Environmental Control System

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (August 2008)

Control system on a Boeing 737-800

The Environmental Control System of an airliner provides air supply, thermal control and cabin
pressurization for the passengers and crew.Avionics cooling, smoke detection, and fire
suppression are also commonly considered part of the Environmental Control System.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Overview

• 2 Air supply

• 3 Cold Air Unit (CAU)

• 4 Ram Air System

• 5 Air distribution

• 6 Pressurization

• 7 Humidity

• 8 Health concerns

• 9 Myths and misconceptions

o 9.1 Turning off packs to save fuel

 o 9.2 Reducing air supply to the cabin

o 9.3 Better air quality in first class

o 9.4 Better air quality on the flight deck

o 9.5 Lack of pressurization in the cargo hold

• 10 See also

• 11 References

• 12 External links

[edit]Overview

The systems described below are specific to current production Boeing airliners, although the details
are essentially identical for passenger jets from Airbus and other companies. An exception
was Concorde which had a supplementary air supply system fitted due to the higher altitudes at which
it flew, and also the slightly higher cabin pressure it employed.

[edit]Air supply
Main article: Bleed air

On most jetliners, air is supplied to the ECS by being "bled" from a compressor stage of each gas
turbine engine, upstream of the combustor. The temperature and pressure of this "bleed air" varies
widely depending upon which compressor stage and the RPM of the engine.

A "Manifold Pressure Regulating Shut-Off Valve" (MPRSOV) restricts the flow as necessary to
maintain the desired pressure for downstream systems. This flow restriction results in efficiency
losses. To reduce the amount of restriction required, and thereby increase efficiency, air is commonly
drawn from two bleed ports (3 on the Boeing 777).

When the engine is at low thrust, the air is drawn from the "High Pressure Bleed Port." As thrust is
increased, the pressure from this port rises until "crossover," where the "High Pressure Shut-Off Valve"
(HPSOV) closes and air is thereafter drawn from the "Low Pressure Bleed Port."

To achieve the desired temperature, the bleed-air is passed through a heat exchanger called a "pre-
cooler." Air from the jet engine fan is blown across the pre-cooler, which is located in the engine strut.
A "Fan Air Modulating Valve" (FAMV) varies the cooling airflow, and thereby controls the final air
temperature of the bleed air.

On the new Boeing 787, the bleed air will instead be provided by electrically driven compressors,
thereby eliminating the inefficiencies caused by bleed port system.
[edit]Cold Air Unit (CAU)
The Cold Air Unit, or "Airconditioning pack" is usually an air cycle machine (ACM) cooling device.
Some aircraft, including early 707 jetliners, used vapor-compression refrigeration like that used in
home air conditioners.

An ACM uses no Freon: the air itself is the refrigerant. The ACM is preferred over vapor cycle devices
because of reduced weight and maintenance requirements.

On most jetliners, the A/C packs are located in the "Wing to Body Fairing" between the two wings
beneath the fuselage. On some jetliners (Douglas Aircraft DC-9 Series) the A/C Packs are located in
the tail. The A/C Packs on the McDonnell Douglas DC-10/MD-11 and Lockheed L-1011 are located in
the front of the aircraft beneath the flight deck. Nearly all jetliners have two packs, although larger
aircraft such as the Boeing 747, Lockheed L-1011, and McDonnell-Douglas DC-10/MD-11 have three.

The quantity of bleed air flowing to the A/C Pack is regulated by the "Flow Control Valve" (FCV). One
FCV is installed for each pack. A normally closed "isolation valve" prevents air from the left bleed
system from reaching the right pack (and v.v.), although this valve may be opened in the event of loss
of one bleed system.

Downstream of the FCV is the CAU (Cold Air Unit), also referred to as the refrigeration unit. There are
many various types of CAUs however they all use typical fundamentals. The bleed air enters the
primary "Ram Air Heat Exchanger", where it is cooled by either ram air, expansion or a combination of
both. The cold air then enters the compressor, where it is re-pressurized, which reheats the air. A pass
through the secondary "Ram Air Heat Exchanger" cools the air while maintaining the high pressure.
The air then passes through a turbine which expands the air to further reduce heat. Similar in
operation to a turbo-charger unit, the compressor and turbine are on a single shaft. The energy
extracted from the air passing through the turbine is used to power the compressor.

