EARTHSCI
) Geomorphology: nature, origin,
➢ Branch of physical science that deals with
the study of the solid earth
Geosphere
✓ Crust, mantle, core
✓ Crust: outermost layer
✓ Mantle: 2890 km thick layer below the
crust
✓ Core: innermost layer of Earth beneath the
mantle
Hydrosphere
✓ Ocean is the most prominent feature
✓ 71% of the Earth’s surface
✓ Holds 97% of the Earth’s water
✓ Also includes fresh water found in streams,
lakes, and glaciers
Atmosphere
✓ Thin, tenuous blanket of air
✓ One half less below 5.6 km (3.5 miles)
✓ Roof of the planet
Biosphere
✓ All life forms
✓ Concentrated near the surface zone that
extends from the ocean floor upward
Branches
1.) Geology – study of the Earth
- Study of the lithosphere
- Earth’s evolution and transformation
a.) Physical Geology: solid part of
Earth (rocks, soil, minerals)
o Earth’s surface processes:
hydrologic cycle, erosion,
weathering
o Internal processes: tectonics
and volcanism
b.) Historical Geology: how the Earth
has evolved by investigating its life-
forms through fossils
- BRANCHES:
a.
and processes of changes in
landforms
b.) Geophysics: physical phenomena
of the Earth such as its magnetic
field and the flow of heat coming
from inside the Earth
o Gravity including tides
c.) Seismology: earthquakes
d.) Geochemistry: chemical
composition of the Earth and the
laws governing the distribution of
elements within the Earth
- Stratigraphers: they map out the
different layers of strata of the different
kinds of rocks that make up the Earth
2.) Oceanography – study of the ocean
- Different forms of water and their water
flow, life, and mineral resources
- Physical aspects of oceans, and their
chemical composition, inhabitants,
structure, and even their interaction
with the environment
a.) Physical Oceanographers: tides,
waves, currents, and how water
densities and temperatures affect
them
b.) Chemical Oceanographers:
composition of seawater
c.) Marine Biologists: examines all life-
forms in the ocean together with
their environment
3.) Meteorology – study of the Earth’s
atmosphere and process that produce
weather; including all the phenomena
relevant to the atmosphere
a.) Climatology: past and present climates
concerning longer variation
b.) Meteorologist: forecast daily weather,
carefully examine climates and all
forms of atmospheric disturbances
4.) Astronomy – study of the universe; objects
in outer space and other heavenly bodies
a.) Cosmology: study of the origin,
evolution, and eventual fate of the
universe
THE UNIVERSE b.) Presence of cosmic microwave background
(CMB) (Amo Penzias & Robert Wilson,
1.) Big Bang Theory – Alexander Friedman &
1960)
Georges Lamaitre
- Speculated to be the remnant energy
- All matter and energy in the universe
left form the big bang
are crammed into a tiny compact
c.) Abundance of light elements
called singularity. Then suddenly it
- Massive amounts of He & H with traces
exploded, sending space, time, and
of Li & Be
matter in all directions
2.) Steady State Theory – Bondi, Gold, &
- 4 Fundamental Forces in the Universe:
Hoyle (1948)
a.) Strong Force: responsible for
- Universe doesn’t change
holding the nuclei of atoms together
- Everything is the same, no beginning
o quarks inside of the protons
no end
and neutrons are bound
3.) Inflation Theory: Guth, Linde, Steinhart,
together by the exchange of
and Alberecht
the strong nuclear force
- extension of the big bang theory
b.) Electromagnetic Force: causes
- Period of exponential expansion
electric and magnetic effects such
- Universe is isotropic
as the repulsion between like
- Evidence: existence of gravitational
electrical charges or the interaction
waves
of bar magnets. It is long-ranged,
4.) String Theory – principles of the general
but much weaker than the strong
theory of relativity and quantum mechanics
force. It can be attractive or
- Particles are replaced with building
repulsive and acts only between
blocks called strings vibrating at
pieces of matter carrying electrical
different modes
charge. Electricity, magnetism, and
5.) M-Theory – ends of the string are attached
light are all produced by this force
to a sheet of brane
c.) Weak Force: responsible for
- Contact of 2 hyperdimensional branes
radioactive decay and neutrino
= universe
interactions. It has a very short-
- 11 space time dimensions
range and. As its name indicates, it
6.) Descartes Vortex Theory – solar system was
is very weak. The weak force causes
formed into bodies with nearly circular
Beta decay i.e. the conversion of a
orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion
