Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Do problematic and non-problematic video game players differ in

extraversion, trait empathy, social capital and prosocial tendencies?
Emily Collins ⇑, Jonathan Freeman
Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The increasing popularity of online and multiplayer games has meant that for many, social interaction
Available online 28 April 2013 and cooperation are vital components of the gaming experience. Previous research has suggested that
not only has this made gaming more attractive to socially oriented people but also that it may be socially
Keywords: beneficial in terms of social capital and prosocial behaviors. However, for problematic video game players
Social capital (those showing signs of compulsive or detrimental video game use), this may not be the case, and a num-
Extraversion ber of theories hold deficiencies in socializing in real life as central to the development of this issue. In the
Empathy
present study, an online questionnaire completed by 416 participants assessed problematic video game
Prosocial tendencies
Video games
use, extraversion, trait empathy, online and offline social capital and prosocial tendencies. Contrary to
Problematic video game use hypotheses, non-problematic, problematic and non-gamers did not differ in empathy, extraversion or
prosocial tendencies. Problematic video game play was, however, associated with significantly higher
online social capital and lower offline social capital whereas non-problematic players demonstrated only
higher online capital than non-players. This highlights the importance of social support but suggests per-
sonality is not an influential factor.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction urges to play and continued use despite negative consequences

Video games have traditionally been seen as a solitary activity
and as such have been seen as detrimental to interpersonal rela-
tionships and real life contact (e.g. Roberts, Foehr, Rideout, &
Brodie, 1999). However, the move towards online environments
has revolutionized the gaming experience and has vastly increased
the opportunities for in-game social interaction (Bowman, Schul-
theiss, & Schumann, 2008). For many, gaming is now an intrinsi-
cally social activity (Kaye & Bryce, 2012) and consequently, the
connection between video game play and social behavior has be-
come much more complex. This is especially the case for massively
multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs), online persis-
tent games allowing for thousands of individuals to play simulta-
neously and interact with one another.
The relationship between video game use and social interaction
becomes even more complex in the case of problematic video game
players (PVGPs). These are players who demonstrate what some
researches have deemed as addiction-like behaviors in relation to
video games (e.g. Griffiths & Meredith, 2009). PVGP has been de-
fined in the same way as established addictions, namely involving
a loss of control, preoccupation with video games, uncontrollable
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: University of London, Department of Psychol-
ogy, Whitehead Building, Lewisham Way, New Cross, London SE14 6NW, UK. Tel.:
+44 020 7919 7374.
E-mail address: emilyimcollins@gmail.com (E. Collins).
(Griffiths & Hunt, 1998). Prevalence rates vary dramatically but a
recent meta-analysis suggests that the average percentage of those
likely to be effected is 6% (Ferguson, Coulson, & Barnett, 2011),
indicating this to be a significant and widespread concern.
Although the notion of PVGP remains controversial, an increasing
number of studies have reported quantitative and qualitative dif-
ferences between problematic and non-problematic gamers (e.g.
van Rooij, Schoenmakers, van de Eijnden, & van de Mheen, 2010).
Many have also argued that whatever the conceptualization of
PVGP, more research into the associations and consequences of this
phenomenon is sorely needed to identify the nature of PVP, the
risk factors and the antecedents (Collins, Freeman, & Chamarro-
Premuzic, 2012; Griffiths, 2000). Prevailing theories regarding the
development and maintenance of PVGP hold social inadequacies
as especially influential, and yet little is known about the differen-
tial associations between PVGP and non-problematic video game
play (NPVGP) and social factors such as personality, social capital
and prosocial tendencies. This is therefore the focus of the present
research.
1.1. Social personality traits and video game use
One aspect that may influence a player’s interest in social gam-
ing is personality. Some personality traits have been found to be
central to enjoyment of social experiences and the desire to devel-

0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.002
1934 E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940
op relationships, the most notable of which being extraversion and
empathy. Extraversion predicts a variety of positive social behav-
iors (Eaton & Funder, 2003) and extraverts report greater levels
of social support and larger social networks (Swickert, Rosentreter,
Hittner, & Mushrush, 2002). It is possible that this extends into on-
line social behaviors as well, as online game players have been
found to be higher in extraversion than those who do not play vi-
deo games (Teng, 2008; Yee, 2001), potentially due to these games
attracting those who wish to incorporate social interaction into
their gaming experience. However, the negative correlation be-
tween extraversion and problematic World of Warcraft players
uncovered by Peters and Malesky (2008) suggests that PVGPs
may not have the preference for social contact that is associated
with higher extraversion. It is, however, worth noting that a con-
nection between extraversion and problematic or non-problematic
video game play has not been supported by all studies (e.g. Collins
et al., 2012). It is therefore possible that the relationship between
extraversion and game use is not entirely straightforward.
