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© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
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1 precision nano-imprinting [2] using master stamps produced with the aid
of an electron microscope or ion beams (see Chapter 8);
2 electron beam or ion beam lithography, plus chemical or ion beam etch-
ing (see also Chapter 8);
3 patterning polymers with interference fringes made from crossed beams of
UV light;
4 depositing metal layers over ordered arrays of nanoparticles, then vibrat-
ing to free the particles and leave holes [3] (see also Chapter 3.6 and
Figure 3.9);
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Figure 7.1
a) Diagram illustrating the behaviour of a photon as both a par ticle and a wave.
b) The distribution of solar energy with wavelength at the ear th’s surface after
coming through 1.5 air masses (one air mass is the shor test path through the
atmosphere) and the component that we see. This shows the sensitivity of our
eyes to different wavelengths.
c) Photons, waves and a nanopar ticle relative to a wavelength.
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only certain wavelengths (they are called cavity modes) can resonate
and hence participate in any given laser structure. The special geome-
tries in nanosystems open up some spectacular new opportunities for
bouncing trapped photons around inside certain nanoparticles,
between packed nanoparticle arrays, inside bulk nanostructures, and
along surfaces with special nanostuctures. Apart from the creation of
spectacular colours they also open up a whole new generation of pho-
tonics engineering in terms of spectral control and non-linear response
needed to operate the latest large bandwidth communications systems.
The ability of a material to absorb electromagnetic energy and trap
a photon is normally strongly dependent on a match between the fre-
quency of the radiation and energy levels of electrons in the material.
However in certain semiconductors this is not true, so that photon
interaction creates additional waves called plasmons. These waves carry
charge and occur at the surface of the material. Plasmons are expected
to be useful in a range of new optical devices as yet undiscovered. Since
the production of plasmons is surface dependent, we can expect new
types of plasmons and photon trapping with nanoparticles. Thus nan-
otechnology may contribute to new devices. We do not know what
these devices will be, but they should be as exciting as the discovery of
lasers and may well be analogous to lasers but do different optical tricks.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT AND POLARISATION
The dielectric properties of a material, which are defined by the dielec-
tric constant, are useful in forming electronic devices. Electric fields
polarise materials by slightly separating positive and negative charge
within them, in much the same way as dipole forces occur in atoms and
molecules (Chapter 1.5) but on a different scale. The amount of polar-
isation determines the value of the dielectric constant, which measures
how much the internal movement of charge caused by an electric field
cancels out or weakens the applied field. For example, the electric field
between the plates of a capacitor is reduced when a dielectric material is
placed between the plates because the charge separation produced with-
in the dielectric material partly counteracts the applied field. The ratio
of the field with no material to the reduced field with the material gives
the dielectric constant. For large particles, polarisation of the material
makes it appear to act as one large dipole, but for nanoparticles the
behaviour is quite different. Nanoparticles appear to be individual
dipoles when polarised. A collection of such particles embedded in a
solid or liquid can thus change the overall polarisation substantially. This
is diagrammatically shown in Figure 7.2c. Hence it can be expected that
new nanomaterials will have new electronic dielectric uses.
Light also affects polarisation and hence the interaction of light
with materials can affect the dielectric constant. The case for metals is
particularly interesting. Mathematically, the dielectric constant is
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© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
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Figure 7.3
a) Light rays passing mostly undeflected through an array of nanopar ticles, so the
array is transparent. When the par ticle size of the same material increases, light
rays are scattered and the material becomes translucent.
b) A fixed wavelength ray carries information about the detail in an object as it
leaves the surface (rays a–c).
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© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
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Figure 7.4
a) The effects on light emerging from a small object: comparison of a standard
transparent material with a positive refractive index with that of one with a nega-
tive refractive index. It can be seen that the second produces an image of the
object.
b) Spectral transmission of a laminated window in which the plastic laminate layer
(poly vinyl butyral) contains 0.2% (lower trace) and 0.5% (upper trace) by weight
of indium tin oxide nanopar ticles. The window has ver y high visible transmittance
(400–700 nm) while the near infrared (~1000nm), normally transmitted to 2.5
mm, is par tially blocked.
a
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Figure 7.5
A photonic band-gap nanostructure made from semiconductor material. This is a
cross section through an ar tificial opal. There is a face-centred array of overlapping
air spheres (see sodium chloride structure, Chapter 1, Figure 1.2). A nematic cr ys-
tal is shown on the top centre. These fill each sphere. Only one is shown. It is
made by first creating a pile of spherical nanopar ticles of silica, filling the gaps
between the spheres, then etching away the silica. Reproduced with permission
from Kur t Busch and Sajeev John, University of Toronto.
© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
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7.7 EXERCISES
1 Web search electrochromic windows, sunscreens, Obducat, plasmons,
photonic crystals, soliton, nematic crystal, whispering gallery modes.
2 Examine a butterfly’s wings under a microscope for fine structure and
note colour changes as you change the viewing angle. Do the same with
some fish scales.
3 Pour a little oil on some concrete with a trace of water and let it dry.
Observe the colours.
4 Find out why titanium oxide acts as a UV enhancement agent.
5 Write an essay discussing the different heat dissipation mechanisms in
metals and semiconductors. Research the difference between recombi-
nation and relaxation pathways.
6 Find out more about negative refractive index and the refractive
index of metals
7 Go to an opal shop and look at some opals.
© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
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7.8 REFERENCES
1 Most basic optical textbooks discuss this issue. For example Ward
L (1998) The Optical Constants of Bulk Materials and Films. Adam
Hilger Series on Optics and Optoelectronics, Pike & Welford (eds),
IOP Publishing, Bristol.
2 Cho SY (1997) Science Spectra 10: 38–43.
3 Sonnichsen C, Duch AC, Steininger G, Koch M, von Plessen G &
Feldmann J (2000) Applied Physics Letters 76: 140–42.
4 Lakhtakia A, Messier R, Brett MJ & Robbie K (1996) Innovations
in Materials Research 1: 165–76.
5 Smith GB, Dligatch S, Sullivan R & Hutchins MG (1998) Solar
Energy 62: 229–44.
6 Ebbeson TW, Lezec HJ, Ghaemi HF, Thio T & Wolff PA (1998)
Nature 391: 667–69.
7 Smith GB, Hossain AKM & Gentle A (2001) Applied Physics
Letters 78: 2143–44
8 Mullins J (2001) New Scientist April 14: 35–37.
9 Shelby RA, Smith DR & Schultz S (2001) Science 292: 77–79.
10 Granqvist CG (1989) SPIE Tutorial Series in Optical Engineering,
Volume TT1, The International Society for Optical Engineering
Press, Bellingham, USA.
11 Hamakawa Y (1997) Phys. Stat. Sol. B. 194: 15–29.
12 Gombert A, Glaubitt W, Rose K, Dreibholz J, Blasi B, Heinzel A,
Sporn D, Doll W & Wittwer V (2000) Solar Energy 68: 357–60.
13 Takei H (1998) Proceedings of the International Society for Optical
Engineering (SPIE) 3515: 278–83.
14 Smith GB, Earp A & McCredie G (2001) Proceedings of the
International Society for Optical Engineering July.
15 Artemyev MV, Woggon U & Wannemacher R (2001) Applied
Physics Letters 78: 1032–34.
16 Bozhevonyi SI, Erland J, Leossen K, Kovgaard PMW & Hvam JM
(2001) Physics Review Letters 86: 3008–3009.
© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse