CE5509 R Liew

Local Buckling &

Section Classification

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CE5509 R Liew

Outline
Introduction
Classes of Cross-Sections
Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Compression Parts
Internal Compression Parts
Outstand Compression Parts
Angles & Tubular Sections
Effective Cross-Section for Class 4 Sections
Class 3 Web + Class 1 or 2 Flange
Examples
Example SC-1 (Section classification for combined bending and compression)
Example SC-2 (Effective area of a Class 4 compression member)
Example SC-3 (Section with Class 3 web and Class 1 flanges)

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Introduction
 Steel members are generally composed of thin elements for structural
efficiency.
 The slender elements are prone to local instabilities under compressive
stress, even before the yield strength is reached.
 The effects of local buckling are accounted for in EC3 by classifying the
cross-section into Classes 1, 2, 3 or 4.
 Cross-section classification is made by comparing actual width-to-
thickness ratios of the plate elements with a set of limiting values.
 The classification of the overall cross-section is taken as the least
favourable of the constituent elements.

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Local Buckling
When the section is not standard section but fabricated
from thin elements, the section element may buckle
locally before fy is reached due to slenderness

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 Local Buckling and Section Classification

Factors Influencing Local Buckling b

2
π E t
2
σ cr = k
12(1 − υ 2 )  b 
t
– Boundary conditions
internal elements or outstands
– Local Slenderness
• d/t – internal element (eg. web)
• b/T – outstand (eg. flange)
– Young’s modulus
– Yield strength
– Stress distribution
– Strain (deformation) requirement
– Residual stresses
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Elements to be classified
Outstand Internal element
cf Flange

cw Web
h t
cw

cf b

Universal Beam Hot finished RHS

cf = (b-2r - tw)/2 cf = b-2(tw+r)
cw=h-2(tf + r) cw=h-2(t + r)
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Classes of Cross-Sections

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Why classify ? fy fy fy fy

Neutral
axis

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Bending stress distributions at maximum moment capacity

Class 2 Class 1
Mpl
Mel M M
Class 3 Neutral
axis
Moment

Class 4 θ
Rotational capacity
Rotation, θ

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Classes of Cross-Sections

Cross sections with both plastic moment capacity and plastic hinge rotation
Class 1 capacity.
Mc,Rd = fyWpl /γM0
Cross-sections with plastic moment capacity but limited plastic hinge
Class 2 rotation capacity.
Mc,Rd = fyWpl /γM0
Cross-sections in which the stress in the extreme compression fibre can
Class 3 reach the yield strength, but only the elastic moment capacity can be Mc,Rd = fyWel /γM0
developed.
Cross-sections in which local buckling will occur before the attainment of
Class 4 yield stress.
Mc,Rd = fyWeff /γM0

Class 2 Class 1
fy Mpl
Mel
Class 3
Moment
Stress

Class 4
Rotational capacity
Strain Rotation, θ

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CE5509 R Liew

Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios

for Compression Parts

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 Max Width-to-Thickness Ratios for Internal Compression Parts
EN 1993-1-1 (Table 5.2)
Internal COMPRESSION
Web
Elements

235 Internal
ε=
fy Flange

Part subject Part subject to Part subject to Stress distribution

Class
to bending compression bending and compression (compression +ve)
396ε
Bending + compression when α > 0.5 : c / t ≤
13α − 1
1 c / t ≤ 72ε c / t ≤ 33ε
36ε
when α ≤ 0.5 : c / t ≤
α
456ε
when α > 0.5 : c / t ≤
13α − 1
2 c / t ≤ 83ε c / t ≤ 38ε
41.5ε
when α ≤ 0.5 : c / t ≤
α
Compression
42ε
Bending whenψ > −1 : c / t ≤
0.67 + 0.33ψ
3 c / t ≤ 124ε c / t ≤ 42ε
whenψ ≤ −1 : c / t ≤ 62ε (1 −ψ ) −ψ

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Consider the case of I or H section subjected to compression and major axis bending, where
the neutral axis lies within the web.