The air is then sent through a Water Separator, where the air is forced to spiral along its length and
centrifugal forces cause the moisture to be flung through a sieve and toward the outer walls where it is
channeled toward a drain and sent overboard. Then, the air usually will pass through a Water
Separator Coalescer or, The Sock. The Sock retains the dirt and oil from the engine bleed air to keep
the cabin air cleaner. This water removal process prevents ice from forming and clogging the system,
and keeps the cockpit and cabin from fogging on ground operation and low altitudes.

For a Sub-zero Bootstrap CAU, the moisture is extracted before it reaches the turbine so that sub-zero
temperatures may be reached.
The temperature of the Pack Outlet Air is controlled by the adjusting flow through the "Ram Air
System" (below), and modulating a "Temperature Control Valve" (TCV) which bypasses a portion of
the hot bleed air around the ACM and mixes it with the cold air downstream of the ACM turbine.

[edit]Ram Air System

The "Ram Air Inlet" is a small scoop, generally located on the "Wing to Body Fairing." Nearly all
jetliners use a modulating door on the ram air inlet to control the amount of cooling airflow through the
primary and secondary ram air heat exchangers.

To increase ram air recovery, nearly all jetliners use modulating vanes on the ram air exhaust. A "Ram
Air Fan" within the ram system provides ram air flow across the heat exchangers when the aircraft is
on the ground. Nearly all modern fixed-wing aircraft use a fan on a common shaft with the ACM,
powered by the ACM turbine.

[edit]Air distribution
The A/C Pack exhaust air is ducted into the pressurized fuselage, where it is mixed with filtered air
from the recirculation fans, and fed into the "mix manifold". On nearly all modern jetliners, the airflow is
approximately 50% "outside air" and 50% "filtered air."

Modern jetliners use "High Efficiency Particulate Arresting" HEPA filters, which trap >99% of
all bacteria and clustered viruses.

Air from the "mix manifold" is directed to overhead distribution nozzles in the various "zones" of the
aircraft. Temperature in each zone may be adjusted by adding small amounts of "Trim Air", which is
low-pressure, high temperature air tapped off the A/C Pack upstream of the TCV. Air is also supplied
to individual gaspers (outlet nozzles) over each passenger seat, which may be adjusted individually by
passengers. Some aircraft allow gasper supply to be turned on or off from the flight deck.

[edit]Pressurization

Main article: Cabin pressurization

Airflow into the fuselage is approximately constant, and pressure is maintained by varying the opening
of the "Out Flow Valve" (OFV). Most modern jetliners have a single OFV located near the bottom aft
end of the fuselage, although some larger aircraft like the 747 and 777 have two.

In the event the OFV should fail closed, at least two Positive Pressure Relief Valves (PPRV) and at
least one Negative Pressure Relief Valve (NPRV) are provided to protect the fuselage from over- and
under- pressurization.
Aircraft cabin pressure is commonly pressurized to a "cabin altitude" of 8000 feet or less. That means
that the pressure is 10.9 psi (75 kPa), which is the ambient pressure at 8000 feet (2,400 m). Note that
a lower cabin altitude is a higher pressure. The cabin pressure is controlled by a "Cabin Pressure
Schedule," which associates each aircraft altitude with a cabin altitude. The new airliners such as
the Airbus A380 and Boeing 787 will have lower maximum cabin altitudes which help in fatigue
reduction during flights.

[edit]Humidity

The atmosphere at typical jetliner cruising altitudes is generally very dry and cold, and the outside air
pumped into the cabin on a long flight typically has a relative humidity around 10%. The fact that cabin
pressure is generally lower than the pressure at ground level does not of itself contribute to the
dryness.

The low cabin humidity has advantages for the structure and avionics of the
aircraft: condensation which might cause corrosion or electrical faults is eliminated. Consequently
when humid air at lower altitudes is encountered and drawn in, the ECS dries it through the warming
and cooling cycle and the water separator mentioned above, so that even with high external relative
humidity, inside the cabin it will usually be not much higher than 10% relative humidity.

Although low cabin humidity has health benefits of preventing the growth of fungus and bacteria, the
low humidity causes drying of the skin, eyes and mucosal membranes and contributes to dehydration,
leading to fatigue, discomfort and health issues. In one study the majority of flight attendants reported
discomfort and health issues from low humidity.[1] In a statement to Congress in 2003 a member of the
Committee on Air Quality in Passenger Cabins of Commercial Aircraft said "low relative humidity might
cause some temporary discomfort (e.g., drying eyes, nasal passages, and skin), but other possible
short- or long-term effects have not been established".[2]

A cabin humidity control system may be added to the ECS of some aircraft to keep relative humidity
from extremely low levels, consistent with the need to prevent condensation.[3]Furthermore the Boeing
787 and Airbus 350, by using more corrosion-resistant composites in their construction, can operate
with a cabin relative humidity of 16% on long flights.

[edit]Health concerns
Main article: Aerotoxic Syndrome

The bleed air comes from the engines but is "bled" from the engine upstream of the combustor. Air
cannot flow backwards though the engine except during a compressor stall(essentially a jet engine
backfire), thus the bleed air should be free of combustion contaminants from the normal running of the
aircraft's own engines.

However, on occasions components (carbon seals) can leak oil (containing highly toxic additives) into
the bleed air, in what is known in the industry as a "fume event".[4] This is generally dealt with quickly
since failed oil seals will reduce the engine life.

Nevertheless, oil contamination from this and other sources within the engine bay is leading to serious
health concerns, and has triggered research by a number of academic institutions.[5]

[edit]Myths and misconceptions

Some myths persist with respect to airliner cabin environmental systems. A few of the more common
myths are addressed below.

[edit]Turning off packs to save fuel

Packs are not turned off to save fuel. When one A/C Pack fails or is turned off, the other pack
increases flow to ~185% of normal. This is required for safety reasons to maintain cabin
pressurization. This may actually increase fuel consumption because the bleed flow is taken
asymmetrically from the engines.

[edit]Reducing air supply to the cabin

Although one of the oldest 747 models had a feature to turn off one of the three packs, no recently
produced jetliner has this feature. Jetliners are designed to operate with all packs operating at all
times.

[edit]Better air quality in first class

Airbus and Boeing jetliners supply constant flow per unit length of the cabin. The seats in first class are
spaced farther apart, resulting in more air per seat, but the nozzles provide the same amount of air at
all locations. Since all the air in the main cabin comes from the same manifold, first class receives 50%
outside air and 50% filtered recirculated air, just like the rest of the cabin. (Note that the proportion of
outside air was somewhat higher than this on the Concorde aircraft.)

[edit]Better air quality on the flight deck

Most jetliners supply 100% outside air to the flight deck. This is because the flight deck has the highest
concentration of avionics and the most glass per unit volume, making the flight deck very hard to keep
cool on hot days. By providing 100% outside air to the flight deck, the air supply temperature can be
near freezing if required, much cooler than if the air was mixed with recirculated air. A drawback is that
the air in the flight deck is much drier on these aircraft. Some jetliners provide 50% recirculated air to
the flight deck, to increase pilot comfort by raising the humidity.
[edit]Lack of pressurization in the cargo hold
The cargo compartment is generally pressurized to the same level as the cabin and the temperature
may be controllable. Some aircraft have crew controlled commands for cargo compartment
pressurization and temperature control.

COLD AIR UNIT

A unit in the aircraft pressurization system that provides cold air. The air is made to drive a
compressor by flowing through a turbine. The turbine extracts pressure and heat energy from
the flow. The air emerges from the turbine in an expanded form (i.e., at a lower temperature).
Various types of cold air units in use are turbo compressor, the brake turbine, and the
turbofan.