neutron into a proton, an electron
in the pre-solar system
and an antineutrino
a.) Primary Whirlpool: planet orbits
d.) Gravitational Force: acts between
b.) Secondary Whirlpool: satellites
any two pieces of matter in the
7.) Buffon’s Collision Theory – collision of the
Universe since mass is its source
sun and a giant comet
Evidences: - Debris formed planets and rotate in the
same direction as they revolve around
a.) Galaxies are moving away from each other
the sun
(Edwin Hubble, 1924)
8.) Kant Laplace Nebular Theory – great cloud
- The distance between galaxies are
and dust, nebula, collapses because of
increasing over time
gravitational pull and contracts as it spins
becoming a pancake shaped object with a
bulge at the center
 - The bulges become the sun and the
planets
9.) Jean Jeffrey’s Tidal Theory – planets
formed by substances that was torn out of
the sun
- Speeding, massive star passed near the
sun
10.) Solar Nebular Theory – solar system
was formed as a result of the condensation
of hydrogen gas and dust (interstellar gas
and dust cloud)
- The contraction converts gravitational
energy to heat energy that triggers
nuclear reaction at the core of the
protostar = sun
a.) Planetismals
b.) Protoplanets
c.) Planets
1.) Collapse: high temperature gas ball
collapse = disk shape
2.) Spinning: disk spins faster and faster =
higher temperature
3.) Flattening: disk = sphere due to rotation
and some fog escapes
4.) Condensation: core forms
5.) Accretion
SOLAR SYSTEM
✓ Satellite systems of Jupiter and Saturn are
nearly identical in their arrangement in the
Solar System
✓ Satellites and planets contain almost all the
rotational motion of the Solar System
✓ Sun is in the center
✓ 99.85% mass is from the sun
✓ Trillion of miles wide
✓ 8 planets
✓ Asteroids, comets, meteoroids
SUN
✓ Energy comes from nuclear fission (H to
He) within its core in the form of heat and
light
✓ Stars provide light; planets absorb light
✓ Star’s temperature determines its color
o Red: coldest
o Blue: hottest
Solar Winds
✓ Electrically charged particles
✓ Earth’s magnetic field deflects solar wind to
the magnetosphere (below exosphere)
✓ Electromagnetic particles will be stored in
the Magnetopause
✓ Excitation and ionization of particles + if
magnetopause is disturbed = Aurora
Borealis
Auroras
✓ Following a solar flare, earth’s upper
atmosphere above the magnetic poles is
set aglow for several nights
a.) Aurora Borealis: Northern Lights
b.) Aurora Australis: Southern Lights
Elliptical Orbits because: the force of gravity +
tendency of planet to remain in straight line
motion
- Earth’s forward motion + falling
motion = defines its orbit
Classification by Composition
1.) Terrestrial Planets
✓ Earth-like planets or inner planets
✓ Dense, rocky, and metallic materials
✓ Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
✓ Formed within frostline where rocks and
metals condense, and hydrogen
compounds remain as gas
a.) Venus: earth’s twin, no moon (same
with mercury)
b.) Mars: Deimos and Phobos
 2.) Jovian Planets Meteoroids: interplanetary debris
✓ Jupiter-like planets or gas planets
- Floating around outer space
✓ Composed mostly of H and He
a.) Meteors: burning up in the
✓ Formed outside the frostline where
atmosphere
light elements condense into ice
b.) Meteorites: made impact with
67 Jupiter Io Callisto Europa Ganymede surface
62 Saturn Titan c.) Meteor Showers: swarm of
27 Uranus Titania asteroids
14 Neptune Triton
Comets: dirty snowballs

Based on Position Relative to the Sun
1.) INNER = Terrestrial
2.) OUTER = Jovian
Relative to the Earth’s Orbit
1.) Inferior Planets = Terrestrial
2.) Superior Planets = Jovian
Kepler-452B: earth’s cousin, earth’s 2.0
- Exoplanet orbiting the sun-like star
- 1400 lightyears from the earth in the
constellation CYGNUS
- 5x the mass of Earth; gravity 2x of
Earth
- 265K temperature
- Same mass of the sun and surface
temperature of 5757K
Asteroids: leftover planetismal
- Star-like
- Leftover debris
- 4.6 Billion years old
- 7000 earth crossing asteroids
- Asteroid Belt: Giuseppe Piazzi –
discovered Ceres in 1801 (very first
asteroid)
Near Shoemaker
✓ Eugene Shoemaker
✓ Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous-
Shoemaker
✓ Monitors near Earth asteroids
✓ Landed successfully on Eros
➢ Asteroids are bigger than meteoroids
- Rock, dust, ice, frozen gases
(ammonia, methane, and carbon
dioxide)
- Dry and dusty surface
- Ice is hidden beneath rocky layer
a.) Short-Period: finish orbital period in less
than 200 years
- Haley’s Comet (76 yrs.)
