UU

Pressure course program

1. Types of pressures
2. Calculations of pressure from fundamentals equations
3. International methods of calibration for dial gauge,
electromechanical gauge and Pressure balance
4. Study of a technical procedure for calibration of pressure
gauges
5. Pressure transducers and transmitters
6. Selection of a pressure gauge calibration method
7. Dial pressure gauge
8. Theory of Liquid manometers
9. Calibration of dial gauge by comparison
10. Introduction on pressure balance theory
11. Comparison between pressure balance and liquid
manometers
12. Distortion coefficient of piston cylinder assembly
13. Calibration of pressure balance
14. Uncertainty Estimation of pressure gauge calibration
15. Calibration report

Experimantal work

1
 1- Introduction :

Pressure is one of the broadest and most complex areas in the field of
physical measurements. Its large scope results from the numerous and
different types of instruments which are used for pressure measurement,
while Its complexity stems from the many-sided nature of pressure itself .

The first point of interest encountered when investigating pressure is that it

has a pronounced influence on a great variety of phenomena. In other
words, pressure directly influences various characteristics of many
substances, such as their boiling points, density, and deformation. This
type of pressure might be called environmental, since it is generally not
artificially produced but is simply caused by the weight of the atmospheric
blanket. This ever-present type of pressure necessitates corrections in
certain types of physical measurements as have been or will be presented
in this text .

The second type of pressure one must consider is that which is artificially
produced to transfer or amplify force to produce work . This is the type of
pressure which is used in a service station to lift a car or in a machine shop
to operate a hydraulic pressure. These lectures will deal primarily with
static fluid (liquid and gas) pressure and its measurement. The study of
fluids at rest is called hydrostatics .

Figure 1: Fluid pressure in a tank and a pipe

2
2 - Concepts :

Pressure might best be described as a force acting over an area

Mathematically the most common equation for pressure is :

P=F/A (1)

Where F = the force in unit of Newton , dynes

A = the area in units of m 2 , cm 2 .
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP

P = the pressure in units of, newtons/m 2 , PPPP

PPPP

dynes/cm 2 PPPP
PPPP

Sometimes difficulty arises regarding the distinction between force and

pressure. This generally can be avoided, if the reader remembers that
pressure describes a force which is acting over a particular area . If we
restate equation (1) in terms of force we obtain :

F=AP (2)

Figure 2: Pressure at the base of fluid column (hydrostatic pressure)

3
Types of Pressures
Atmospheric pressure P atm BBBB

Is the pressure caused by the weight of the earth’s atmosphere. Often

atmospheric pressure is called Barometric Pressure.

Absolute pressure, Pabs

Is the total pressure. An absolute pressure of 0 is a perfect vacuum.

Absolute pressure must be used in all calculations unless a pressure
difference is used.
P gauge Gauge Pressure
BBBB BBBB

Is pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

Vacuum
Is a gauge pressure that is a pressure below atmospheric pressure. It is used
so that a positive number can be reported.
Absolute pressure, gauge pressure and the atmospheric pressure
are related by the following expression:
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge
The standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure equivalent to 760
mm of Hg at sea level and at 0°C . The unit for the standard pressure is the
atmosphere, atm.

The units, psi and atm, often carry a trailing “a” or “g” to indicate that the
pressure is absolute or gauge pressure. Thus, by psig, we me gauge
pressure in psi and by psia, we me absolute pressure in psi. So is the
meaning of atma or atmg if nothing is noted otherwise.

Example:

A pressure gauge on a tank reads 1.5 bar. What is the gauge pressure?

Solution:

4
The gauge reads the gauge pressure directly. So, we must interpret the
reading as gauge pressure and to avoid confusion, we should report the
pressure as 1.5 barg instead of 1.5 barg.

Example:
A gauge on a tank reads 2.0 bar. What is the absolute pressure in the tank?

Solution:
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge
Since atmospheric pressure was not given, we must assume it is 14.7psi.
Thus, we find the absolute pressure in the tank as:
P abs = 1.01325+2.0
BBBB BBBB

= 3.01325 bara

Example:
The pressure gauge on a tank reads 20. cm Hg vacuum. What is the
absolute pressure in the tank?

Solution:
The gauge reads a vacuum gauge pressure directly. The pressure is below
atmospheric, or is –20 cm Hg relative to atmospheric pressure. Thus, the
absolute pressure is:
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge = 76 + (- 20)
= 56 cm Hg

5
Pressure Sensing Devices

Some Pressure sensing devices are

- Bourdon gauge
- Diaphragm capsule
- Capacitance sensor
- Column of fluid
- Manometer
- Barometer

Figure 3: Bourdon gauge

A manometer is a U-shaped device that uses a fluid, which has a greater

density than the other fluids in the process unit. Manometer operation is
based on the fact that hydrostatic pressure at the same level in the same
fluid must be the same in each leg. To understand how a manometer
works, we must understand how to determine the hydrostatic pressure
caused by a mass of a column of fluid. By definition of pressure:
F mg Vg  Ahg
P      gh
A A A A
Whenever we need to determine the hydrostatic pressure caused by a mass
of fluid, it’s simply: P   gh

6
Example:
What is the pressure (in kPa) caused by a 25.0 cm column of fluid (SG =
6.43) at sea level and ambient conditions?
Solution:

P   gh
kg m
h  25 cm  0.250 m; ref  1000 ; g  9.8 In SI units:
m3 s2
P= ρgh = (ρ water *SG)* 9.8 * 0.25
BBBB BBBB

= (1000* 6.43)* 9.8*0.25

= 15.8 kPa

Example:
What is the pressure (in psi), caused by a 6.34 ft column of mercury at
ft
ambient temperature in a location where g  29.7 2 ?
s
Solution:
From Table B1, we find the specific gravity for Hg: SG  13.546 .
lb
The density of water (reference fluid):  ref  62.4 m3
ft

Result 34.4

Manometers for Pressure and D P Measurement

Three different arrangements of manometers are shown in Figure 4. These
manometers can be used to measure a pressure using a column of a dense
liquid.
a. An open-ended manometer can give the gauge pressure.
b. A differential manometer gives D P between 2 points. Note that the
pressure decreases in the direction of flow. Why?
c. A closed-end manometer gives absolute pressure.
d. A manometer, which has one leg, sealed and the other leg open
measures atmospheric pressure. It is called a barometer.

7
 Figure 4: Arrangement of Manometers

The basics variables that need to be considered in manometry to measure

pressure or pressure difference are shown in Figure 5.

8
Figure 5: Manometer variables
The line ‘ab’ is at the interface between the manometer fluid and the
higher-pressure fluid. The hydrostatic pressure on each leg is the same at
that point. It becomes our reference point. We do a pressure balance by
equating the pressures on each leg.
Applying the above allows us to develop the general manometer equation
as:
P1  1 gd1  P2  2 gd2   f gh

Example:
Determine the pressure drop across the orifice meter as shown below

Fluid: water
r 1 = 1000 kg/m3
32 mm

Manometer Fluid d
r f = 1100 kg/m 3 10 mm

Solution:
This is a differential manometer. Note that the hydrostatic pressure above
the 32 mark is the same on both sides, it cancels out. The reference line to
select is at the 10 mark. The manometer equation is
P1  1 g  d  l   P2   f gd  1 gl
which simplifies to
P1  1 gd  P2   f gd
We now can write the pressure difference across the orifice from the above
equation as:
P1  P2  P  gd   f  1 
Substituting the appropriate known quantities, we get:

9
  
 m kg  1 N 
P   9.8 2   0.022 m 1100  1000  3  
 s  m  1 m  kg 
 s2 
N
 21.6 2  21.6 Pa
m

This expression states that the total force is equal to the product of the
pressure and the total area over which it is acting.

Example 1

A 1000 kg weight is placed on the top of a vertical steel column which has
a cross sectional area of 50 cm 2 . What is the pressure on the end of the
PPPP
PPPP

column?

Solution

Substituting into equation (1) we get :

P = 1000 kg f/50 cm 2 PPPP

P = 20 kgf/cm 2PPPP

The French scientist Blaise Pascal stated in 1653, "Pressure applied to an

enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and
the walls of the containing vessel. " This statement is known as Pascal `s
Law .

3 - Fluid columns :

Consider the column of fluid illustrated in Fig.2 without specifically

defining the fluid, we can state that it has weight. Since the weight of the
fluid (W) is acting over a given base area (A), it must generate a pressure
which can be defined as :

P=W/A (6)

11
If we do not know the weight of the fluid, but we do know its density (  )
and its height, we can determine the pressure it will generate. First,
remembering that weight is equal to the product of mass and gravitational
acceleration, we may say :

W = mg
Substituting for the weight in equation (6) we get :
mg
P = ------ (7)
A
The density of the fluid () is defined in terms of its mass per unit volume
as :
m
 = ---- (8)
V
Solving equation (8) for m we get :
m=V

Substituting for the mass in equation ( 7 ) we get :

gv
P = --------- (9)
A
Since the volume of any column is equal to the product of its cross
sectional area and height, we may rewrite equation (9) as :

g(hA)
P = ----------------
A

or P=gh ( 10 )

where  = the density of the fluid

g = the gravitational acceleration
h = the vertical height of the fluid
P = the pressure in newtons/m 2 , dynes/cm 2
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP

11
Equation (10) says only that the force per unit area is the same. Another
illustration that the fluid pressures at any given level are equal. Equation
(10) is used quite often in the measurement of pressure ; however, its
form, as presented here, makes it somewhat cumbersome to use. Let us,
therefore, at this time, introduce the concept of weight density (D).

Weight density is the weight of a substance per unit volume and is defined
mathematically as :
D=w/v ( 11 )

Where : W = the weight in kg

V = the volume in cm 3 PPPP

D = the weight density in kg/cm 3 PPPP

Since : W=mg

We can rewrite equation (11) in the form :

D = mg / V

But : m/V= 

So : D=g (12 )

Substituting for  g in equation (10 ) we get :

P=Dh ( 13 )

Where : D = the weight density (kg/cm 3 ) PPPP

PPPP

h = the vertical height (cm)

P = the pressure (kg/cm 2 ) PPPP
PPPP

The only difference between density (  ) and weight density (D) is that
the latter will vary with the gravitational acceleration, since it contains
weight as a term.

Since the pressure is only dependent upon the height of the column and the
type of fluid, the height of the column is sometimes used as a shorthand
method to describe a pressure. If someone said that a certain pressure was
equivalent to a 10 inch column of mercury, anyone who desired the actual

12
pressure in psi could simply multiply the given height by the weight
density of mercury.