AIRCRAFT PYLON

A suspension device externally installed under the wing or fuselage of an aircraft; it is

aerodynamically designed to fit the configuration of specific aircraft so as to create the least
amount of drag; it provides a means of attaching fuel tanks, bombs, rockets, torpedoes,
rocket motors, or machine-gun pods.
A pylon is installed under the fuselage or wing of an airplane to attach rockets, bombs, fuel
tanks or other external necessities.

Drop tank

The term drop tank (wing tank or belly tank) is used to describe auxiliary fuel tanks in aeronautics.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Aeronautic

• 2 Automotive

• 3 References

• 4 External links

[edit]Aeronautic
A 330 US gallons (1,200 L) Sargent Fletcher drop tank being moved across the flight deck of an Aircraft carrier

An aeronautic drop tank, or external tank, is an expendable and often jettisonable external fuel
tank carried by aircraft for long-range flights. The first drop tanks were designed to be discarded when
empty or in the event of combat or emergency in order to reduce drag and weight and to increase
maneuverability. Modern external tanks are often retained except in an emergency.

The drop tank was first used during the Spanish Civil War to allow fighter aircraft to carry additional
fuel for long-range escort flights without requiring a dramatically larger, heavier, less
maneuverablefuselage. During World War II, the German Luftwaffe began using external fuel tanks
with the introduction of a 300 liter (79 US gallon) light alloy model for the Ju 87R, a long range version
of the Stuka dive bomber, in early 1940. The Bf 109E-7, introduced in August 1940, also used this type
of drop tank, as did subsequent Messerschmitt Bf 109 and the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. The 300 liter
capacity of drop tank became the standard size used in German service, and examples of drop tanks
of that capacity were also made from non-strategic materials.

The Allies commonly used them to allow fighters increased range and patrol time over continental
Europe. The first RAF use of such external fuel tanks occurred in 1942, during the transit
of Supermarine Spitfires to Malta.

Drop tanks were prohibited on fighter aircraft and on medium bombers by the so-called Bomber
Mafia in the United States Army Air Corps prior to direct U.S. involvement in World War II. The bomber
theorists assumed that bombers would be self-defending; they saw long-range fighters as an
unneeded waste of effort, and long-range medium bombers as direct competition to their goal of vast
air fleets of heavy bombers. Starting in 1941, airmen such as Benjamin S. Kelsey and Oliver P.
Echols worked quietly to get drop tank technology added to American fighters, but even after wartime
experience showed the necessity for drop tanks, inflexible thinkers such as General Ira C. Eaker had
to be transferred out of commanding positions so that drop tanks and range extension plans could be
widely implemented in 1944 for American escort fighters.[1][2] External drop tanks also turned
the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt from a short-range interceptor into long-range escort and air superiority
fighter, enabling the Thunderbolts to accompany bombers all the way from bases in UK into German
airspace.

External tanks are now commonplace on military aircraft and occasionally for civilian use, although
civilian aircraft are less likely to discard tanks except in the event of extreme emergency.

The primary disadvantage with drop tanks is that they impose a drag penalty on the aircraft carrying
them. External fuel tanks will also increase the moment of inertia, thereby reducingroll rates for air
combat maneuvers. A rule of thumb is that only about half the capacity of a streamlined drop tank
actually goes towards increasing the aircraft's overall range, the rest going to overcome the added
drag and weight of the tank itself. Drag in this sense varies with the square of the aircraft's speed. The
use of drop tanks also reduces the number of externalhardpoints available for weapons, and increase
the aircraft's radar signature, both problematic for modern tactical aircraft.

Usually the fuel in the drop tanks is consumed first, and only when all the fuel in the drop tanks has
been used, the fuel selector is turned on the airplane's internal tanks.

Some modern combat aircraft use conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) instead of or in addition to conventional
external fuel tanks. CFTs produce less drag and do not take up external hardpoints, however as a
result some versions can only be removed on the ground.