The ratio of the compressed width to the total width The ratio of the tensile stress to the compressive stress
of the element, α, can be calculated as follows: at the extreme fibers, ψ, can be calculated as follows:

fy fy
tf
+
+ αc
1 N Ed c h c h
2 tw f y – tw –
fy ψf y

c = h − 2(t f + r )
2 N Ed
ψ= −1
Af y
c 1 N Ed 
αc =  +
2 2 t w f y  NEd = axial compression force
ϕ = 1 for uniform compression, i.e., NEd = Afy
 h 1 N Ed  ϕ = -1 for pure bending, i.e., NEd = 0,
αc =  + − (t f + r ) 
2 2t f 
 w y 

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Max Width-to-Thickness Ratios for Compression Parts

EN 1993-1-1 (Table 5.2)
Outstand COMPRESSION Parts
Outstand
Flange

Part subject to bending and compression

Part subject to Stress distribution
Class
compression (compression +ve) Tip in Stress distribution Tip in Stress distribution
compression (compression +ve) tension (compression +ve)

9ε 9ε
1 c / t ≤ 9ε c/t ≤ c/t ≤
α α α

10ε 10ε
2 c / t ≤ 10ε c/t ≤ c/t ≤
α α α

3 c / t ≤ 14ε c / t ≤ 21ε kσ c / t ≤ 21ε kσ

Determination of σ2 σ1 σ1 σ1 σ2 σ1
Buckling Factor kσ σ2 ≤ σ1 σ2 ≤ σ1
+ + + +
σ2 - - σ2
c c c c
EN 1993-1-5 (Table 4.2)
ψ =σ2/σ1 1 0 -1 1 ≥ ψ ≥ -3 ψ =σ2/σ1 1 1≥ψ≥0 0 0 ≥ ψ ≥ -1 -1
kσ 0.43 0.57 0.85 0.57 - 0.21ψ + 0.07ψ 2 kσ 0.43 0.578/(ψ + 0.34) 1.70 1.7 - 5ψ + 17.1ψ 2 23.8
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Max Width-to-Thickness Ratios for Compression Parts

EN 1993-1-1 (Table 5.2)
Angles Tubular Sections
(not in continuous contact with other components)

Class Section in compression Class Section in bending and/or compression

1 h / t ≤ 9ε 1 d / t ≤ 50ε 2

2 h / t ≤ 10ε 2 d / t ≤ 70ε 2

b+h
3 h / t ≤ 15ε , ≤ 23ε 3 d / t ≤ 90ε 2
t
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CE5509 R Liew

Effective Cross-Section
for Class 4 Sections
(For infor only)

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CE5509 R Liew

Effective Cross-Section for Class 4 Sections

EN 1993-1-5 Clause 4.4
The effective area Aeff should be determined assuming that the cross section is subject
Ac ,eff = ρAc only to uniform axial compression.
The effective section modulus Weff should be determined assuming the cross section is subject
beff = ρbc only to bending moment.
For biaxial bending, effective section moduli should be determined about both main axes.
where Ac and bc are respectively the area of the section and the width of the element in compression.

Steps in determining the reduction factor for plate buckling ρ

 Determine the stress distribution
Additional rules for elements of I section and Box Girder
For flange elements, use the gross cross-sectional area to determine the stress distribution.
For web elements, use the effective area of the compression flange and the gross area of the web to
determine the stress distribution.

 Determine stress ratio ψ =σ2 /σ1 and buckling factor kσ

This depends on whether it is internal or external compression element.
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Stress ratio ψ and buckling factor kσ
Internal Compression Elements
ψ kσ Common values of ψ
σ1 σ1 1≥ψ≥0 8.2/(1.05 + ψ) ψ 1 0 –1
σ2
σ2 0 ≥ ψ ≥ –1 7.81 – 6.29ψ + 9.78ψ 2 kσ 4.0 7.81 23.9

ψ =σ2 /σ1 –1 ≥ ψ ≥ –3 5.98(1 – ψ) 2

σ = +ve in compression

Outstand Compression Elements

Tip under larger compressive stress
ψ kσ Common values of ψ
σ1
σ2 σ1 1 ≥ ψ ≥ –3 0.57 – 0.21ψ + 0.07ψ 2 ψ 1 0 –1
σ2
kσ 0.43 0.57 0.85

Tip under smaller compressive stress

ψ kσ Common values of ψ
σ1 σ1 1≥ψ≥0 0.578/(ψ + 0.34) ψ 1 0 –1
σ2
σ2 0 ≥ ψ ≥ –1 1.7 – 5ψ + 17.1ψ 2 kσ 0.43 1.70 23.8

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CE5509 R Liew

 bw for webs
fy b /t b for internal flange elements (except RHS)
 Calculate λ p = = 
σ cr 28.4ε kσ b =  b – 3t for flanges of RHS
c for outstand flanges
 h for angles