It was stated that, by agreement, standard pressure (one standard

atmosphere) was equal to 760 millimeters or 29.921 inches of mercury.

This simply means that standard atmospheric pressure is defined as being

equal to a column of mercury 760 mm high. Since everyone speaks of
atmospheric pressure in the same terms, it is seldom, if ever, necessary to
convert it dimensionally to actual units of pressure.

Vacuum, is another area where in the units which have been adopted are .
based on the height of a column of mercury. Since vacuum concerns itself
with relatively low pressures, the units which have been adopted represent
small linear distances.

The international standard relate to the equivalent pressure generated by a

column of mercury one mm high, while the smaller vacuum term micron is
equivalent to a column of mercury one millionth (10 -10 ) of a meter or one
PPPP
PPPP

millionth high .

4- Types of Pressure : -

Actually, there are three types of pressure, each of which requires slightly
different handling. These are absolute, gauge and atmospheric pressure.

Normal atmospheric pressure varies slightly with weather conditions, but

is approximately, equivalent to, some value between 730 and 800 mm of
mercury.

This pressure is due to the weight of the atmosphere acting over the
surface of the earth, or if you will, a column of air which extends several
hundred thousand meters above the earth's surface. This atmospheric
pressure is part of our environment. It is not noticed because the pressure
inside the human body is equalized, and thus no differential exists .

If the atmosphere was removed from the earth, there would be no pressure.
The absence of all pressure we shall call true zero pressure . Any pressure
which is referred back to true zero pressure is called absolute pressure.

13
When atmospheric pressure is described, it is always considered as an
absolute pressure, since it is referred to true zero pressure. Many times a
pressure is generated or measured which is not referred to true zero
pressure, but rather to the natural environment.

If we had a pressure measuring instrument which was subjected to

atmospheric pressure both internally and externally, it would indicate zero.

If a pressure was applied to it, it would indicate pressure above

atmospheric. Pressure which is measured using atmospheric pressure for
zero reference is called gauge pressure. The mathematical relationship
between the three pressures may be described as :

P BBBB

abs
BBBB =P BBBB

gauge
BBBB +P BBBB

atm BBBB (14)

Where : P gauge = the gauge pressure .

BBBB BBBB

P atm = the atmospheric pressure (at a particular time)

BBBB BBBB

P abs = the absolute pressure

BBBB BBBB

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE :

Since most pressures are measured as gauge, generally all pressures are
considered to be gauge, unless otherwise specified. Either the abbreviation
kg or kgf for gauge pressure is acceptable .

A vacuum gauge indicates pressures between true zero and atmospheric.

The measurements are referred to true zero and indicate the pressure above
zero, as illustrated in

Fig.6. Vacuum indications are, therefore, in absolute units. The reader is

cautioned not to confuse a vacuum gauge with a compound gauge which
will be described later in this lecture .

14
 Pressure Gauges

The term pressure gauge tends to be ambiguous in that many pressure

measuring instruments are called gauges such as
 Dial pressure gauge (Bourdon tube)
 Pressure transducers
 Pressure transmitters
 Manometers with digital or analog indication

Dial pressure gauge

The majority of pressure gauges in use have a Bourdon tube as a

measuring element. The Bourdon tube is a device that senses pressure
and converts the pressure to displacement. Since Bourdon tube
displacement is a function of the pressure applied, it may be
mechanically amplified and indicated by a pointer; thus, tile pointer
position indirectly indicates press pressure.

15
The basic Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an oval cross section and
shaped in a circular arc of about 180°.

The size, shape, and material of a Bourdon tube depend upon the
pressure range and the type of gauge desired. Low pressure Bourdon
tubes ( pressures up to 150 bar) are often made of stainless steel or other
high pressure materials. high pressure Bourdon tubes tend to have more
circular cross sections than their lower range more oval counterparts .

As a pressure is applied to the Bourdon tube, its circular shape and oval
cross section force it to straighten, causing a displacement. This
displacement, although not . linear with respect to pressure, is a function
of pressure applied .

16
When selecting a pressure gauge consideration should be given to a
number of parameters which have an effect on gauge accuracy, safety,
and utility such as:

Accuracy required, Dial size, Operating pressure range, Chemical

compatibility with gauge construction materials, Operating temperature
range, Humidity, Vibration, pulsation, and shock, Pressure fluid
composition and Method of mounting

Accuracy required

System Design Requirements Specification - initial system engineered

design requirements will dictate the required pressure gauge accuracy.
Systems should be designed with cost and safety in mind. Gauges
which are more accurate generally cost more to build .

Selection Criteria

A pressure gauges with ranges of accuracy: ±0.1% ±0.25%, ±0.5%,

±1%, ±1.6%, ±2.5%, ±4 % ±5 % and choice of scale from inventory for
many dual scale ranges.

Pressure Gauge Accuracy for newly designed systems - should be

determined for each application and based on desired application system
operational characteristics. Operational parameters for many process
environments are often fine tuned after the process system goes into
production use. Accurate gauge readings are required to maintain
efficient process control .

Dial size

Pressure Gauge Accuracy - determines dial size in two ways. First, a

requirement for higher accuracy dictates that a larger dial size be
available for display of small and readable pressure scale increments.

17
Second, by a requirement that the pressure gauge user/operator be able
to read the scale from a distance that physical circumstances may
dictate .Pressure Gauge Range Selection - The pressure gauge selected
should have a dial size which permits the desired readable scale
increments from the operator required viewing distance.

Many companies have a wide range of dial sizes from 1½", 2", 2½", 4",
4.5", 6", 8", 10", 12", 16" up to 20 inch dial size available.

Also a wide varieties of accuracy class are available starting from 0.06%
through 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.6%, 1%, 1.6%, 2.5%, 4% and ended by 5%

Gauges with diaphragms are also available for separation between the
gauge and the media of operating.

Operating pressure range

Overpressure Failure is caused by the application of internal pressure

greater then the rated limits of the elastic element (Bourdon Tube) and
can occur when a gauge is subjected to pressures greater than design
limits. Loss of gauge accuracy - occurs when a gauge has been subjected
to pressure exceeding design operation pressure limits. Loss of gauge
accuracy results from extending the elastic element (Bourdon Tube) past
its limit for elasticity .

Selection Criteria

Pressure Gauge Range Selection - The pressure gauge selected should

have a full scale pressure such that the operating pressure occurs in the
middle half (25% to 75%) of the scale(12 o'clock position is best). The
full scale pressure of the gauge selected should be approximately two
times the intended operating pressure.

18
This will give the operator a visual indication of normal, ideal operating
conditions. This means a "green light" condition and everything is
operating the way it should be. If however ,the "visual" of the pointer is
way below or way above this 12 o'clock position, then we have a
situation that needs attention
Pressure transducers

The pressure transducers convert the measured pressure into an analog

electrical signal that is proportional to the applied voltage. According to
the model, the output signal can be voltage, current, frequency and etc.

To ensure their function, the pressure transducers need a continuous

power supply stabilized to a level which is compatible with the
uncertainty expected of the pressure measurement.
Pressure transmitters

A pressure transmitter generally is a unit that consists of a pressure

transducer and a module for conditioning and amplifying the transducer
signal. According to the model, the output information of a pressure
transmitter can be: a voltage (5 V; 10 V; ...), a current (4-20 mA;
...), a frequency or a digital format (RS 232; ...).
For operation, pressure transmitters need a continuous electrical supply,
which need not be specifically stabilized.
Manometers with digital or analog indication

This type of manometer is a complete measuring instrument that

indicates units of pressure. According to the pattern, it may consist of
the following units:

(a) Manometer with a digital indication:

· pressure transducer,
· analog conditioning module,
· analog-to-digital converter,

19
 · digital processing module,
· digital indication (in the unit(s) specified by the manufacturer),
· electrical power supply unit (generally incorporated).

(b) Manometer with analog indication:

· pressure transducer,
· analog conditioning module,
· analog indicating module,
· electrical power supply unit (generally incorporated).

21
 Liquid manometer
Evangelisti Torricelli inversion of a liquid-filled tube to generate a
vacuum was not unique - he was but one of a group centered on Galileo
that was attempting to refute the accepted wisdom that "nature abhors a
vacuum". However, he is generally credited with the discovery that the
height of the mercury in the inverted tube could be used as a measure of
atmospheric pressure.
This discovery can be fairly called the beginning of pressure metrology,
was followed by a number of replications of his experiments, and the
use of Torricellian barometers in important experiments
During the last 350 years the mercury manometers had various forms
which incorporated most of the means used in U- tube manometers for
both detecting a liquid and measuring the height of a liquid column. The
different types of mechanisms for detecting the liquid surface and
measuring the height of a liquid column for the most important types of
these mechanisms were:
1. Index Point Detectors
2. Float Detectors
3. Visual and Optical Detectors
 Column height measured by scale
 Column height measured by precision screw
 Photocell Detectors
4. Optical Interferometer Designs
5. White-Light Interferometer Manometers
6. Laser Interferometer Manometers
7. Capacitance/Gauge Block Manometer
8. Capacitance/Interferometer Manometer
9. Ultrasonic Manometers

21
22
5. Dead Weight Testers (Pressure Balances) : -

If a device is to be considered a primary standard, it must refer directly to

absolute standards of mass, length and time. The mercury
barometer/manometer may be considered as a primary standard in that it
meets these requirements; whereas the best Bourdon tube or diaphragm
gauge can only be classified as a secondary standard in that it does not
refere directly to the above mentioned parameters .

Another primary standard which lends itself well to the measurement of

high pressures is called a dead weight tester. This type of instrument
operates on the basis of equation ( 1 ) which states :

P= F/A (1)

Fig (7) circular piston and cylinder

Consider the circular piston and cylinder of Fig. 7. The piston has some
cross sectional area (A). The total weight of the piston assembly is made

23
up of the weight of the piston ( W p ) and any weight (W) placed on top of
BBBB BBBB

the piston .

When the force exerted on the bottom of the piston is slightly greater than
the total weight of the piston assembly (W + W p ) , the piston will be
BBBB BBBB

moved up. If this upward force is exactly the same as the total weight of
the piston assembly, it will neither rise nor fall, but rather it will be in
equilibrium .

Used
Weights

Piston

Cylinder

Applied pressure

Fig. (8) Concept of Piston

The pressure of the fluid in the cylinder generates a force over the bottom
of the piston .The force acting on the bottom of the piston is a function of
the fluid pressure and piston area, or from equation (2) :

F=PA

If the system is in equilibrium, (Piston floating) we can say :

W=F

Where : W = the total whight of the piston assembly (W +W p ) BBBB BBBB

F = the force acting on the bottom of the piston.

