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Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

One widely held aim of education is to equip students with the knowledge,

skills, attitudes and competencies that enable them to render useful services to

themselves and to the society at large. Todaro (1992), for example, notes that the

formal education system of a nation is the principal institutional mechanism used for

developing human skills and knowledge.

In this context, all countries prioritize to improve the quality of schools and the

achievement of students (De Grauwe, 2001). In the Philippines, for example, a great

deal of human and financial resources is expended to support the public school

system. As part of its expenditure, the government invests significantly in designing

and implementing policies, including the training of personnel, to supervise

instruction in the schools.

Improving the quality of education in the Philippines, partly through the

improvement of supervision, has been a priority of the Department of Education. The

Education sector has implemented a number of interventions to achieve its

objectives. At the primary school level, for example, supervisory structures and

practices have been put in place to improve instruction. The short-term goal of this

initiative was to equip personnel involved in supervision in schools with the

necessary competencies and skills to ensure effective delivery of education. In view

of this, the government occasionally provides in-service training courses and

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workshops at the national, regional and division levels to strengthen the

management capacity of personnel in supervisory positions thereby enhance their

supervisory practices in the schools.

In Davao City, DepEd Division Office conducts many seminars and trainings

to improve the supervision of every school. Nevertheless, despite the support from

the department, schools are still confronted with problems which relate to the

supervisory skills of administrators as well as the instructional effectiveness of

teachers. The extent to which school administrators in primary schools implement

DepEd policies on supervision remains a question. Neither teachers understand the

importance of supervision of instruction in schools. This study, therefore, addresses

these issues.

Eventually, this study will be an eye-opener to DepEd Division Policy Makers

knowing the relationship between the supervisory skills of school administrators and

instructional effectiveness of teachers. They will have a mental or visual picture of

the supervisory skills of the current crop of Davao City’s public elementary school

administrators, which would require policy changes in selecting, retraining and

developing highly-competent school administrators. School Administrators would

also become aware of the influence of their supervisory skills towards instructional

effectiveness of their teachers. Output of this study may also guide school

administrators to develop a mechanism to enhance teaching effectiveness that

would lead to better school performance. Similarly, student or pupil performance is

attained if they have effective teachers.

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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This section reviews the selected views and ideas of the authorities which

have bearing to the present study. Moreover, findings of researchers whether foreign

or local sources are also discussed to provide a comprehensive background and

framework of the present study.

Supervisory Skills of Administrators

School leaders need to work towards a culture where individuals share to

examine critically their system to improve instruction. Educational leaders should

“talk about instruction with teachers frequently”. This requires skills, knowledge,

attitudes, and personal characteristics different from those routinely taught and

developed in many traditional educational leadership programs (Murphy, 1992).

Specifically, making suggestions, giving feedback, and soliciting teacher’s advice

and opinions about instruction in an inquiry-oriented approach are some of the

things a supervisor does. They also strive to develop cooperative, non-threatening

teacher-supervisor partnerships characterized by trust, openness, and the freedom

to make mistakes crucial to analyze the teaching and its effects (Cangelosi, 1991).

As instructional leaders, supervisors must emphasize the study of teaching and

learning situations and are prepared and willing to model effective teaching.

Over a long period of time supervision had been based on hierarchical

principles. The role of the teacher was to impart basic truths to children, whereas the

role of the supervisor was to serve as the “inspector” to ensure the curriculum had
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been followed and essential skills had been learned (Ebmeier & Nicklaus, 1999). As

this orientation toward teacher supervision became more common, many teachers

were afraid to ask supervisors for help or to seek collegial assistance for fear that

doing so would expose weaknesses in their teaching, which could be reflected later

in low evaluations and possible punitive actions. As Ebmeier and Nicklaus (1999)

noted, supervision as an evaluation tool reduced the possibility of nurturing

collegiality, collaboration, and reflective practice.

To achieve the objectives of supervision, school supervisors generally advise,

assist and support teachers (Hoy & Forsyth, 1986; The International Institute for

Educational Planning (IIEP)/UNESCO Module 2, 2007; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2002)

and also inspect, control and evaluate teachers (IIEP/UNESCO Module 2, 2007). In

a related way, Blasé and Blasé (1999) suggest that teachers do their best work

when they are motivated. They note that effective instructional leadership impacts

positively on teacher motivation, satisfaction, self-esteem, efficacy, and teachers’

sense of security and their feelings of support.

Many researchers believe that supervision of instruction has the potential to

improve classroom practices, and contribute to student success through the

professional growth and improvement of teachers (Blasé & Blasé, 1999; Musaazi,

1985; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2002; and Sullivan & Glanz, 1999). Supervision is

viewed as a co-operative venture in which supervisors and teachers engage in

dialogue for the purpose of improving instruction which logically should contribute to

student improved learning and success (Hoy & Forsyth, 1986; Sergiovanni &

Starratt, 2002; Sullivan & Glanz, 1999;).

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Tanner (1987) states that the major emphasis of supervision is on improving

the quality of teaching and learning which is the function of supervisors and

principals. Professionally, an administrator must be well prepared, with the ability to

work cooperatively and constructively with other administrators, teachers and

parents. A principal’s role is to provide moral support for teachers, creating a climate

in which teachers are encouraged to have an imaginative vision of curriculum.