Another construct linked to social behavior is empathy, which is
a vital component of social cognition. Empathy has been defined as
the drive to identify emotions and thoughts in other people and to
respond appropriately (Baron-Cohen, 2003). This trait has many
relevant links to social behaviors as empathic responses play an
important role in relationships (Anderson & Keltner, 2002), proso-
cial behaviors (Eisenberg & Miller, 1987) and other socially orien-
tated concepts, such as morality and altruistic acts (Batson, 1991).
As would be expected, links have also been uncovered between
low levels of this trait and antisocial behaviors (Jolliffe & Farring-
ton, 2004; Lovett & Sheffield, 2007; Miller & Eisenberg, 1988).
Previous research concerning the relationship between empa-
thy and video game play has focused on the effects of violent med-
ia use, finding this to be associated with lower empathy (e.g.
Bartholow, Sestir, & Davis, 2005; Funk, Buchman, Jenks, &
Bechtoldt, 2003; Uhlmann & Swanson, 2004). However, with mod-
ern games requiring cooperation and group play, it is plausible that
players high in empathy may be more likely to succeed and enjoy
this kind of game. Despite this, very little research has been con-
ducted on this topic. Empathy has also not received much attention
in relation to PVGP and it is therefore unclear how this personality
trait may differ in PVGP and NPVGP populations.
1.2. Social capital
Although socially orientated personality traits may influence
enjoyment of video games geared towards inter-player communi-
cations, it is also possible for these games to directly influence the
individuals playing them. Due to the high levels of social interac-
tion available and the resultant friendships, one logical way this
could manifest is in social capital. Social capital is a term that
has evaded a solid definition (Williams, 2006) although is usually
seen as a positive construct (Adler & Kwon, 2002) and in this area
of research is defined as the beneficial consequence of social inter-
actions and behaviors (Portes, 1998; Williams, 2006). As with pre-
vious investigations into the effects of video games, the focus of the
present study is social capital on an individual rather than commu-
nity level, which can be separated into two subtypes: bonding and
bridging (Putnam, 2000). Bonding social capital refers to strong,
emotional ties such as those between close friends and family
and homogenous groups, with high levels of emotional support
(Granovetter, 1983; Putnam, 1995). Bridging capital on the other
hand refers to weaker ties between less similar or compatible
groups, who while not offering emotional support, do benefit the
individual by providing different perspectives and creating oppor-
tunities for new experiences (Granovetter, 1983; Putnam, 1995).
The significance of high levels of social capital extends to do-
mains beyond social situations, for example psychological well-
being, happiness, life satisfaction and physical health (Helliwell &
Putnam, 2004). Therefore, activities found to encourage greater so-
cial capital would be beneficial in a wide range of contexts, from
mental to physical well-being.
1.3. Social capital and video games
The movement towards online forms of communication has
led researchers to acknowledge the existence of online relation-
ships that may also contribute to social capital. The differing so-
cial context of communication and relationships occurring online
have necessitated parallel but functionally separate measures of
online and offline social capital to be developed (Williams,
2006). Because of the nature of the online communities created
as a result of online (or indeed offline) video games, it has been
claimed that online social capital may be positively influenced
by video game involvement. Zhong (2011) suggests that both
bridging and bonding social capital are present in MMORPG
and other online gaming communities through participation in
guilds, quests and less formal inter-player interactions. In line
with these claims, social capital has been found to be accrued
in the same way in MMORPG and offline environments (Stein-
kuehler & Williams, 2006) and frequent play increases online so-
cial capital and social networks (Zhong, 2011). These games are
particularly effective at generating weak ties in the form of
bridging capital (Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006) but also demon-
strate the capability to generate bonding capital in the form of
strong friendships and romantic relationships (Cole & Griffiths,
2007). Moreover, contrary to previous claims, Zhong (2011)
found that MMORPG play did not negatively affect offline rela-
tionships, suggesting that MMORPGs do not necessarily displace
offline interactions, but in fact supplement them.
There may, however, be restrictions to how universal these ben-
efits are, as some have found no association with social support, a
factor that previous research would have suggested MMORPGs
would encourage (Dupuis & Ramsey, 2011). Tajima, Matsuo, Uryu,
and Sakamoto (2012) also found in a longitudinal study that play-
ing an MMORPG did not increase social network size, suggesting
that for some, simply playing did not encourage the development
of relationships. While this may be attributable to the short, two
week period covered, these findings signify that not all players
may report positive social experiences.