This , then, is the principle of a dead weight tester. Therefore, when

pressure is applied to the bottom of the piston, and the system can be

24
determined to be in equilibrium, the magnitude of the pressure can be
measured by using the expression :

P=W/A

Where : W= the weight of the piston plus any weights on top of it

A = the cross sectional area of the piston
P = the unkown pressure which has established equilibrium.

Normally a piston area is selected which will allow weights to be used that
are convenient, with respect to the pressure range desired .

Example 1 : A dead weight piston gauge is to be designed with a pressure

range to 2000 kg/cm 2 . It is also desirable that 10 separate weights be used
PPPP
PPPP

to generate 10 discrete pressures in 10% increments

up to the total pressure. Compute a nominal .piston area and weight series
which will 'accomplish the required mission .

First , let us consider that we will have 10 weights to handle when

measuring full pressure. Since these weights usually must be manually
loaded and unloaded from the tester, we want to keep their weight
reasonable .

As the piston area gets smaller, it requires less weight to generate a given
pressure; however, there is a minimum diameter which can be specified for
the piston before the tolerance in machining becomes a' problem .

If we give the piston an area of 1 cm 2 , it would require 2000 kg to

PPPP
PPPP

generate the required pressure -rather impractical. If we consider 100 kg as

the total weight to be handled, we can compute the piston area using the
formula :

A=W/P

Substituting for the weight and the pressure we get :

100 kg
A = ----------------
2,000 kg/cm 2 PPPP

25
 A= 0.05 cm 2
PPPP PPPP

The piston diameter, if desired, can be found by using the formula found :
 D2 PPPP

A= --------
4
or, solving for the diameter, we get :
4A PPPP

D= -------

Substituting for the required area we get :
4 x 0.05 PPPP

D = ----------------
3.1416
= 0.0637
or : D = 0.252 cm
Since a diameter of one-quarter cm is easily machined to close tolerance,
this piston area is suitable. The complete tester would be as illustrated in
Fig. 8. It would be made up of10 weights of10 kg each .
Since the piston assembly has weight, it would be desirable if its weight
also 10 kg and thus could act as one of the load weights .

The weight of the piston itself would define and produce the WEIGHTS
minimum pressure, 200 kg/cm 2 . As each weight was added, it would
PPPP PPPP

generate an additional 200kg/cm 2 , until with nine weights plus the piston
PPPP
PPPP

the pressure would be 2,000 kg/cm 2 . Although simplified, this is the PPPP
PPPP

principle which is applied to dead weight testers.

Since each weight operates with a fixed piston area, the weights can be
marked to indicate the nominal pressure in Kg/cm 2 that they will generate PPPP PPPP

if placed on the tester. The weights of example 1 would be marked as 200

kg/cm 2 each, rather than as 10 kg each .
PPPP
PPPP

Actually , on commercial units, smaller weights are provided to generate

incremental pressures. The piston weight also would be smaller than
illustrated to provide a lower minimum pressure for the tester .

26
Let us illustrate the weights which might be supplied with a typical tester.
Consider 10,000 kg/cm 2 unit with a piston area of 0.01cm 2 .
PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP

Table (2) lists the weights available, their serial number, and their nominal
pressure (considering the piston area) .

Notice that the total of all the weights is 100 kg, as which is required when
10000 kg/cm 2 is generated . The minmum pressure is 100 kg/cm 2 , as
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP

limited by the piston. The resolution is also 100 kg/cm 2 , as limited by the
PPPP PPPP

smallest weight. Thus, any pressure up to 10000 kg/cm 2 cm be generated PPPP

PPPP

in 100 kg/cm 2 increments .

PPPP
PPPP

Table ( 2 ) Typical Weight Denomination

Serial No. Nominal Pressure Weight ( Kg )

( Kg/cm 2 )
PPPP
PPPP

1 1,000 10
2 1,000 10
3 1,000 10
4 1,000 10
5 1,000 10
6 1,000 10
7 1,000 10
8 1,000 10
9 1,000 10
- 400 4
- 200 2
1 100 2
2 100 1
piston 100 1

27
The weights are serialized because in precision work neither the nominal
area of the piston nor nominal pressure, as indicated on the weights, is
sufficient. If pressures of +0.1% of indicated value ,or better are to be
generated, the actual mass of each weight used and the piston area must be
known to a minimum of five significant figures .

One more word about the basic concept of a dead weight tester. Dead
weight testers, almost without exception, use air, oil, or water as a pressure
media. Since friction cannot be tolerated, there must be some clearance
between the piston and cylinder. This clearance allows some of the fluid to
leak, by the piston.

This is not altogether undesirable, as the fluid provides lubrication

between the piston and cylinder. To insure that the pressure, as indicated
by the weights and piston area, is to be equal to the pressure of the fluid,
the piston must be floating.

If the leakage rate of the fluid by the piston is not closely controlled, the
piston may tend to fall too rapidly; thus, equilibrium cannot be assured.
The piston is generally rotated in the cylinder either manually or
mechanically to decrease friction and the fluid leakage which restricts the
piston fall rate. A rotation rate which has proved adequate for most testers
is one (1) rev/sec. .

Due to the fact that some leakage does exist, the effective area of the
tester is not that of the piston alone. It is taken as the mean area of the
piston and cylinder. If a piston has an area of 0.02000 cm 2 , and its
PPPP
PPPP

cylinder area is 0.02010 cm 2 , the effective area is :

PPPP
PPPP

0.02000 + 0.0210
A = ---------------------
2
or
A = 0.02005 cm 2 PPPP

The pressure measured by a dead weight tester, as mentioned before, may

be basically described using the expression :

P=W/A (14)

28
If the indicated 'pressure (P) is to be accurate to +0. I% of indicated value
or better, the weights and effective area must be known to a level, which
is compatible with the accuracy required, assuming that the tester in
question has the precision and stability required .

If an accuracy of  0,1 % or better is required, the individual serial

numbers of the weights used to generate a given pressure are usually
noted, and the actual "mass weight" is compiled for a given pressure by
adding the mass weights of each weight used. This information is available
from the calibration report for the tester in question .

A partial sample calibration report illustrating the weight calibration for a

hypothetical 10,000 kg/cm 2 tester is illustrated in Table 3. The nominal
PPPP
PPPP

effective area is 0.01cm 2 . Notice that the calibration value given is mass
PPPP
PPPP

weight in kgf. This means the value listed is for standard gravity.

If the tester is used at any other location, a gravitational correction must be

applied. Thus, with this consideration, the basic equation (14) becomes :
W gL BBBB BBBB

P = -------- -------- ( 15 )
A gS BBBB BBBB

Where: W = m * g L BBBB

Fig(9) Simple piston cylinder

29
TABLE 3. PARTIAL DEAD WEIGHT CALIBRATION REPORT
Serial No. Nominal Pressure Weight ( Kg )
( Kg/cm 2 ) PPPP PPPP

1 1,000 10.0063
2 1,000 10.0058
3 1,000 10.0072
4 1,000 10.0028
5 1,000 10.0037
6 1,000 10.0041
7 1,000 10.0035
8 1,000 10.0062
9 1,000 10.0018
- 400 4.006
1 200 2.005
2 200 2.001
- 100 1.0006
piston 100 1.0003
* Values given are for " apparent mass versus brass “ in air

The values given in Table 3 are further specified as " apparent mass versus
brass " in air. Even though the weights may be made out of cast iron, they
must be corrected for air buoyancy as if they were made of density 8.0
g/cm 3 . Thus, equation (15) now becomes :
PPPP
PPPP

W a gL BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB

P = ------- ( 1 - ---- ) ( ---- ) BBBB BBBB ( 16 )

A b gS
BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB

Where :  a = the density of air

BBBB BBBB

 b = the density of brass

BBBB BBBB

The density of air may be taken as 0.0012 g/cm 3 for almost all air PPPP
PPPP

31
buoyancy corrections concerned with dead weights .

g L = local gravitational acceleration

BBBB BBBB

g S = standard gravitational acceleration ( 9.80665 m/sec 2 ) .

BBBB BBBB PPPP
PPPP

A = the effective area of the tester

W = the total apparent mass of weights applied
P = the true pressure generated.

Is it necessary to use the actual mass values and correction for air
buoyancy and gravity?

Even though the weights may be class F 1 or better individually, their BBBB BBBB

accumulated error may well be significant.

The buoyancy correction for the weights is 0.014 %. The gravitational

correction can be as large as + 0.25 % , depending upon where the tester is
used. As in all cases, the corrections should be considered and applied,
with regard to the accuracy required .

Thus far we have treated the mean area of the piston/cylinder as the
effective area. This is not strictly true. When the mean piston area was
measured it was at some temperature ( t c ) which is listed on the BBBB BBBB

calibration report. The mean area of the piston is listed at this temperature
and designated A o . This is the mean area of the piston at the temperature
BBBB BBBB

of calibration and zero pressure .

The problem, as it relates to the mean piston area , is two-fold . First , the
piston is generally made of tungsten carbide or stainless steel. The
'cylinder Is made of a similar material. If the tester is not used at the same
temperature as that of its calibration, the mean piston area will not be the
same, due to thermal expansion.

The coefficient of thermal expansion for dead weight pistons is generally

by the symbol "  k " and that for dead weight cylinders by the symbol "
BBBB BBBB

c " .
BBBB BBBB

The value of "  k " and "  c " will vary between testers, depending upon
BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB

the material of the piston and cylinder .

31
The mean area correction ( K ) for temperature is generally written in the
form :

K = [ 1 + ( K +  c ) ( t – 20 )]
BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB ( 17 )

Where : t = the temperature of use.

The mean area (zero pressure) corrected for temperature thus becomes :

A = A o [ 1 + ( K +  c ) ( t – 20 )]
BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB ( 18 )

However, the area (A), as derived in equation (18), is not the effective area
of the tester at the point of use. Let us define. the effective area (A e ) as the BBBB BBBB

mean piston area at the temperature and pressure of use ; whereas A o was BBBB BBBB

the area at the temperature of calibration and zero pressure.

The mean area of the piston must be established at the applied pressure
because pressure causes deformation of the piston .

Consider for a moment the piston cylinder of Fig.9. This illustration,

though extreme, depicts how a piston might be deformed by pressure.
Piston deformation, at higher pressures, is the single most significant cause
of pressure measurement uncertainty. It does not necessarily cause the
largest numerical correction, but it is of such a nature that it cannot be
predicted accurately in many cases .