 Calculate ρ
Internal compression elements
ρ = 1.0 for λ p ≤ 0.5 + 0.085 − 0.055ψ
λ p − 0.055(3 +ψ )
ρ= ≤ 1.0 for λ p > 0.5 + 0.085 − 0.055ψ
λ p2

Outstand compression elements

ρ = 1.0 for λ p ≤ 0.748
λ p − 0.188
ρ= ≤ 1.0 for λ p > 0.748
λp2

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CE5509 R Liew

Effective Width for Class 4 Elements

Internal Compression Elements
bc bt
σ1 σ2 σ1 σ1
σ2
σ2
be1 be 2 be1 be 2 be1 be 2
b b b
ρb
beff = ρ b beff = ρ b beff = ρ bc =
1 −ψ
2 3 −ψ
be1 = 0.5beff be 2 = 0.5beff be1 = beff be 2 = beff be1 = 0.4beff be 2 = 0.6beff
5 −ψ 5 −ψ

Outstand Compression Elements

Tip under larger compressive stress Tip under smaller compressive stress
bt bc bc bt

σ1 σ1 σ1 σ1
σ2 σ2
σ2 σ2
beff beff beff beff
c c
ρb ρb
beff = ρ c beff = ρ bc = beff = ρ c beff = ρ bc =
1 −ψ 1 −ψ

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 Cold formed steel sections
SSEN 1993-1-3

• These sections are

made from thin- steel
sheets.
• They are prone to
local buckling.
• Effective section
properties are needed.

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CE5509 R Liew

Class 3 Web + Class 1 or 2 Flange

Conservatively, it can be classified as class 3

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CE5509 R Liew

Class 3 Web + Class 1 or 2 Flange

EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.5.2(11) & Cl 6.2.2.4)
Cross-sections with Class 3 webs and Class 1 or 2 flanges can be classified as
effective Class 2 cross-sections with the compressed portion of the web being
replaced by a part of 20εtw adjacent to the compression flange (measured from the base
of the root radius for rolled section and the base of the weld for welded section), with
another part of 20εtw adjacent to the plastic neutral axis of the effective cross-section.

Neglected ineffective area

b b fy

20εtw 20εtw –
z Compression
h 20εtw 20εtw –
tw tw Plastic neutral axis
40εtw Tension +

fy

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 Implications for Design
• Class 1. Plastic – must be used in plastic
design, can sustain high strain. Can be
used without restriction in “normal” design
• Class 2 Compact –can be used with the
plastic modulus in bending
• Class3 Semi-compact – when in
bending the elastic modulus or an
effective plastic modulus must be used
• Class 4 Slender – Effective section
properties must be used
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 Section and Design Tables
Steel building design:
Design data,
Publication P363, The
Steel Construction
Institute and the
British Constructional
Steelwork Association
UK, 2009.

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 Based on Steel building
design: Design data

n limit = NE,d/ Npl,Rd

Class 3 limit

8/14/2014 Class 2 limit

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 General Guidance
when using the Deign Tables
Steel building design: Design data, Publication P-363, jointly published by
The Steel Construction Institute and the British Constructional Steelwork
Association UK, 2009 (IVLE).
• None of the universal beam and column sections in
grade S275 and S355 are class 4 under bending only.
• None of the universal columns can be class 4 under
pure compression; but some universal beams and
hollow sections can be class 4. Sections that can be
class 4 under pure compression are marked with * in
the design tables.
• None of the UC or UB sections listed in the design
tables are slender due to the flange being class 4.
Under combined axial compression and bending, the
section would be Class 2 or Class 3 up to given n =
NEd/N pl,Rd limits.
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 Summary of design procedure
1 Select, from experience, a suitable section
based on the factored load effects
2 Determine the section classification
3 If necessary calculate effective plastic
modulus for Class 3 (semi-compact) sections
4 If necessary calculate effective section
properties for class 4(slender sections)
5 Proceed with design procedures suitable for
the section classification

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CE5509 R Liew

Examples

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Example SC-1: Section classification for combined bending and compression

A member is to be designed to carry combined bending and axial load. In the presence of a
major axis (y-y) bending moment and an axial compression of 300kN, determine the cross-
section classification of a 406x178x54UB in grade S275 steel.