- Eneke’s Comet (3 yrs.)
b.) Long-Period takes hundreds and thousands
of years
Oort Cloud – Jan Oort
- Cosmographical boundary of Solar
System
- Long-period comets
Kuiper Belt – Gerald Kuiper
- Short-period comets
WHAT HAPPENED TO PLUTO?
✓ Dwarf planet
✓ Astronomer discovered an object larger
than Pluto and named it Eris
Dwarf Planets
✓ Orbits the sun
✓ Has enough mass for itself
✓ Gravity to overcome rigid body forces
✓ Hasn’t cleared the neighborhood
around it
✓ Not a satellite
✓ Ex: Haumea, Pluto, Makemake, Eris
EARTH SYSTEMS
System – group of parts that function together -
Stratopause: outer boundary of the
stratosphere
1.) Open Systems: parts can be either lost
c.) Mesosphere – temperature decreases with
from or added to the system
height
2.) Closed Systems: all parts exist in precise
- Coldest layer = -85°C to -100°C
amounts and nothing can be lost or added
- Mesopause: outer boundary of the
- All systems require an energy source to
mesosphere
drive them
- Melts meteors
System Earth – closed system d.) Thermosphere – warmest layer (1000°C -
1500°C)
- All ingredients exist in limited amounts
- Absorption of very short wave, high-
- For life on Earth to continue to
energy solar radiation by oxygen and
function, these ingredients must be
nitrogen
recycled again and again
- Exobase: top of thermosphere; base of
- Energy Source = Sun
exosphere
HOW ARE THESE SYSTEMS INTERRELATED? e.) Exosphere – outermost layer
- From the exobase – 600km
1.) Atmosphere Nitrogen 78.03
- Atoms and molecules are so far apart
- Atmos = Oxygen 20.09 that this layer no longer behaves like
Air
CO 0.03 gas
- Blanket of
Hydrogen 0.01 - Karman Line: boundary between the
air
Argon 0.34 Earth’s atmosphere and outer space
- Theodore Von Kármán

WHY IS THE ATMOSPHERE DIVIDED INTO Ozone – gaseous layer in the upper atmosphere
DIFFERENT LAYERS? that protects the Earth

➢ The atmosphere isn’t uniform. 2 properties - Form of oxygen that combines 3

change with altitude, the Air Pressure and oxygen atoms into each molecule (O3)
Air Temperature - Concentrated in the stratosphere
- Absorbed potentially harmful UV
radiation from the sun
a.) Troposphere – nearest to the Earth
Ozone Depletion
- All weather happens here
- More than half of the air in Earth 1.) CFC released
- Temperature drops as altitude 2.) CFC rises to ozone
increases 3.) UV releases CI from CFCs
- Harmful ozone is found here 4.) CI destroys ozone
✓ Creates SMOG (photochemical 5.) Depleted ozone = more UV
reaction) 6.) More UV = skin cancer

SMOG – pollution formed by the interaction of Effects:

pollutants and sunlight
- Damage to vegetation
b.) Stratosphere – contains the ozone layer - Malnutrition
(ozonosphere) - Acute eye defects
- Absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the - Weakened immune system
sun (stratosphere is heated)
Montreal Protocol: Liquid = more dense
✓ UN Hydrological Cycle/Water Cycle
✓ Eliminate production of CFC
1.) Evaporation – the evaporated water
✓ Production of renewable
decreases in salinity, the ocean becomes
resources
more saline
Carbon Cycle 2.) Condensation – clouds
3.) Precipitation – Infiltration = absorption by
✓ Carbon can come from expiration like
the soil
respiration, decomposition, evaporation,
Percolation = absorption by
vehicles and factories
the rocks
✓ Carbon – greenhouse gas (methane and
a.) Aquifer: permeable; sandstone
water vapor), preventing escape of heat at
b.) Aquitard: non-permeable; mudstone
night
clay (water cant pass through)
- Too much will cause greenhouse effect
(warming of the planet) Run Off
- Can cause global warming and climate
✓ Rain water we didn’t consume
change – ecological imbalance,
✓ Impermeable = cement and aquitard rock