When a tester is calibrated, this deformation or variation coefficient is

computed, and a value is assigned to the tester which later will allow the
user to compute the effect of pressure on the piston area of the tester . The
deformation coefficient is, in some instances assigned the letter "B", and
the correction is given in the form :

A = Ao + B P BBBB BBBB ( 19 )

Where : A o = the mean area at zero pressure

BBBB BB BB

B = the pressure coefficient ( cm 2 / kg ) PPPP

PPPP

P = the nominal pressure,( kg/cm 2 ) PPPP

PPPP

A = the mean area, corrected only for pressure

32
The effective area (A e ) may now be written :
BBBB BBBB

A e = ( A o + BP )[ 1 + ( K +  c ) ( t – 20 )]
BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBB B (
20 )

A more usable form of equation (19) may be generated by defining a new

term . This term represents the percent of deformation and is assigned the
small letter "b". It is defined as :

b=B/ A BBBB

o BBBB ( 21 )

where: B = the deformation coefficient in units of (cm 2 /kg) PPPP

PPPP

A o = the uncorrected mean area at the temperature of

BBBB BB BB

calibration and zero pressure

b = the pressure coefficient in units of N/ kg
where N is dimensionless .

Equation (19) can thus be rewritten as :

A = A 0 ( I + bP ) BBBB BBBB (22)

and, equation (20) can now be rewritten as :

A e = ( 1 + bP )[ 1 + ( K +  c ) ( t – 20 )]
BBBB BBBB ( 23 )
BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB

If the pressure coefficient is given on the calibration report in the form of

capital "B", use equation (20) to determine A e . If it is given as small "b", BBBB BBBB

use equation ( 23 ) .

Example :
A dead weight tester has a mean area of 0.010000 cm 2 . The pressure PPPP PPPP

coefficient (B) is given as 5 x 10 -10 cm 2 / Kg . what is the pressure PPPP

PPPP
PPPP
PPPP

coefficient expressed as “ b " ?

Using equation (21) we get :

5 x 10 -10 cm 2 / Kg PPPP
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP

b = ----------------------------
0.01 cm 2 PPPP

b = 5 x 10 -8 /Kg PPPP
PPPP

33
This form of “ b " says that the piston area will change five parts per 100
million/kg. Not very significant on the surface; however, at 1000 Kg/cm 2 , PPPP
PPPP

the piston area will have changed +0.05%. The numerical value
of "b" is a function of the piston cylinder configuration and its materials.
It should always be considered, since its magnitude may be much larger
than illustrated here. .

We may now write the expression for the true pressure generated by
a dead weight tester as :

Wt BBBB BBBB

Pt = ------- (24)
At BBBB BBBB

The piston cylinder is assumed to be in a vertical position.

where:
W t = the true weight (all corrections applied)
BBBB BBBB

A e = the effective area at the pressure and temperature of use

BBBB BBBB

and P t = the true pressure ' BBBB BBBB

Equation (24) may also be written in its complete form by combining

equations (16) and (23) to get: .

W (1-  a /  b ) ( g L / g S ) BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB B BBB BBBB BBBB

P t = ------ -------------------------------------
BBBB BBBB (25)
A o (1+ bP )[ 1 +(k +c ) (t - 20)]
BBBB BBBB

Example :

A dead weight tester is used to generate a pressure. The temperature of the

tester is monitored and found to be 25°C. It is being used at sea level at a
latitude of 52°N. The total mass load applied is summed from the
calibration report and found to be 90.008 kg "'apparent mass versus brass".
The following information is also found in the calibration report:

A o = 0.010001 cm 2
BBBB BBBB PPPP
PPPP
b= 7x10 -8
PPPP
PPPP
/Kg

34
 t = 20°C k+c=1.8x10 -4 /°C PPPP
PPPP

What is the true pressure generated by the tester?

Referencing equation (25), let us find each correction term in the

numerator and then in the denominator. The first correction is:
a BBBB

K 1 = 1 - -----
BBBB BBBB

b BBBB BBBB

Using the densities of. 0012 g / cm 3 and 8.4 g / cm 3 for air and brass, PPPP
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP

respectively, we get:

0.0012
K 1 = 1 - ----------
BBBB BBBB

8.4
= (1 - 0.00014 )
K 1 = 0.99986
BBBB BBBB

The second term (g L /g S ) can be found by referencing the correction

BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB

curve. Thus, we find :

gL BBBB BBBB

----- ( 52° N ; 0" elev. ) = 1.0006

gS BBBB BBBB

The entire numerator of equation (25) which describes the true force thus
becomes: .
W t = 90.008 Kg x 0.99986 x 1.0006
BBBB BBBB

Now, looking at the denominator, the temperature correction for the

piston is:

K 2 = [ 1 + ( k + c ) ( t - 20 ) ]
BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB BBBB

= 1 + [ 18 x 10 -6 /°C ( 25° C - 20° C)] PPPP

PPPP

= 1 + ( 9.0 x 10 -5 ) PPPP
PPPP

K 2 = 1.00009
BBBB BBBB

The correction for the mean area at the pressure of use may be found
using the expression:
K 3 = ( 1 + bP )
BBBB BBBB

35
The problem at this point is that the pressure (P) is still unknown.

The nominal pressure, however, is sufficiently accurate for this correction,

and it may be obtained from the nominal mass and area an:

90 kg
P = -----------
0.01 cm 2 PPPP

P = 9000 kg/cm2

The deformation now becomes:

K 3 = [1+ (7x10 -8 )(9x10 3 )]

BBBB BBBB PPPP
PPPP
PPPP
PPPP

=1+ (6.3xl 0 -4 ) PPPP

PPPP

K 3 =1.00063
BBBB BBBB

The entire denominator of equation (25) now becomes:

A 0 = 0.010001 x (1.00063) ( 1.00009 )

BBBB BB BB

The total expression for the true Pressure generated is, therefore;

90. 008 x 0.99986 x 1.0006

P t = --------------------------------------------
BBBB BBBB

0.010001 x 1.000063 x 1.00009

90.049396
= --------------
0.0100064

P t = 8997.56
BBBB BBBB

Since the weights would have nominally been marked to indicate 9,000
kg/cm 2 , the true pressure was 0.027 % lower than the indicated pressure.
PPPP
PPPP

However, this is not to imply that the error is always of this small

36
magnitude. It might have been greater , dependent upon the magnitude of
the factors discussed. ,in another situation.

There are certain other corrections which could be considered with regard
to the true pressure generated by a dead weight tester; however , the
magnitude of the corrections which they represent is so small that they are
seldom applied in general work and, therefore, will not be discussed in this
text .

One correction, however, which has not been discussed and should always
be considered when using a dead weight tester, is that of a fluid head.
Consider the test configuration illustrated in Fig.8. The pressure sensed by
the piston and weights is sensed at the bottom of the piston - level 0.

The true pressure is computed for this level. If a liquid is simultaneously

applied to a test gauge or instrument at some other level I ), the test
instrument senses the pressure , at that level. In effect, the pressure sensed
by the dead weight tester and test gauge is not the same.

If the test gauge is above the dead weight tester it will sense a pressure
which is less than that sensed by the tester by an amount of the center of
the Bourdon tube gauge , find the true pressure applied to the gauge and
the error in the gauge, if the test media is oil .

Referring to Table I to find the weight density of oil and then substituting
it and the vertical height into the equation for pressure we get :

P= 9 x 0.03
P= 0.27
Since the gauge is above the tester, the pressure applied to the gauge is the
true pressure, as measured by the dead weight tester, minus the fluid head,
or :
P= 100 - 0.27
P= 99. 73 kg/cm 2 PPPP

The error in the gauge is found using the expression:

measured - true
e = ------------------
true

37
or, substituting our values:

99.8 - 99.73
e = --------------
99.73

+ 0.07
e = ---------
99.73

e = + 0.0007 = + 0.7 %

The gauge initially appeared to be in error by -0.2 kg/cm 2 (- 0.2%) until

PPPP
PPPP

the fluid head was considered, whereupon the actual error was found to be
+.07 kg/cm 2 (+0.07 %) . The magnitude of a fluid head should be
PPPP
PPPP

considered anytime liquid systems are involved in precision pressure

measurements.

Dead weight tester are produced in a variety of configurations, precisions,

and ranges as shown in figures 10-1, fig 10-2 and 10-3.

38
 Fig (10-1) DHI pressure balance

Fig (10-2) Ruska pressure balance

Fig(10-3) DH pressure balance

39
Some low range units operate with gas (generally pure nitrogen) as the test
media. These instruments, known as air dead weight testers, are generally
restricted in their pressure to 60 bar or less .

Air dead weight testers are operated in exactly the same manner as any
other dead weight tester, and all corrections, as previously discussed, are
applicable except the ones concerning piston distortion and fluid head.
Since the instruments operate over relatively low pressures, the change in
area of the piston is generally negligible .

The weight and piston assembly of either type tester may be enclosed if
desired. This allows the reference pressure surrounding the piston and
weights to be varied. If the space surrounding the piston and weights is
evacuated, the tester will read absolute pressure .

Some testers overcome this problem in that the piston tilts from a vertical
position through 90°, thus, any component of the piston weight may be
used to generate a pressure.

Referencing Fig. 8, let us consider the total weight of the piston as

concentrated at its centre of gravity (cg ).

Since the weight of the piston, by definition, acts perpendicular to the

earth's surface, if the piston and cylinder are vertical, as in Fig.8, the total
weight acts over its area.

If the piston is tipped at some angle (  ), then the total weight still acts
perpendicular to the earth, but only a component of the weight acts over
the area. The weight component W c which acts over the area is :
BBBB BBBB

W c = W ( sin  )
BBBB BBBB

And the actual pressure is :

W
P = ----------- ( sin  )
A

If  is 90°, the pressure is zero; but, if j is 0°, then the pressure is as

indicated .

41
This feature allows this type of tester to generate any pressure from zero
up to the nominal piston pressure. The accuracy of the pressure determined
in this manner is restricted only by the accuracy, with which the angle ()
is measured.

This measurement is made by a device built into the tester, thus, it

generally does not affect the accuracy of the tester. The tilting technique at
present, is only applicable to the piston. If other additional weights were
used, too much side loading would occur which would cause excessive
friction.