The Matra JL-100 is a special hybrid drop tank and rocket pack; it combines a rocket launcher in front
(with 19× SNEB 68 mm (2.7 in) rockets) and 66 US gallons (250 l) of fuel behind into one single
aerodynamically-shaped pod for mounting on combat aircraft such as the Dassault Mirage
IIIs and English Electric Lightnings
will remain a liquid under-normal atmospheric pressure Once
converted into a liquid, oxygen will remain in its liquid
state as long as the temperature is maintained below -297°F.
The liquid has an expansion ratio of about 862 to 1, which
means that one volume of LOX will expand about 862times
when converted to a gas at atmospheric pressure. Thus,
1 liter of LOX produces about862 liters of gaseous oxygen.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS As already mentioned, the main
dangers of LOX are the extremely low temperature of the
liquid, its expansion ratio, and its support of violent
combustion. The liquid is nontoxic, but will freeze (burn) the
skin severely upon contact. Use extreme caution not to touch
implements containing LOX unless gloves are worn. Without
gloves, bare skin would immediately stick and freeze to the
metal surface. Personnel that could be exposed to accidental
spillage of LOX must wear a face shield, coveralls, gloves,
and oxygen safety shoes to prevent skin and vision damage.
Open gloves, low cut shoes, trousers with cuffs, and
similar improper clothing that can form pockets capable of
holding a quantity of LOX in contact with the skin present a
severe hazard. All personnel handling LOX must wear the
protective clothing specified in the protective clothing
section of NAVAIR 13-1-6.4.A greater danger than
freezing is the combustion supporting potential of
oxygen. When LOX is used, it is possible to build up
high concentrations of oxygen quickly. Many materials
such as cloth, wood, grease, oil, paint, or tar will burn
violently when saturated with oxygen, provided an
ignition source is supplied. A static electric discharge or
spark can serve as an igniter. Once an oxygen-enriched fire
is started, it is virtually impossible to extinguish until the
oxygen supply is cut off. An added danger exists if a
 combustible material is saturated with oxygen at low
temperatures. Many materials, especially hydro-carbons,
tar, etc., will burn with explosive violence when so
saturated or subjected to very mild shock or impact. Extreme
care must be taken not to splash or spill LOX on clothing.
When LOX come in contact with cloth, an ideal and deadly
situation for a fire exists—a fire that cannot be put out. LOX
by itself will not burn, but mixed with the smallest amount of
almost any material will4-12cause the liquid to boil and
splash violently, making combustion possible. If splashed
out of a container, LOX will break into many parts upon
contact with the floor\deck. It must be poured slowly
from one container to another to avoid splashing, and to
allow the gaining receptacle to cool sufficiently without
thermal breakage. NEVER seal or cap the vent port of a
liquid oxygen system because liquid oxygen at atmospheric
pressure will generate up to 12,000pounds of pressure if
allowed to evaporate in a sealed container or system that
has no relief provisions. Access to oxygen supply/storage
areas should be limited only to personnel familiar with proper
handling procedures. The area should be adequately
ventilated and free of any materials that could present a fire
hazard. All pressure-type containers, plumbing, and
pressure-relief devices should conform to the applicable
maintenance manual and be kept in good repair. The vents
on LOX containers are designed to have a sufficient flow
capacity to carry away any oxygen that may boil off in case
of accidental loss of insulation. Do NOT cap such vents or
cause the opening to be restricted in any way. The pressure
relief assembly in LOX system storage vessels consists of a
reseatable relief valve and a rupture disc in parallel. The
assembly is designed so that the relief valve relieves first,
with the rupture disc acting as a safety backup in the event
the relief valve malfunctions or its relieving capacity is
exceeded. LOX converters and servicing trailers should
be stowed or parked so that they are protected from
excessive heat and the direct rays of sunlight as
much as is practical. All LOX should be segregated from
containers of other gases or liquids and all flammable
materials. Hydrocarbons such as oil and grease in the
oxygen handling area could result in death, serious injury,
and property damage. Smoking, open flames, or sparks
are no termitted in any oxygen handling area. When
transferring oxygen, provide adequate ventilation to
prevent the formation of an oxygen enriched
atmosphere .Avoid spilling LOX on floors or deck areas. In
case of accidental spillage, ventilate the area .Intentional
drainage of LOX from a system or container must be caught
in a clean drain pan and allowed to evaporate in a
suitable open area that will not present a hazard .In the
event that LOX is spilled on clothing, separate clothing from
skin contact immediately
and thoroughly air clothing for 1 hour to allow dilution of the oxygen
concentration. When an un insulated container of LOX is touched or when
there is any reason to suspect some part of the body has been frozen or
chilled, the area should be thoroughly washed or immersed in clean water
that is slightly above body temperature(approximately 104°F to 113°F).
The exposed area should then be loosely wrapped with clean ,dry
dressing, and medical aid sought immediately .When servicing and
maintaining LOX systems, the AME will be required to transfer LOX
from servicing trailers to aircraft converters ,and occasionally from the
converter to a drain pan. The AME will also be required to remove and install
converters and other components of LOX systems. All servicing and
maintenance of LOX systems must be done in accordance with the
instructions contained in the applicable air-craft MIM. All safety precautions
concerning the handling of LOX must be adhered to. When a completely
empty system is being serviced, the LOX should be added slowly to cool
the converter down to the storage temperature(– 297°F). The converter
could otherwise be damaged by thermal shock or rapid pressure buildup.
Additional gaseous and liquid oxygen safety precautions and handling
procedures are provided in the following publications:1. NAVAIR Al-
NAOSH-SAF-000/P5100/l
SYSTEM COMPONENTS Aircraft LOX systems are similar to gaseous
oxygen systems except that the several cylinders of gaseous oxygen are
replaced by one or more LOX converters. The use of more than one
converter provides for an adequate supply of oxygen on long-range flights
or where there is more than one crew member using the oxygen system. In
addition to the converter(s), most LOX systems contain a heat exchanger,
shutoff valves, and quantity indicating units. See figure 4-7 for schematic
diagram of a LOX system

