).

When the light energy falls on the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is transformed into chemical
energy which is stored in various organic products in the plants. When the herbivores consume plants
as food and convert chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy, degradation
of energy will occur through its conversion into heat. When herbivores are consumed by carnivores of
the first order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Similarly, when primary
carnivores are consumed by top carnivores, again energy will be degraded.
Trophic level:
The producers and consumers in ecosystem can be arranged into several feeding groups, each
known as trophic level (feeding level). In any ecosystem, producers represent the first trophic level,
herbivores present the second trophic level, primary carnivores represent the third trophic level and
top carnivores represent the last level.

Food Chain:
In the ecosystem, green plants alone are able to trap in solar energy and convert it into chemical
energy. The chemical energy is locked up in the various organic compounds, such as carbohydrates,
fats and proteins, present in the green plants. Since virtually all other living organisms depend upon
green plants for their energy, the efficiency of plants in any given area in capturing solar energy sets
the upper limit to long-term energy flow and biological activity in the community.

The food manufactured by the green plants is utilized by themselves and also by herbivores. Animals
feed repeatedly. Herbivores fall prey to some carnivorous animals. In this way one form of life
supports the other form. Thus, food from one trophic level reaches to the other trophic level and in
this way a chain is established. This is known as food chain.

A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients through a succession of
organisms through repeated process of eating and being eaten. In food chain initial link is a green
plant or producer which produces chemical energy available to consumers. For example, marsh
grass is consumed by grasshopper, the grasshopper is consumed by a bird and that bird is
consumed by hawk.

Thus, a food chain is formed which can be written as follows:

Marsh grass → grasshopper → bird → hawk

Food chain in any ecosystem runs directly in which green plants are eaten by herbivores, herbivores
are eaten by carnivores and carnivores are eaten by top carnivores. Man forms the terrestrial links of
many food chains.

Food chains are of three types:

1. Grazing food chain

2. Parasitic food chain

3. Saprophytic or detritus food chain

1. Grazing food chain:

The grazing food chain starts from green plants and from autotrophs it goes to herbivores (primary
consumers) to primary carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores (tertiary
consumers) and so on. The gross production of a green plant in an ecosystem may meet three
fates—it may be oxidized in respiration, it may be eaten by herbivorous animals and after the death
and decay of producers it may be utilized by decomposers and converters and finally released into
the environment. In herbivores the assimilated food can be stored as carbohydrates, proteins and
fats, and transformed into much more complex organic molecules.

The energy for these transformations is supplied through respiration. As in autotrophs, the energy in
herbivores also meets three routes respiration, decay of organic matter by microbes and consumption
by the carnivores. Likewise, when the secondary carnivores or tertiary consumers eat primary
carnivores, the total energy assimilated by primary carnivores or gross tertiary production follows the
same course and its disposition into respiration, decay and further consumption by other carnivores is
entirely similar to that of herbivores.

Thus, it is obvious that much of the energy flow in the grazing food chain can be described in
terms of trophic levels as outlined below:

A schematic representation of grazing food chain showing input and losses of energy has been
presented in Fig. 3.8.

2. Parasitic food chain:

It goes from large organisms to smaller ones without outright killing as in the case of predator.

3. Detritus food chain:

The dead organic remains including metabolic wastes and exudates derived from grazing food chain
are generally termed detritus. The energy contained in detritus is not lost in ecosystem as a whole,
rather it serves as a source of energy for a group of organisms called detritivores that are separate
from the grazing food chain. The food chain so formed is called detritus food chain (Fig. 3.9).
In some ecosystems more energy flows through the detritus food chain than through grazing food
chain. In detritus food chain the energy flow remains as a continuous passage rather than as a
stepwise flow between discrete entities. The organisms in the detritus food chain are many and
include algae, fungi, bacteria, slime moulds, actinomycetes, protozoa, etc. Detritus organisms ingest
pieces of partially decomposed organic matter, digest them partially and after extracting some of the
chemical energy in the food to run their metabolism, excrete the remainder in the form of simpler
organic molecules.

The waste from one organism can be immediately utilized by a second one which repeats the
process. Gradually, the complex organic molecules present in the organic wastes or dead tissues are
broken down to much simpler compounds, sometimes to carbon dioxide and water and all that are left
are humus. In a normal environment the humus is quite stable and forms an essential part of the soil.
Schematic representation of detritus food chain is given in Fig. 3.9.

Food web:
Many food chains exist in an ecosystem, but as a matter of fact these food chains are not
independent. In ecosystem, one organism does not depend wholly on another. The resources are
shared specially at the beginning of the chain. The marsh plants are eaten by variety of insects, birds,
mammals and fishes and some of the animals are eaten by several predators.