Fig.11 Bi-fluid dead weight tester

41
Liquid filled Dead Weight Testers (DWT), almost without exception, use
either water or light oil for a test media. One such tester is illustrated in
Fig. 11. The instrument shown has a range of 1000 bar and a basic
accuracy, oft 0.1 % of indicated pressure. The interesting fact concerning
this tester is that it employs a by fluid system .

Oil is generally considered as the better test media for the tester since it
provides a good seal and excellent lubrication. Water, however, is
considered as a better test media for a test gauge, as it will not contaminate
the test gauge. The tester illustrated in Fig.11 circumvents this problem by
using a closed oil system for the piston and cylinder while it uses water for
the pressurized test fluid. The pressure from the water is transmitted to the
oil through a thin diaphragm, as illustrated in Fig, 11 .

To achieve accuracy of 0.01 to 0.05% of the indicated pressure this type of

instrument uses weights of high accuracy instead of the ordinary weights.

The Piston cylinder assembly is also machined to extremely close

tolerances and made from materials which minimize, as much as possible,
the rate of piston distortion .

One of the more interesting features of this tester is that it is dual range.
Two complete piston cylinder assemblies are provided. One low range and
one high range cylinder.

The effective area of the two piston/ cylinders is in a ratio of 5:1, each
weight supplied, therefore, will be used to generate two pressures, the high
range piston/cylinder has a capacity of 1000 bar while the low range
piston/cylinder has m operating range 200 bar using the same weights.
Each weight is marked with two nominal pressures, one if the weight is
used witl1the low range and the other if it is used with high range .

42
 Fig. 12 Dual range DWT.

All of the DWT discussed to this point have employed a simple piston
which is considered as one where no rigorous employed is made to control
its distortion but instead a correction is determined and applied.

The piston cylinder arrangement which has proven most satisfactory is

illustrated in Fig. 12. The clearance between the piston and cylinder is
controlled by application of a second, independent pressure to the walls of
the cylinder.

The jacket pressure is usually applied and increased until there is zero
clearance between tile piston and cylinder. It is then reduced by an amount
that will provide a known clearance as the test pressure desired. The
mathematics of determining the piston/cylinder clearance which is desired
at a given operated pressure point of a little consequence, since the-
control clearance tester is considered as a primary standard and thus, is
encountered only in labs of the highest level.

43
The simple piston/cylinder arrangement shows an increase in effective
area with increase pressure. That is not necessarily true with other
modified designs. If the effective area of the piston decreases with
increased pressure, 'B' or 'b', as a case may be, will be noted with a minus
sign. The discussion of DWT and specifically piston deformation
presented in this section was intended to explain the basic concepts and
corrections required to achieve meaning full quantitative results.
A piston gauge is essentially made up of a piston-and-cylinder assembly (PCA) and
of a system for the application of a known vertical load on the piston. The PCA is the
essential part of the apparatus, as it is used to define the effective area on which
pressure is applied. There are basically three designs of piston cylinder assembly
(PCA) .

The most commonly used design, known as the 'simple' type, is shown
diagrammatically in figure (13). The action of the pressure-transmitting
fluid on the base of the piston causes mechanical distortion leading to
excessive leakage of fluid at high. Such pressure balances can thus be used
only over a limited pressure range, although with appropriate design they
may be used successfully up to pressures of about 800 MPa.

Fig. (13) Simple piston-cylinder assembly

The design of the higher pressure instruments is different in two respects:

44
  Firstly, the radial gap between the piston and cylinder is substantially
small, often with an interference fit at lower pressures.

 Secondly, the load is applied to the working piston via a coaxial

auxiliary piston. This arrangement reduces the bending moments that
might be imparted to the piston by the load. This technique is also
employed with other types of pressure balance.

To combat the problem of excessive fluid leakage at high pressures two

further basic designs have evolved. In the simpler of these, often referred
to as the 're-entrant' type, the pressure transmitting fluid acts not only on
the base of the piston and along the engagement length of the piston and
cylinder, but also on the external surface of the cylinder.

This external pressure contracts the gap between the piston and the
cylinder over part of the engagement length thus reducing the fluid
leakage; a typical design is shown in figure (14). The upper pressure limit
is set by the reduction of the gap to an interference fit.

Fig. (14) Re-entrant piston-cylinder assembly

45
In the third design, so called controlled clearance piston cylinder assembly,
a variable fluid pressure, p j , in an independent pressure system, is applied
BBBB BBBB

to the external surface of the cylinder, thus providing control of the gap
between the piston and cylinder; such an arrangement is shown in figure
(15).

P
Fig. (15) Controlled-clearance piston-cylinder assembly

Although in principle this design will cover a very wide range of pressure
using only one piston-cylinder assembly, in practice it is usually better to
use a series of assemblies to achieve the best sensitivity for a particular
pressure range. This type of pressure balance mostly used in very high
pressure applications, is not commonly available commercially, and is
generally more difficult to operate than the two other designs.

46
1-Preparation for calibration

The calibration should only be carried out when the pressure balance is in
good working order. The operation of the pressure balance under
calibration and the pressure reference standard should be carried out
according to the laboratory's calibration procedure prepared from this
guideline, and the manufacturer's technical manual.

2-Calibration room

The following parameters shall be controlled according to the uncertainty

regime. Typically:
 Ambient temperature within 15 °C and 25 °C, stabilised within + 2
°C. For lower uncertainty, typically 0,01 %, the temperature of the
piston-cylinder assembly should preferably be measured.
 Relative humidity between 40 % and 65 %, or measured.
 Control opening of doors and the movement of operators to keep a
stable atmosphere, and control ventilation in order to prevent
intense airflow above or below the piston balances.

3-Devices installation

 Install the devices out of the air disturbances such as ventilation

and air-conditioning.
 Install the balance to be calibrated as near the standard instrument
as possible.
 Use a rigid, stable table supporting the full load, checked in with a
spirit level.
 Minimise the height difference between the reference levels of the
two instruments to be compared.
 Respect the verticality of the piston as recommended by the
manufacturer use the built-in spirit level, or a laboratory spirit
level on the top of the piston to minimise the tilt. This should be
checked also at full mass load.
 Use short, wide bore pipework. This is more critical at low
pressure.
 Insure the cleanliness and the tightness of the tubings.

47
 Install appropriate drain to control the nature of the fluid in the
tubings.
 Attach a suitable temperature measurement system.

4- Pressure generation

I- For gas pressure:

(a) Use a clean and dry gas (nitrogen for example), at a temperature
near ambient.
(b) Adjust the pressure input to the range of the intercompared
instruments.
(c) Clean the tubings of any liquid (for the oil-lubricated type).

II- For absolute pressure:

(a) Use a clean pump, or, when using mechanical rotational pumps,
use an appropriate trap.
(b) Use an appropriate vacuum pump to ensure that the residual
pressure over the mass-piston set is less than typically 2 Pa or 10 -5 of
the measured pressure, whichever is the higher, unless otherwise
recommended by the manufacturer.
(c) Measure the residual pressure with a vacuum gauge calibrated and
connected directly to the bell jar.

III- For liquid pressure:

(a) Use the liquid recommended by the manufacturer.
(b) If the liquid is not the same in the balance under calibration as in the
standard, use appropriate interface/separator to avoid any mixture of
the two liquids.
(c) Clean the tubings of any other liquid.
(d) Clean the fluid in the tubings of any possible internal gas.

5- Pressure reference
 The pressure reference instrument in general use for the calibration
of a pressure balance is another pressure balance. For the ranges
lower than 300 kPa, the standard instrument may be a mercury
column manometer. Other instruments may be used as an alternative
for specific cases (low gauge pressure for example).
 The calibration of an absolute pressure balance may be carried out in
gauge mode, with an added uncertainty in Ao.

48
 In all cases, the reference instrument used for the calibration has to
meet the following conditions:
(a) to be traceable to a National Standard with a recognised calibration
certificate.
(b) to have an uncertainty better than the presupposed uncertainty of the
balance to be calibrated. Complete the uncertainty budget on the
reference standard pressure balance to check this condition.

6- Preparation of the pressure balance

The pressure balance under calibration shall be placed in the laboratory

at least 12 hours before the calibration is started, to reach thermal
equilibrium.

(a) Check that the oil is free from impurities. If not, drain all the tubings
and replace the oil in the tank.

(b) With the pressure circuit closed and half the set of weights placed on
the piston, the piston shall be moved upwards and downwards by
means of the spindle pump. Thus, the mobility of the piston is
examined over the total range of displacement.

(c) If necessary, and using the technical manual, remove the piston-
cylinder assembly, and clean the surfaces of the two pieces with a
suitable solvent or pure soap, and with dry soft cloth according to
the manufacturer's recommendations. Inspect the piston and the
cylinder for surface scratches and corrosion. Relubricate the piston
with clean liquid if the piston-cylinder operates in liquid, or if the
balance operates in gas but with an oil-lubricated piston-cylinder
assembly.

(d) Examine the free rotation time (for the hand-rotating pressure
balances only). Weights corresponding to 2/10 of maximum
pressure are placed upon the piston. The initial rotation rate should
be approximately 30 rpm. Measure the elapsed time until the piston
is stationary. This time should be at least 3 min.
(e) Examine the descent rate of the piston. The piston descent rate is
observed at maximum pressure when the piston is rotating. Measure

49
 the time interval in which the piston drops from top to bottom
position. This time should be at least 3 min.
Note: For these two last parameters, the stated values should be related
to the technical instructions of the manufacturer.
(f ) Connect the pressure balance to the standard instrument.
(g) Identify the reference level for both pressure balances. The reference
level should be defined by the manufacturer at the bottom surface of
the piston when the balance is in equilibrium. In the absence of this,
and when the bottom surface of the piston is not accessible, the
reference level is generally defined at the outlet pipe connection
level. The difference in height between the reference level of the
standard and the reference level of the balance to be calibrated shall
be reduced as much as possible and measured. In any case the
difference in height between the reference levels of both standard
and balance under calibration will need to be measured in order to
apply the appropriate head correction.
(h) For absolute pressure, pump for 30 min. at the beginning of the
calibration to eliminate the water vapor in the belljar. Use dry
nitrogen as working gas.
(j) Rotate the piston or cylinder while respecting the manufacturer's
recommendation.
(k) For hand rotating balances, check the clockwise and anticlockwise
direction influence (if any), or indicate the rotation direction in the
certificate.

Example of calibration procedure

Methods to apply
Both methods that follow are comparative ones, consisting of comparing
the balance to be calibrated and the standard instrument when both
are submitted to the same pressure and the same environmental
conditions. However, dependent on the presupposed accuracy of the
balance to be calibrated, and according to customer requirement
alternative methods may be used:

Method A . Generated pressure method

The scope of this method is to determine the bias error and the
repeatability of the calibrated pressure balance. This is done by
determining the generated pressure corresponding to well identified

51
 weights. In that method the weighing of the masses of the
instrument under calibration is optional.