Design Strength
tw = 7.7mm, tf = 10.9mm.
Maximum thickness = 10.9mm < 16mm (EN 10025-2)
For S275 steel, fy = 275N/mm2
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CE5509 R Liew

Section Classification
First, classify the cross-section under the most severe loading condition of pure compression to
determine whether anything is to be gained by more precise calculations.
Cross-section classification under pure compression
Classification of Flange
ε = (235 / fy)0.5 = 0.92
cf
= 6.86 ≤ 9ε = 9 * 0.92 = 8.32
tf
⇒ Flange is Class 1.

Classification of Web
cw
= 46.8 > 42ε = 42 * 0.92 = 38.8
tw
⇒ Web is Class 4.

Under pure compression, the overall cross-section is therefore Class 4.

Material efficiency are therefore to be gained by using a more precise approach.

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CE5509 R Liew

Cross-section classification under combined loading

Flange classification remains the same as Class 1.
Classification of Web
1  h 1 N Ed 
α=  + − (t f + r )  ≤ 1
c  2 2 tw f y 

1  402.6 1 300000 
=  + − (10.9 + 10.2)  ≤ 1
360.4  2 2 7.7 * 275 
= 0.70

456ε 456 * 0.92 456ε

= = 52.33 when α > 0.5 : c / t ≤
13α − 1 13 * 0.70 − 1 13α − 1
cw 456ε
= 46.8 < = 52.3
tw 13α − 1
⇒ Web is Class 2.

Under combined loading, the overall cross-section is therefore Class 2.

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Based on Steel building design:

Design data
Page C-149
n = 300/1900= 0.16<0.217 Section is Class 2

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Example 2
S275 steel 457x152x52 UB
T b Grade S275

A) Subject to bending about

r
it’s major axis
D t
d B) Subject to 800kN axial load
and bending about it’s major
axis
B
C) Subject to 1500kN axial
load and bending about it’s
major axis

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Based on Steel building

design: Design data

Page C-147

Class 2 if n < 0.169 or

NEd < 0.169 x 1830 = 309kN

Class 3 if n < 0.586 or

NEd < 0.586 x 1830 = 1073 kN

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a) Pure bending about it’s major axis

S275 steel 457x152x52 UB Grade S275

A) Subject to bending about it’s major axis

n = 0, therefore at least class 2
Npl,Rd =fyA
Mpl,Rd = fyWpl,Rd
B) Subject to 800kN axial load and bending about it’s major axis
n = 800/1830 = 0.437 > 0.169 class 3
Npl,Rd =fyA
Mel,Rd = fyWel,Rd
C) Subject to 1500kN axial load and bending about it’s major axis
n = 1500/1830 = 0.82>0.586 class 4
Npl,Rd =fyAeff
Mel,Rd = fyWeff
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 Summary
For optimum design of welded section, the
designer has the following choices
1. Eliminate local buckling by ensuring
width-to-thickness ratio is sufficiently
small
2. If higher width-to-thickness is used, use
stiffeners to reduce plate width
3. Determine section capacity allowing for
local buckling
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 Questions
Q1 What happen when the limiting plate
slenderness ratios are exceeded?
Cross section strength cannot be fully developed.
i.e., cross section strength is governed by local buckling
instead of yielding.

Q2 How can we prevent local buckling of a plate

component?

Ensure that b/t ratio is compact. Provide plate stiffener

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Q3 What effect does a slender and
unstiffened element have on the strength
of compression member as opposed to
that of a non-slender element?
Slender element reduces the compression
resistance of the compression member
because of local buckling effect

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 Quiz
Which of the followings are considered to be
an internal elements?
1. leg of an angle
2. flange of a channel
3. Web of a I section
4. Wall of HSS

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 Q5 Determine the section classification of
the following sections with S355 steel:

• UC 254 x 254 x 89 S275 subject to axial load.

Answer: at least class 2
• UC 203 x 203 x 46 S355 subject to bending.
Answer: at least class 2
• UB 457 x 152 x 60 S355 subject to bending.
Answer: at least class 2
• UB 457 x 152 x 60 S355 subject to axial force
1500kN.
8/14/2014 Answer: class 4

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 Summary
• Structural sections may be considered as an assembly of
individual plate elements.
• Plate elements may be internal or outstand
• When loaded in compression these plates may buckle locally
• Local buckling may limit the load carrying capacity of the section
by preventing the attainment of yield strength
• Premature failure due to local buckling may be avoided by
limiting the width to thickness ratio - or slenderness - of individual
elements within the cross section.
• This is the basis of the section classification approach.
• EC3 defines four classes of cross-section.
• The class into which a particular cross-section falls depends
upon the slenderness of each element and the compressive
stress distribution