Similarly, in the food chain grass → mouse → snakes → owls, sometimes mice are not eaten by
snakes but directly by owls. This type of interrelationship interlinks the individuals of the whole
community. In this way, food chains become interlinked. A complex of interrelated food chains makes
up a food web. Food web maintains the stability of the ecosystem. The greater the number of
alternative pathways the more stable is the community of living things. Fig. 3.10. illustrates a food
web in ecosystem.

Ecological pyramid:
The trophic structure of an ecosystem can be indicated by means of ecological pyramid. At each step
in the food chain a considerable fraction of the potential energy is lost as heat. As a result, organisms
in each trophic level pass on lesser energy to the next trophic level than they actually receive. This
limits the number of steps in any food chain to 4 or 5. Longer the food chain the lesser energy is
available for final members. Because of this tapering off of available energy in the food chain a
pyramid is formed that is known as ecological pyramid. The higher the steps in the ecological pyramid
the lower will be the number of individuals and the larger their size.

The idea of ecological pyramids was advanced by C.E. Elton (1927). There are different types of
ecological pyramids. In each ecological pyramid, producer level forms the base and successive levels
make up the apex. Three types of pyramidal relations may be found among the organisms at different
levels in the ecosystem.

These are as follows:

1. Pyramid of numbers,

2. Pyramid of biomass (biomass is the weight of living organisms), and

3. Pyramid of energy.

1. Pyramid of numbers:
It depicts the numbers of individuals in producers and in different orders of consumers in an
ecosystem. The base of pyramid is represented by producers which are the most abundant. In the
successive levels of consumers, the number of organisms goes on decreasing rapidly until there are
a few carnivores.
The pyramid of numbers of an ecosystem indicates that the producers are ingested in large numbers
by smaller numbers of primary consumers. These primary consumers are eaten by relatively smaller
number of secondary consumers and these secondary consumers, in turn, are consumed by only a
few tertiary consumers (Fig. 3.11, 3.12a).

This type of pyramid is best presented by taking an example of Lake Ecosystem. In this type of
pyramid the base trophic level is occupied by producer elements—algae, diatoms and other
hydrophytes which are most abundant. At the second trophic level come the herbivores or
zooplanktons which are lesser in number than producers.

The third trophic level is occupied by carnivores which are still smaller in number than the herbivores
and the top is occupied by a few top carnivores. Thus, in the ecological pyramid of numbers there is a
relative reduction in number of organisms and an increase in the size of body from base to apex of
the pyramid. In parasitic food chain starting from tree, the pyramid of numbers will be inverted (Fig.
3.12).
2. Pyramid of biomass of organisms:
The living weights or biomass of the members of the food chain present at any one time form the
pyramid of biomass of organisms. This indicates, by weight or other means of measuring materials,
the total bulk of organisms or fixed energy present at one time. Pyramid of biomass indicates the
decrease of biomass in each tropic level from base to apex, e.g., total biomass of producers is more
than the total biomass of the herbivores.

Likewise, the total biomass of secondary consumers will be lesser than that of herbivores and so on
(Fig. 3.13, 3.14 a, b). Since some energy and material are lost in each successive link, the total mass
supported at each level is limited by the rate at which the energy is being stored below. This usually
gives sloping pyramid for most of the communities in terrestrial and shallow water ecosystems. The
pyramid of biomass in a pond ecosystem will be inverted as shown in Fig. 3.13 b.
3. Pyramid of energy:
This depicts not only the amount of total energy utilized by the organisms at each trophic level of food
chain but more important, the actual role of various organisms in transfer of energy. At the producer
level the total energy will be much greater than the energy at the successive higher trophic level.

Some producer organisms may have small biomass but the total energy they assimilate and pass on
to consumers may be greater than that of organisms with much larger biomass. Higher trophic levels
are more efficient in energy utilization but much heat is lost in energy transfer. Energy loss by
respiration also progressively increases from lower to higher trophic states (Fig. 3.15).

In the energy flow process, two things become obvious. Firstly there is one way along which energy
moves i.e. unidirectional flow of energy. Energy comes in the ecosystem from outside source i.e. sun.
The energy captured by autotrophs does not go back to the sun, the energy that passes from
autotrophs to herbivores does not revert back and as it moves progressively through the various
trophic levels, it is no longer available to the previous levels.

Thus due to unidirectional flow of energy, the system would collapse if the supply from primary
source, the sun is cut off. Secondly, there occurs a progressive decrease in energy level at each
trophic level which is accounted largely by the energy dissipated as heat in metabolic activities.
Population in Ecology
In ecology, a population consists of all the organisms of a particular species living in a
given area. For instance, we could say that a population of humans lives in New York
City, and that another population of humans lives in Gross. We can describe these
populations by their size—what we often mean by population when we're talking about
towns and cities—as well as by their density—how many people per unit area—and
distribution—how clumped or spread out the people are.