Method A procedure

Three measuring series are carried out, each of them with at least five
pressure points regularly spaced over the whole range of the
pressure balance. For twin range balances, at least five pressure
points should be carried out for each range. The pressure points
should be selected evenly spaced across the range of the instrument
under test.

Method B . Effective area determination method

The scope of this method is to determine:

(a) the value of the mass of all the weights, including piston of the
pressure balance if removable.
(b) the effective area A referred to 20 °C of the piston-cylinder assembly
of the pressure balance (e as a function of pressure. At high
pressure, this area can be expressed from the effective area at null
pressure A~ and the pressure distortion coefficient .
(c) the repeatability as a function of the measured pressure.

Method B procedure

I- Determination of the mass

(a) The value of the mass of each weight (including the floating
elements when removable) of the pressure balance shall be
determined by a laboratory accredited for such mass measurements.
The relative uncertainty of the mass determination should not
usually exceed 20 % of the likely total measurement uncertainty of
the pressure balance to be calibrated. For example, if the supposed
expanded uncertainty of the pressure balance is 5x10 -5 x p, the
relative uncertainty of mass determination should be within l x10 -5
x m.

(b) If the floatbase weight cannot be determined by weighing, the

corresponding base pressure may be determined from the results of

51
 the pressure comparison measurements by using a least-squares
analysis: in this case a tare value in pressure units should be given.
The p-method mentioned letter allows the determination of this
initial value.

5.3.2 Determination of the effective area

(a) For pressure balances which are equipped with both low pressure
and high pressure piston-cylinder assemblies or with removable
piston-cylinder assemblies, the complete calibration process should
be carried out for each piston-cylinder assembly.
(b) The effective area shall be determined by carrying out three to
five measuring series, each of them with at least six pressure points.
The first point shall be chosen at the minimum value of the pressure
range (manufacturer indicated value, or the lower value
corresponding to a satisfactory functioning, see paragraph 4.5). The
other pressure points should be spaced over the whole range,
typically between 1/10 and 10/10 of the maximum pressure range.
(c) The repeatability of the measured pressure is estimated from
the experimental standard deviation calculated from the successive
determinations operated for each pressure point.

Note (valid for both methods): Ascending measuring series can be

considered to be identical to descending measuring series, as the
balances used for pressure measurements usually have no significant
hysteresis effect.

Method A is usually not employed where the smallest uncertainty is

required.

Cross f1oating procedure

I- Gauge pressure mode
(a) When using a pressure balance as standard instrument, the cross-
floating method is carried out at each measuring point:
(b) Place the weights on the pressure balance to be calibrated, so that the
masses correspond to the fixed pressure point.
(c) Adjust the pressure to equilibrate the balance under calibration.
(d) Perform an adjustment with small weights on one of both instruments
(usually the one which is the more sensitive to a change in mass),
until the equilibrium condition of both balances has been found. The

52
 equilibrium should be considered as reached when the proper falling
rate of both pistons is found (no flow of fluid in the tubing between
the two pressure balances). Both pistons have to rotate during the
adjustment. In the case of hand rotating units, the influence of the
clockwise/ anticlockwise rotation, and of the spin rate will be
checked.
(e) Note the reference number of each of the weights applied on both
balances.
(f) Note the temperature of the piston-cylinder assembly of both
balances.
If the balance is not equipped with a temperature probe, note the
surrounding air temperature using an electronic thermometer
attached to some suitable point of the balance. This information
shall be included in the certificate.

II- Absolute pressure mode

(a) When using a pressure balance as standard instrument, the cross

floating method cannot be used. In this case a differential pressure
transducer equipped with a by-pass is used to measure the difference
between the pressures measured by both balances. For each pressure
point:
(b) Place the corresponding weights on both pressure balances.
(c) Adjust the pressure to equilibrate the standard balance.
(d) Read the zero of the transducer.
(e) Close the by-pass.
(f) Adjust the pressure on both sides to equilibrate both balances.
(g) Record the reading of the transducer. If the differential pressure is so
high that the needed uncertainty cannot be reached from the
calibration of the transducer, adjust the mass on the reference
balance and repeat the three last operations.
(h) Note the reference number of each of the weights applied on both
balances.
(j) Note the temperature of the piston-cylinder assembly of both
balances. If the balance is not equipped with a temperature probe,
note the surrounding air temperature.
(k) Note the residual pressure in the belljar of both balances.

Data evaluation and calibration certificate

53
I- Method A procedure

 The following technical data shall be included in the Certificate:

(a) type of the working fluid
(b) linear thermal expansion coefficients of the piston-cylinder assembly
under calibration (if not determined experimentally, e.g. using
literature data, this shall be stated);
(c) pressure distortion coefficient (if obtained by a theoretical method)
(d) position of the pressure reference level
(e) information about how to convert the pressure values to the
measurement temperature and to the local acceleration due to
gravity.

 Usually the results will be presented for the standard value of the
gravity 9,80665 m s-2 (unless customer requests his own local
gravity) and the reference temperature 20 °C in the form of a table.
It will include:
(a) the pressure indicated by the balance under calibration (p m )
(b) the reference pressure measured by the standard instrument (mean of
the three determinations), in Pa and in the unit of the pressure
delivered by the balance if different (p r);
(c) the standard deviation of the reference pressure p r.
(d) the difference between the indicated pressure and the reference
pressure (pm-pr);
(e) the uncertainty of this difference, in the conditions of the calibration.

The method used to estimate this uncertainty shall be reported in the

Certificate.

 A table that lists all weights applied on the unit to be calibrated for
each pressure point of the calibration shall be included in the
Calibration Certificate.

6.3 Method B procedure

 The following technical data shall be included in the Certificate:

(a) type of the working fluid
(b) equation according to which the pressures reported in the certificate
have been calculated

54
(c) linear thermal expansion coefficients of the piston-cylinder assembly
under calibration (if not determined experimentally, e.g. by using
literature data, this shall be stated)
(d) position of the pressure reference level

 The results of the calibration, after analysis

(a) effective area and its combined uncertainty
(b) if relevant, the pressure distortion coefficient(s) and the
corresponding combined uncertainty

Calculation of the effective area

(a) The computing method in more general use can be used to calculate
step by step the effective area of the pressure balance to be
calibrated from the mass applied on its piston and the pressure
delivered by the standard instrument.

(b) From this method, the effective area is calculated by reversing the
equation of definition of the pressure presented before

(c) The use of other methods, such as differential method (p-method)

to eliminate potential zero-errors is not excluded, but requires some
experience in the analysis of the results. Particularly, the p-method
may be the only one available if method B is used for the
determination of effective area of pressure balances with an
unknown initial weight that cannot be determined by weighing.

(d) The step-by-step determination of the effective area as a function of

pressure allows a modelling of effective area. In any case all the
experimental data and the residuals of the modelling shall be
reported in the certificate to make apparent the validity of the used
method.

(e) The results may be presented in the form of a table, including:

(i) the reference pressure measured by the reference standard instrument
in each pressure point, in Pa and in the unit of the pressure delivered
by the balance if different;
(ii) the corresponding mass applied on the floating element of the
balance to be calibrated;

55
(iii) the corresponding temperature of the measuring assembly during the
calibration;
(iv) the individual value of the effective area Ap calculated at the
reference temperature and at reference pressure
(v) the mean value of the effective area Ap;
(vi) the experimental standard deviation of the mean.

(f) Then, the effective area as a function of pressure is analysed using a

least-squares method. Three cases can be observed:
(i) the dependence upon pressure is not significant relating to the
standard deviation (this is always the case for the low-range pressure
balances). The effective area at null pressure Ao is calculated as the
mean value of all the determinations. If the theoretical pressure
distortion coefficient is known, it shall be used for calculating the
effective area. The type A standard uncertainty is estimated from the
experimental standard deviation of the mean Ao.
(ii) the dependence upon pressure can be considered to be linear. The
effective area at null pressure Ao and the pressure distortion
coefficient I are calculated by analogy with the best least-squares
straight line. The type A combined standard uncertainty is estimated
using the standard uncertainties of Ao and .
(iii) the dependence upon pressure cannot be considered to be linear. The
effective area at null pressure Ao and the pressure distortion
coefficient  (first order) and ’ (second order) are calculated by
analogy with the least-squares second-order best fit. The type A
combined standard uncertainty is estimated using the standard
uncertainties of Ao,  and ’.

(g) The standard uncertainties of each of the parameters shall be

estimated using literature on statistics.

(h) The certificate shall report:

(i) the calculated value of the effective area under reference conditions
Ao and the corresponding uncertainty, estimated from the standard
deviation of Ao, and the contribution of the standard, the
measurement of the mass applied to the moving element and the
temperature.
(ii) when relevant, the pressure distortion coefficient(s) and the
corresponding uncertainty estimated from the standard deviation of

56
  and the uncertainty of the pressure distortion coefficient of the
standard.

6.3.4 Calculation of the measured pressure

(a) The pressure measured by the pressure balance to be calibrated can

be calculated using the equation presented before. It is useful to the
user to have this measured pressure compared to the reference
pressure delivered by the standard, under the conditions of the
calibration.

(b) The results shall be presented in the form of a table; including:

(i) the reference pressure measured by the standard instrument, in Pa and
in the unit of the pressure delivered by the balance if different
(ii) the corresponding pressure measured by the balance under
calibration, and calculated from the data (effective area and pressure
distortion coefficient) taken from the certificate
(iii) the difference between the measured pressure and the reference
pressure for each pressure equilibrium, as residuals of the effective
area modelling
(iv) the mean value of these differences
(v) the experimental standard deviation of the measured' differences

(c) This table gives information on a potential residual pressure due to

unknown forces and on the repeatability of the pressure balance as a
function of pressure. So, the minimum information contained in this
part of the certificate is the mean difference and the experimental
standard deviation.