disrupting the food web
types
Kyoto Protocol ✓ Will find its way to the sea through
tributaries (canals)
✓ Decrease production of greenhouse gases
o Streams to rivers to oceans/seas
✓ Clean Air Act
o Deltas: landmass
o Estuaries: where fresh water meats
sea water; mangroves
2.) Hydrosphere – water resources of the
planet Ground Waters
- 70%
➢ Cartesian Wells
- Earth’s H2O budget
✓ Poso = pressurized
o 97% - oceans
✓ Wells = wells
o 3% - freshwater (2.6% is
➢ Springs
inaccessible and 0.4% are
✓ Cracks/Fissure Rocks
accessible)
- Inaccessible: glaciers, icebergs, Watershed – total area contributing drainage to a
permafrost, ground water stream or river
Important Properties of Water Water Treatment Process
1.) Polar: universal solvent 1.) Initial Filtration
2.) Transparent: you can see impurities 2.) Flocculation:
- Allow sunlight to pass through enabling - Floc – initial sediments not filtered in
photosynthetic organisms to survive the initial filtration; the chemicals will
- Dissolved Oxygen (DO) make a bulk of floc
3.) High Heat Capacities 3.) Sedimentation: separation of floc and
4.) Freezes at 0° and Boils at 100°: water can water
change its state based on the temperature 4.) Water Filtration
5.) Density Changes: Ice = less dense
 5.) Add Chemicals: Ph Correction and Too Little Water
Disinfection
- Dry Climate
6.) Storage
- Drought
7.) Distribution
- Desiccation
Pollution Source Termination
Flooding
1.) Point Source
(MISSING: Freshwater Ecosystems)
✓ Release of pollutants from a single,
clearly identified site LAYERS OF THE EARTH
✓ More easily managed because its
Geosphere:
impact is more localized
2.) Non-Point Source 1.) Crust:
✓ Widely spread source a.) Oceanic – thinner – Basaltic – Younger
✓ Cant be tied to a specific origin b.) Continental – thicker – granitic – older
2.) Mantle: 80%; Magma – convection current
(Water Contamination like Oil Spills)
- Asthenosphere – subduction zone
Indicators of Water Quality - Predominantly solid but geological time
it behaves as a viscous liquid
1.) Dissolved Oxygen (DO): concentrations
3.) Core: Iron and Nickel
are constantly affected by diffusion and
- Inner – solid; Outer – liquid
aeriation, photosynthesis, respiration, and
- Responsible for Earth’s gravity
decomposition
2.) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): Lithosphere
amount of oxygen required to decay a
✓ Continental Crust: 20-70km, thick and
certain amount of organic matter
composed mainly of higher granite
3.) Total Suspended Solids (TSS): solids in
- Thinnest in areas like The Rift Valleys of
water that can be trapped by filter
East Africa
4.) Total Dissolved Solid (TDS): any minerals,
- Thickest beneath mountain ranges and
salts, metals, cations, or anions dissolved
extends into the mantle
in water
✓ Oceanic Crust: geologically young
5.) Heavy Metals: natural components of the
compared to the continental crust and
Earth’s crust can’t be degraded or
consists of basaltic rock overlain by
destroyed
sediments
6.) Fecal Coliforms: bacteria test is a primary
indicator of potability suitability for Biosphere
consumption of drinking water
✓ Sphere of life
EUTROPHICATION ✓ Ecosystems, Kingdoms and Domains
✓ Interacts with and exchanges matter and
1.) Eutrophic – well-fed, high nutrient levels
energy with the other spheres, helping to
present in a lake or river
drive the global biogeochemical cycling of
- Algae grew and over population of
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, and
organisms
other elements
2.) Oligotrophic – poorly-fed, low nutrient
✓ Photosynthesis: biological process that
levels
includes capture of light energy and its
➢ Water bodies can be naturally eutrophic or
transformation
oligotrophic