Moreover, Lortes (1996) asserts that an administrator should provide

leadership and direction to the teachers by developing and upholding the vision and

goal of the school. To ensure effective implementation of the program, an

administrator must know and be able to articulate for the faculty and to others, the

purpose, value and goals of supervision including the latter’s contribution to the

quality of the education that should be offered to the students.

It might be well to cite the study conducted by Robbins (2001), in Inamac

(2002), where it was argued that organizations need a strong leadership and a

strong management for optimum effectiveness. Moreover, Drucker (1967), in

Abayon (2002), implied that effectiveness is the key to the success of an

organization. Managers need to make the most opportunities.

These situations relate to the idea that success of an educational system

depends on teachers understanding of the theories behind what they teach. Only

then they can be true professionals. Thus, supervisors as educational leaders must

be cognizant of the basic ideas of the leading thinkers in the field of education.

Subsequently, Maquizo (1984) as cited by Inamac (2002) enumerated the

following desirable qualities of educational administrators like systems-oriented,

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planner, problem-oriented, resource-oriented and function-oriented. A systems-

oriented educational administrator should be able to look at the school organization

as a system of interrelated parts. Moreover, he should also have the ability to relate

this system as only part of a bigger system. He should understand why changes

outside his own affect his own system. As planner, the educational administrator

should understand and apply the requirements of the planning process which relate

to development and progress. Planning involves looking ahead in order to anticipate

difficulties. In other words, a planner is visionary because he can predict what is

going to happen in the future. As problem-oriented, the educational administrator

has to concentrate on what he can do to solve a problem. He should plan for the

future and not wait for problems to be solved by others or by time. A good

educational manager, therefore, should perform and achieve everyday while he

looks at the future with more achievements. Being resource-oriented, the

educational administrator values resources so much and maximizes their use to get

the most effects. Since resources come in the form of people, money and materials,

the educational administrator must distinguish when and how to use them. As

function-oriented, an educational administrator must know his own function in

relation to those of his peers in organization. He must make sure that they fully

understand what to do, toward what direction and how they would be evaluated.

Communication Skills. According to Aquino (1985), communication is a

managerial function by which managers spend to accomplish the functions of

planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. In the matter of controlling, the ability

to communicate orally, textually and electronic is essential. Managers can carry out
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their management functions by interacting and communicating with others as the

communication process is considered the foundation for all management functions.

Massie (1987) defines communication as the process by which ideas are

transmitted to others for the purpose of affecting a desired goal. Moreover, Koontz

and Weihrich(1992) state that the purpose of communication in an enterprise is to

affect change. They assert that the communication process is considered essential

because it integrates the managerial process.

Both interpersonal and communication skills are assets which are exhibited

by the high performing principals. These qualities enable the high performing

principal to build personal relationships with staff members, students, the community

and the other stakeholders, vital to the building of trust and a climate of openness

and respect.

Considering the importance of this skill, successful supervisors develop

effective communication skills. A supervisor who is a good listener is a proactive

supervisor. One important requirement of a successful supervisor is recognizing

problems before they develop into something more serious. When employees come

to a supervisor who welcomes their ideas or listens to their concerns, there is a

feeling of mutual respect. Constant communication can also boost staff morale. One

of the first steps in communication involves the development and publication of

clearly stated goals. If observed, this eliminates any uncertainty the staff may have

of the administrator's expectations. The goals should be set high but should remain

attainable by both employee and administrator.

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Instructional Effectiveness of Teachers

Teachers are the most important part of the learner’s educational

environment. Without them, the other elements of the educational environment

would be ineffective, for they guide, direct and stimulate youth in their goal-seeking

effort (Bent, et al 1970 as cited by Acero,2000).

According to Mina (2005), educators are the persons most responsible in

imparting knowledge to an individual, as acquiring education is one of the needs to

grow and prosper in all aspects of life. The teacher’s success in carrying out

classroom instruction depends on the creative efforts, sustained by a spirit of inquiry

and exploration to bring into harmony the dynamic and unique relationship between

the student and the subject matter through the use of good methodology (Sike J.,et

al, 1985).

At some point “teacher effectiveness” refers to the “results a teacher gets or

the amount of progress pupils make when asked to meet some specified goal of

education. One implication of this definition is that teacher effectiveness must be

defined and can only be assessed, in terms of behaviors of pupils, not behaviors of

teachers” which can be contrasted with teacher performance and teacher

competence. Teacher performance refers to the behavior of a teacher while teaching

a class. Although not all behaviors produce results, however, teacher competence is

the set of knowledge, skills, and beliefs in a teacher’s repertoire to mean that an

effective teacher is able to use existing competencies to achieve desired results

(Medley, 1982).
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Early attempts to identify good teachers had focused on the traits an ideal

teacher must possess such as approachability, cheerfulness, dependability,

enthusiasm, fairness, honesty, intelligence, morality, and patience (Charters and

Waples, 1929). The two traits the teacher has received increased attention in recent

years, the “spirit of inquiry” and a “sense of efficacy” (a “can do” attitude).

Unfortunately, reviews of research on the impact of such traits on teacher

personality and teacher effectiveness”(Getzels and Jackson,, 1963) have yet to

progress.

Beach and Reinhartz (2000) stated that the challenge for supervisors is to

integrate what is known about supervision into a process that helps remove

obstacles in working with teachers to foster their professional growth and promote

quality teaching and learning. Teachers should then have the opportunity to reflect

on all aspects of the teaching process and to participate in professional development

activities that foster instruction.

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