57
Finally for simple and re-entrant piston cylinder assemblies the complete pressure
generated equation is given by:

 gL   air 
Mg L g 
1  
    W
 S  M 
P 
Ao [1  ( c   p )(t  Tr )](1  po )

Where:
M Total mass applied on the piston
Ao Nominal effective area for used piston cylinder
αp+αc Thermal expansion coefficient for piston and cylinder materials
t Temperature of the piston cylinder assembly
Tr Reference temperature
ρair Density of air
ρM Density of the weights
g Local gravity at place of standard PCA calibration
gL Local gravitational acceleration
gS standard gravitational acceleration
γ Surface tension of the used oil
χ Circumference of the piston
Γw Tare force
Po Nominal pressure
λ Distortion coefficient of piston cylinder assembly

Characterization of pressure balance

While the operating principle of pressure balance is simple, its complete

characterization as a primary standard requires a very precise investigation.
Determination of the effective area (Aeff) and calculation of the dependence of the
effective area on the system pressure (distortion coefficient (λ)) are the main required
quantities for pressure balance characterization. The methods and techniques
involved in determining the effective area of a piston cylinder assembly divide
themselves naturally into two main groups:
1. Those in which the effective area of a piston cylinder assembly is obtained
from fundamental principles, i.e. without reference to any other standard of
pressure;

58
 2. Those in which the effective area of a piston cylinder assembly is obtained
by a process of comparison with some other fundamental pressure standard.
The methods of group (1) for effective area of a piston cylinder assembly are mainly
restricted to the evaluation of primary or perhaps national standards and are dealt
with in two ways:
a) Calculation from measured dimensions by analytical method.
b) Characterization of controlled clearance pressure balance using Heydmann-
Welch model for effective area of a piston cylinder assembly calculation.
The dimensional measurements (group(a)) required for the calculation of effective
areas are the diameters of both the piston and cylinder at suitably spaced positions
along the axis of the assembly. These data may usefully be supplemented by
measurements of the degree of departure from true circularity and straightness, which
will contribute to the uncertainties attaching to the final result.

In the controlled-clearance system group (b) only the dimensions of the piston are, in
principle, required. These measurements will usually be entrusted to a laboratory
specializing in dimensional metrology and we shall therefore make no attempt to
describe them. The methods of group (2) are of particular significance in the
calibration of balances used as secondary standards and working standards.

SI Unit of SI Unit of Acceleration

Length Mass of Gravity

Effective Applied force on

area of PCA PCA

SI Unit of
Pressure
Fig (6) Traceability to the basic physical units of pressure through dimensional and mass measurements

Characterization of pressure balance from dimensional measurements

Based on the progress made in the field of dimensional metrology, it is possible to

trace pressure measurements in the 1 MPa range directly back to the base units of the
SI as shown in figure (4), with relative standard uncertainties of pressure
measurement considerably below 10 ppm if adequately sized piston/cylinder (p/c)
assemblies are used.

Characterization of controlled clearance primary standard pressure balance

using Heydemann and Welch model

59
According to Heydemann and Welch model for controlled clearance pressure balance
characterization, five quantities are required for the characterization of controlled
clearance pressure balance. These quantities are Ao, αP+αc , λ, d and Pz as described
by equation
  
Mg 1  air      W
 M 
P 
Ao [1  ( c   p )(t  Tr )](1  po )[1  ( D  EW  FW 2 )( pzo  szW  qzW 2  p j )]

 Ao is the area of the piston determined from dimensional measurements

adjusted to a reference temperature of 23 oC,
 αP and αc are the linear thermal expansion coefficients for the piston and the
cylinder materials respectively,
 λ is the pressure distortion coefficient of the piston determined from elasticity
theory.
 Pz and d are parameters relating to the gap between the piston and cylinder and
the distortion of the cylinder

or Pz = PZ0 + sZ W + qZ W2 Pz = PZ0 + sZ W
or d = D + EW + FW2 d = D + EW

Where first or second order equation selection depends on the shape of the obtained
data. Pj is the pressure in the applied to the outside of the cylinder to control the
piston/cylinder gap. The values of these parameters will be calculated from two
measuring experiments, the first is the falling rate measurements where the values
Pzo, sZ and qZ will be calculated. The second is the “d” measurements, in which the
effective area is measured by a crossfloat with a second pressure balance as the jacket
pressure is varied at constant system pressure. From those measurements, the
parameters D, E and F will be calculated.

61
Calibration of pressure balance using cross floating method
The effective areas of working instruments and, indeed, of many reference standards,
being usually determined by comparison with some form of independent standard. In
this part we shall describe the procedures for such comparisons and finally refer to
some points of interest in the expression of the resulting data.

Fig. (7) Schematic diagram illustrating the comparison of two pressure balance
(cross floating experiment

We have already noted that there are commonly available two independent forms of
primary standard in the field of pressure measurement, viz. the pressure balance itself
and the manometric column. The calibration of an individual pressure balance may,
in principle, be carried out by comparison with either of these primary devices, and
we shall therefore consider both techniques. It must be emphasized, however, that the
intercomparison of a pressure balance and a manometric column is generally a more
complicated and difficult operation than the comparison of two pressure balances and
the difficulty of such 'mixed' comparisons is greatly accentuated at the higher
pressures. The direct comparison with a standard balance is therefore the method
used in the great majority of pressure-balance calibrations, while the mixed
comparisons are normally reserved for applications where there are special reasons
for their adoption.

2.3.1 Determination by comparison with a standard pressure balance

For the above reason, the determination of the ratio of the effective areas of two
piston-cylinder assemblies is a particularly important aspect of calibration, for which
the above figure gives a generalized schematic diagram. The two assemblies, of

61
 effective areas SA and SB, are shown mounted on a common pressure system and are
'in equilibrium', at the applied pressure P, reckoned at an appropriate reference level,
when the loads are WA and WB respectively.

Preparation for calibration

The calibration should only be carried out when the pressure balance is in good
working order. The operation of the pressure balance under calibration and the
pressure reference standard should be carried out according to the laboratory's
calibration procedure prepared from this guideline, and the manufacturer's technical
manual.

Calibration room

The following parameters shall be controlled according to the uncertainty regime.

Typically:
 Ambient temperature within 15 °C and 25 °C, stabilised within + 2 °C. For
lower uncertainty, typically 0,01 %, the temperature of the piston-cylinder
assembly should preferably be measured.
 Relative humidity between 40 % and 65 %, or measured.
 Control opening of doors and the movement of operators to keep a stable
atmosphere, and control ventilation in order to prevent intense airflow above
or below the piston balances.

Devices installation

 Install the devices out of the air disturbances such as ventilation and air-
conditioning.
 Install the balance to be calibrated as near the standard instrument as
possible.
 Use a rigid, stable table supporting the full load, checked in with a spirit
level.
 Minimise the height difference between the reference levels of the two
instruments to be compared.
 Respect the verticality of the piston as recommended by the manufacturer
use the built-in spirit level, or a laboratory spirit level on the top of the piston to
minimise the tilt. This should be checked also at full mass load.
 Use short, wide bore pipework. This is more critical at low pressure.
 Insure the cleanliness and the tightness of the tubings.
 Install appropriate drain to control the nature of the fluid in the tubings.
 Attach a suitable temperature measurement system.

Pressure generation

62
 For gas pressure:
(a) Use a clean and dry gas (nitrogen for example), at a temperature near ambient.
(b) Adjust the pressure input to the range of the intercompared instruments.
(c) Clean the tubings of any liquid (for the oil-lubricated type).

II- For absolute pressure:

(a) Use a clean pump, or, when using mechanical rotational pumps, use an
appropriate trap.
(b) Use an appropriate vacuum pump to ensure that the residual pressure over the
mass-piston set is less than typically 2 Pa or 10-5 of the measured pressure,
whichever is the higher, unless otherwise recommended by the manufacturer.
(c) Measure the residual pressure with a vacuum gauge calibrated and connected
directly to the bell jar.

III- For liquid pressure:

(a) Use the liquid recommended by the manufacturer.
(b) If the liquid is not the same in the balance under calibration as in the standard, use
appropriate interface/separator to avoid any mixture of the two liquids.
(c) Clean the tubings of any other liquid.
(d) Clean the fluid in the tubings of any possible internal gas.

Pressure reference
 The pressure reference instrument in general use for the calibration of a
pressure balance is another pressure balance. For the ranges lower than 300 kPa,
the standard instrument may be a mercury column manometer. Other instruments
may be used as an alternative for specific cases (low gauge pressure for
example).
 The calibration of an absolute pressure balance may be carried out in gauge
mode, with an added uncertainty in Ao.
 In all cases, the reference instrument used for the calibration has to meet the
following conditions:
(a) to be traceable to a National Standard with a recognised calibration
certificate.
(b) to have an uncertainty better than the presupposed uncertainty of the
balance to be calibrated. Complete the uncertainty budget on the reference
standard pressure balance to check this condition.

Preparation of the pressure balance

 The pressure balance under calibration shall be placed in the laboratory at
least 12 hours before the calibration is started, to reach thermal equilibrium.
(a) Check that the oil is free from impurities. If not, drain all the tubings and
replace the oil in the tank.
(b) With the pressure circuit closed and half the set of weights placed on the
piston, the piston shall be moved upwards and downwards by means of the

63
 spindle pump. Thus, the mobility of the piston is examined over the total
range of displacement.
(c) If necessary, and using the technical manual, remove the piston-cylinder
assembly, and clean the surfaces of the two pieces with a suitable solvent or
pure soap, and with dry soft cloth according to the manufacturer's
recommendations. Inspect the piston and the cylinder for surface scratches
and corrosion. Relubricate the piston with clean liquid if the piston-cylinder
operates in liquid, or if the balance operates in gas but with an oil-lubricated
piston-cylinder assembly.
(d) Examine the free rotation time (for the hand-rotating pressure balances only).
Weights corresponding to 2/10 of maximum pressure are placed upon the
piston. The initial rotation rate should be approximately 30 rpm. Measure the
elapsed time until the piston is stationary. This time should be at least 3 min.
(e) Examine the descent rate of the piston. The piston descent rate is observed at
maximum pressure when the piston is rotating. Measure the time interval in
which the piston drops from top to bottom position. This time should be at
least 3 min.
Note: For these two last parameters, the stated values should be related to the
technical instructions of the manufacturer.
(f ) Connect the pressure balance to the standard instrument.
(g) Identify the reference level for both pressure balances. The reference level
should be defined by the manufacturer at the bottom surface of the piston
when the balance is in equilibrium. In the absence of this, and when the
bottom surface of the piston is not accessible, the reference level is generally
defined at the outlet pipe connection level. The difference in height between
the reference level of the standard and the reference level of the balance to be
calibrated shall be reduced as much as possible and measured. In any case the
difference in height between the reference levels of both standard and balance
under calibration will need to be measured in order to apply the appropriate
head correction.
(h) For absolute pressure, pump for 30 min. at the beginning of the calibration to
eliminate the water vapor in the belljar. Use dry nitrogen as working gas.
(j) Rotate the piston or cylinder while respecting the manufacturer's
recommendation.
(k) For hand rotating balances, check the clockwise and anticlockwise direction
influence (if any), or indicate the rotation direction in the certificate.