Population Characteristics

1. POPULATION SIZE AND DENSITY:

Total size is generally expressed as the number of individuals in a population.

Population density is defined as the numbers of individuals per unit area or per unit volume of

environment. Larger organisms as trees may be expressed as 100 trees per hectare, whereas
smaller ones like phytoplanktons (as algae) as 1 million cells per cubic metre of water.

In terms of weight it may be 50 kilograms of fish per hectare of water surface. Density may be

numerical density (number of individuals per unit area or volume) when the size of individuals in the

population is relatively uniform, as mammals, birds or insects or biomass density (biomass per unit
area or volume) when the size of individuals is variable such as trees.

Since, the patterns of dispersion of organisms in nature are different population density is also
differentiated into crude density and ecological density.

a. Crude density:
It is the density (number or biomass) per unit total space.

b. Ecological density or specific or economic density:

It is the density (number or biomass) per unit of habitat space i.e., available area or volume that can
actually be colonized by the population.
This distinction becomes important due to the fact that organisms in nature grow generally clumped

into groups and rarely as uniformly distributed. For example, in plant species like Cassia tora,

Oplismemis burmanni, etc, individuals are found more crowded in shady patches and few in other

parts of some area. Thus, density calculated in total area (shady as well as exposed) would be crude

density, whereas the density value for only shady area (where the plants actually grow) would be
ecological density.

2. POPULATION DISPERSION OR SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION:

Dispersion is the spatial pattern of individuals in a population relative to one another. In nature, due to

various biotic interactions and influence of abiotic factors, the following three basic population
distributions can be observed:

(a) Regular dispersion:

Here the individuals are more or less spaced at equal distance from one another. This is rare in
nature but in common is cropland. Animals with territorial behaviour tend towards this dispersion.

(b) Random dispersion:

Here the position of one individual is unrelated to the positions of its neighbours. This is also relatively
rare in nature.

(c) Clumped dispersion:

Most populations exhibit this dispersion to some extent, with individuals aggregated into patches

interspersed with no or few individuals. Such aggregations may result from social aggregations, such

as family groups or may be due to certain patches of the environment being more favourable for the
population concerned.

3. AGE STRUCTURE:
In most types of populations, individuals are of different age. The proportion of individuals in each age

group is called age structure of that population. The ratio of the various age groups in a population
determines the current reproductive status of the population, thus anticipating its future. From an

ecological view point there are three major ecological ages in any population. These are, pre-
reproductive, reproductive and post reproductive. The relative duration of these age groups in
proportion to the life span varies greatly with different organisms.

Age pyramid:

The model representing geometrically the proportions of different age groups in the population of any

organism is called age pyramid. According to Bodenheimer (1938), there are following three basic
types of age pyramids.

(a) A pyramids with a broad base (or triangular structure):

It indicates a high percentage of young individuals. In rapidly growing young populations birth rate is

high and population growth may be exponential as in yeasty house fly, Paramecium, etc. Under such

conditions, each successive generation will be more numerous than the preceding one, and thus a
pyramid with a broad base would result (Fig. A).

(b) Bell-Shaped Polygon:

It indicates a stationary population having an equal number of young and middle aged individuals. As

the growth rate becomes slow and stable, i.e., the pre-

reproductive and reproductive age groups become more or less equal in size, post-reproductive
group remaining as the smallest (Fig. B).

(c) An urn-shaped structure:

It indicates a low percentage of young individuals and shows a declining population. Such an un-

shaped figure is obtained when the birth rate is drastically reduced the pre-reproductive group
dwindles in proportion to the other two age groups of the population. (Fig. C).
4. NATALITY (BIRTH RATE):
Population increase because of natality. It is simply a broader term covering the production of new

individuals by birth, hatching, by fission, etc. The natality rate may be expressed as the number of

organisms born per female per unit time. In human population, the natality rate is equivalent to the
birth-rate. There are distinguished two types of natality.

(a) Maximum natality:

Also called as absolute or potential or physiological natality, it is the theoretical maximum production

of new individuals under ideal conditions which means that there are no ecological limiting factors and

that reproduction is limited only by physiological factors. It is a constant for a given population. This is
also called fecundity rate.

(b) Ecological natality:

Also called realized natality or simply natality, it is the population increase under an actual, existing

specific condition. Thus it takes into account all possible existing environmental conditions. This is
also designated as fertility rate.

5. MORTALITY (DEATH RATE):

Mortality means the rate of death of individuals in the population. Like natality, mortality may be
of following types:

(a) Minimum mortality:

Also called specific or potential mortality, it represents the theoretical minimum loss under ideal or
non-limiting conditions. It is a constant for a population.

(b) Ecological or realised mortality:

It is the actual loss of individuals under a given environmental condition. Ecological mortality is not

constant for a population and varies with population and environmental conditions, such as predation,
disease and other ecological hazards.