CONTAINER :-The LOX converter consists of an inner and outer shell of

stainless steel separated by a vacuum. A blowout disc provides a
margin of safety from explosion if a leak occurs in the inner shell.
Fig-liquid oxygen system
Fig-OBOGS
ONBOARD OXYGENGENERATING SYSTEM
.The onboard oxygen generating system(OBOGS) is an alternative to
liquid oxygen(LOX). When compared to a LOX system, the OBOGS has
several advantages. First, its availability y may be as high as 99 percent.
There is no requirement for depot-level maintenance. The OBOGS has no
daily service requirements ,and scheduled preventive maintenance occurs
at2,000 hours. Incorporation of the OBOGS eliminates the need to store and
transport LOX .Additionally, it eliminates the need for LOX support
equipment. The potential for accidents related to LOX and high-pressure gases
is greatly reduced.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The basic components of the OBOGS are the concentrator, oxygen monitor,
and oxygen breathing regulator. The concentrator produces an oxygen-rich
gas by processing engine bleed air through two sieve beds. The oxygen
monitor senses the partial pressure of the gas and, if necessary, provides a
low-pressure warning to the pilot. The oxygen regulator is a positive pressure
regulator.
SYSTEM OPERATION
The OBOGS, shown in figure 4-16, receives
engine bleed air from the outlet of the air-conditioning heat exchanger.
The partially cooled air passes through an air temperature sensor to a pressure
reducer assembly. The air is then routed to the concentrator. The concentrator
has a rotary valve that alternates the airflow over the molecular sieve beds. The
sieve beds absorb the nitrogen and allow the oxygen and argon to pass through.
TWO molecular sieve beds are used in the concentrator so that while one bed is
absorbing, the other is desorbing (releasing) nitrogen. This method allows a
continuous flow of oxygen to the system. After the concentrator, the oxygen
flows to a plenum assembly that acts as a surge tank and an
accumulator. The plenum also functions as a heat exchanger to heat or
cool the oxygen to approximately cockpit temperature. Before the oxygen
reaches the oxygen regulator, the oxygen performance monitor senses the
partial pressure of the gas and, if necessary, provides a signal to the pilot
whenever the pressure exceeds prescribed limits. The oxygen then flows
through the regulator to the pilot’s mask