Example of calibration procedure

Methods to apply
Both methods that follow are comparative ones, consisting of comparing the balance
to be calibrated and the standard instrument when both are submitted to the same
pressure and the same environmental conditions. However, dependent on the
presupposed accuracy of the balance to be calibrated, and according to customer

64
requirement alternative methods may be used:

Method A . Generated pressure method

The scope of this method is to determine the bias error and the repeatability of
the calibrated pressure balance. This is done by determining the generated pressure
corresponding to well identified weights. In that method the weighing of the masses
of the instrument under calibration is optional.

Method A procedure

Three measuring series are carried out, each of them with at least five pressure
points regularly spaced over the whole range of the pressure balance. For twin range
balances, at least five pressure points should be carried out for each range. The
pressure points should be selected evenly spaced across the range of the instrument
under test.

Method B . Effective area determination method

The scope of this method is to determine:

(a) the value of the mass of all the weights, including piston of the pressure balance if
removable.
(b) the effective area A referred to 20 °C of the piston-cylinder assembly of the
pressure balance (e as a function of pressure. At high pressure, this area can be
expressed from the effective area at null pressure A~ and the pressure distortion
coefficient .
(c) the repeatability as a function of the measured pressure.

Method B procedure

I- Determination of the mass

(d) The value of the mass of each weight (including the floating
elements when removable) of the pressure balance shall be
determined by a laboratory accredited for such mass
measurements. The relative uncertainty of the mass
determination should not usually exceed 20 % of the likely total
measurement uncertainty of the pressure balance to be
calibrated. For example, if the supposed expanded uncertainty
of the pressure balance is 5x10-5 x p, the relative uncertainty of
mass determination should be within l x10-5 x m.

65
 (b) If the floatbase weight cannot be determined by weighing, the
corresponding base pressure may be determined from the results of the
pressure comparison measurements by using a least-squares analysis: in this
case a tare value in pressure units should be given. The p-method
mentioned letter allows the determination of this initial value.

Determination of the effective area

(a) For pressure balances which are equipped with both low pressure and
high pressure piston-cylinder assemblies or with removable piston-cylinder
assemblies, the complete calibration process should be carried out for each
piston-cylinder assembly.
(e) The effective area shall be determined by carrying out three
to five measuring series, each of them with at least six
pressure points. The first point shall be chosen at the minimum
value of the pressure range (manufacturer indicated value, or
the lower value corresponding to a satisfactory functioning,
see paragraph 4.5). The other pressure points should be spaced
over the whole range, typically between 1/10 and 10/10 of the
maximum pressure range.
(f) The repeatability of the measured pressure is estimated
from the experimental standard deviation calculated from the
successive determinations operated for each pressure point.

Note (valid for both methods): Ascending measuring series can be considered to be
identical to descending measuring series, as the balances used for pressure
measurements usually have no significant hysteresis effect.

Method A is usually not employed where the smallest uncertainty is required.

Cross f1oating procedure

I- Gauge pressure mode

(a) When using a pressure balance as standard instrument, the cross-floating
method is carried out at each measuring point:
(b) Place the weights on the pressure balance to be calibrated, so that the masses
correspond to the fixed pressure point.
(c) Adjust the pressure to equilibrate the balance under calibration.
(d) Perform an adjustment with small weights on one of both instruments (usually
the one which is the more sensitive to a change in mass), until the equilibrium
condition of both balances has been found. The equilibrium should be
considered as reached when the proper falling rate of both pistons is found
(no flow of fluid in the tubing between the two pressure balances). Both
pistons have to rotate during the adjustment. In the case of hand rotating units,

66
 the influence of the clockwise/ anticlockwise rotation, and of the spin rate will
be checked.
(e) Note the reference number of each of the weights applied on both balances.
(f ) Note the temperature of the piston-cylinder assembly of both balances.
If the balance is not equipped with a temperature probe, note the surrounding
air temperature using an electronic thermometer attached to some suitable point of
the balance. This information shall be included in the certificate.

II- Absolute pressure mode

(a) When using a pressure balance as standard instrument, the cross floating
method cannot be used. In this case a differential pressure transducer
equipped with a by-pass is used to measure the difference between the
pressures measured by both balances. For each pressure point:
(b) Place the corresponding weights on both pressure balances.
(c) Adjust the pressure to equilibrate the standard balance.
(d) Read the zero of the transducer.
(e) Close the by-pass.
(f) Adjust the pressure on both sides to equilibrate both balances.
(g) Record the reading of the transducer. If the differential pressure is so high that
the needed uncertainty cannot be reached from the calibration of the
transducer, adjust the mass on the reference balance and repeat the three last
operations.
(h) Note the reference number of each of the weights applied on both balances.
(j) Note the temperature of the piston-cylinder assembly of both balances. If the
balance is not equipped with a temperature probe, note the surrounding air
temperature.
(k) Note the residual pressure in the belljar of both balances.

Data evaluation and calibration certificate

II- Method A procedure

 The following technical data shall be included in the Certificate:

(a) type of the working fluid
(b) linear thermal expansion coefficients of the piston-cylinder assembly under
calibration (if not determined experimentally, e.g. using literature data, this
shall be stated);
(c) pressure distortion coefficient (if obtained by a theoretical method)
(d) position of the pressure reference level
(e) information about how to convert the pressure values to the measurement
temperature and to the local acceleration due to gravity.

 Usually the results will be presented for the standard value of the gravity
9,80665 m s-2 (unless customer requests his own local gravity) and the reference
temperature 20 °C in the form of a table. It will include:

67
 (a) the pressure indicated by the balance under calibration (p m )
(b) the reference pressure measured by the standard instrument (mean of the three
determinations), in Pa and in the unit of the pressure delivered by the balance
if different (pr);
(c) the standard deviation of the reference pressure p r.
(d) the difference between the indicated pressure and the reference pressure (pm-
pr);
(e) the uncertainty of this difference, in the conditions of the calibration.

The method used to estimate this uncertainty shall be reported in the Certificate.

 A table that lists all weights applied on the unit to be calibrated for each
pressure point of the calibration shall be included in the Calibration Certificate.

Method B procedure

 The following technical data shall be included in the Certificate:

(a) type of the working fluid
(b) equation according to which the pressures reported in the certificate have been
calculated
(c) linear thermal expansion coefficients of the piston-cylinder assembly under
calibration (if not determined experimentally, e.g. by using literature data, this
shall be stated)
(d) position of the pressure reference level

The results of the calibration, after analysis

(a) effective area and its combined uncertainty
(b) if relevant, the pressure distortion coefficient(s) and the corresponding
combined uncertainty

Calculation of the effective area

(a) The computing method in more general use can be used to calculate step by
step the effective area of the pressure balance to be calibrated from the mass
applied on its piston and the pressure delivered by the standard instrument.
(b) From this method, the effective area is calculated by reversing the equation of
definition of the pressure presented before
(c) The use of other methods, such as differential method (p-method) to
eliminate potential zero-errors is not excluded, but requires some experience in
the analysis of the results. Particularly, the p-method may be the only one
available if method B is used for the determination of effective area of pressure
balances with an unknown initial weight that cannot be determined by weighing.

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(d) The step-by-step determination of the effective area as a function of pressure
allows a modelling of effective area. In any case all the experimental data and
the residuals of the modelling shall be reported in the certificate to make
apparent the validity of the used method.
(e) The results may be presented in the form of a table, including:
(i) the reference pressure measured by the reference standard instrument in
each pressure point, in Pa and in the unit of the pressure delivered by the
balance if different;
(ii) the corresponding mass applied on the floating element of the balance to
be calibrated;
(iii) the corresponding temperature of the measuring assembly during the
calibration;
(iv) the individual value of the effective area Ap calculated at the reference
temperature and at reference pressure
(v) the mean value of the effective area Ap;
(vi) the experimental standard deviation of the mean.

(f) Then, the effective area as a function of pressure is analysed using a least-
squares method. Three cases can be observed:
(i) the dependence upon pressure is not significant relating to the standard
deviation (this is always the case for the low-range pressure balances). The
effective area at null pressure Ao is calculated as the mean value of all the
determinations. If the theoretical pressure distortion coefficient is known, it
shall be used for calculating the effective area. The type A standard
uncertainty is estimated from the experimental standard deviation of the
mean Ao.
(ii) the dependence upon pressure can be considered to be linear. The
effective area at null pressure Ao and the pressure distortion coefficient I
are calculated by analogy with the best least-squares straight line. The type
A combined standard uncertainty is estimated using the standard
uncertainties of Ao and .
(iii) the dependence upon pressure cannot be considered to be linear. The
effective area at null pressure Ao and the pressure distortion coefficient 
(first order) and ’ (second order) are calculated by analogy with the least-
squares second-order best fit. The type A combined standard uncertainty is
estimated using the standard uncertainties of Ao,  and ’.
(g) The standard uncertainties of each of the parameters shall be estimated using
literature on statistics.
(h) The certificate shall report:
(i) the calculated value of the effective area under reference conditions A o and
the corresponding uncertainty, estimated from the standard deviation of Ao,
and the contribution of the standard, the measurement of the mass applied
to the moving element and the temperature.

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 (ii) when relevant, the pressure distortion coefficient(s) and the corresponding
uncertainty estimated from the standard deviation of  and the uncertainty
of the pressure distortion coefficient of the standard.

Calculation of the measured pressure

(a) The pressure measured by the pressure balance to be calibrated can be

calculated using the equation presented before. It is useful to the user
to have this measured pressure compared to the reference pressure
delivered by the standard, under the conditions of the calibration.
(b) The results shall be presented in the form of a table; including:
(i) the reference pressure measured by the standard instrument, in Pa and in
the unit of the pressure delivered by the balance if different
(ii) the corresponding pressure measured by the balance under calibration, and
calculated from the data (effective area and pressure distortion coefficient)
taken from the certificate
(iii) the difference between the measured pressure and the reference pressure
for each pressure equilibrium, as residuals of the effective area modelling
(iv) the mean value of these differences
(v) the experimental standard deviation of the measured' differences
(c) This table gives information on a potential residual pressure due to unknown
forces and on the repeatability of the pressure balance as a function of pressure.
So, the minimum information contained in this part of the certificate is the mean
difference and the experimental standard deviation.

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