1.4. Social capital and PVGP
It is not only the absence of positive social outcomes that have
been discovered as there may also be negative aspects of playing
video games. The associations between computer mediated com-
munication in the form of MMORPGs, other online games or inter-
net applications and decreased real life socializing has been widely
reported (e.g. Bergmark, Bergmark, & Findahl, 2011; Smyth, 2007).
It has also been argued that while beneficial for some, internet
based interactions may actually worsen the situation for those
with few offline relationships, as the reliance on online communi-
cation reduces offline contact (Shen & Williams, 2011). Existing
offline relationships have been reported to be of poorer quality in
highly engaged players compared to occasional or non-players,
with social anxiety being positively correlated with the time spent
playing online games (Lo, Wang, & Fang, 2005). Griffiths, Davies,
and Chappell (2004) report that 20.8% of adult MMORPG players
admitted to having to sacrifice real life relationships in order to
play the desired amount. Although these studies did not address
the issue of PVGP directly, these connections indicate that it may
be particularly relevant to online and offline social capital.
Studies that have focused on problematic game use have found
it to be associated with increased loneliness and lower social
 E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940
competence or greater social problems (Block, 2008; Ferguson
et al., 2011; Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2011; Liu & Peng,
2009). It has been suggested that this relationship is underpinned
by lonely individuals preferring online over offline interactions due
to the relative safety of this medium (Kim, LaRose, & Peng, 2009) or
because of lower levels of social skill in PVGP populations
(Kheradmand, Zamani, Hedayati, Cheshomi, & Abedi, 2012;
Zamani, Kheradmand, Chesmi, Abedi, & Hedayati, 2010). This is
alongside the discovery that motivations for playing involving
the desire to forge relationships have also been implicated, sug-
gesting that problematic use of games or the internet may arise
out of deficient social support external to the game (Beranuy,
Oberst, Carbonell, & Chamarro, 2009; Caplan, Williams, & Yee,
2009; Hsu, Wen, & Wu, 2009; King & Delfabbro, 2009; Ng &
Wiemer-Hastings, 2005; Xu, Turel, & Yuan, 2012). Indeed, in adoles-
cents, the quality of existing relationships is negatively correlated
with PVGP (Gentile et al., 2011) and PVGPs have also been reported
to be more socially inhibited (Porter, Starcevic, Berle, & Fenech,
2010). It is therefore logical that a difference may emerge between
PVGPs and NPVGPs in online and offline social capital.
1.5. Video games and prosocial tendencies
The potential social benefits of video games are not restricted to
individual relationships, as there has been an increased apprecia-
tion that cooperative video games may produce prosocial out-
comes. Zhong (2011) found a positive relationship between
MMORPG play and civic engagement as measured by involvement
in online and offline communities, a relationship that appears to be
dependent on the performance of civic in-game behaviors (Lenhart,
Kahne, Middaugh, Macgill, Evans, & Vitak, 2008). In relation to pro-
social outcomes, Sestir and Bartholow (2010) found that while vio-
lent games increased aggression, non-violent games increased
prosocial thoughts, despite these games not incorporating proso-
cial goals. Other games that involve some form of in-game helping
behavior have yielded similar results, demonstrating a capability
for producing prosocial outcomes outside of the gaming context
(e.g. Greitemeyer, 2011; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2011), as well
as for reducing aggression (Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2009). Much
of the evidence for this relationship has involved the use of single
player games with prosocial goals, for example the game ‘Lem-
mings’, the objective of which is to guide a group of computer con-
trolled characters to safety by ensuring they avoid obstacles (e.g.
Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2011). While undoubtedly helpful in nat-
ure, this does not resemble more modern cooperative games, de-
spite multiplayer environments involving even more salient
cooperative aspects. Very little work has addressed this possibility
or the potential influence of PVGP, despite the potential impor-
tance of social factors.
1.6. Hypotheses
This study therefore aimed to consolidate the research base and
incorporate further investigation of how PVGP may be differen-
tially related to social personality traits, social capital and prosocial
behaviors. In light of previous findings, it was hypothesized that:
1. MMORPG play will be associated with higher empathy, extra-
version and higher online social capital as well as greater proso-
cial tendencies.
2. PVGP will be associated with lower empathy, extraversion, off-
line social capital and prosocial tendencies.
1935
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
A total of 416 participants were recruited (37.5% female), aged
between 18 and 68 (M = 27.23, S.D. = 8.48). The greatest proportion
were students (42.1%) with the remaining working full time
(34.1%), part time (9.4%), unemployed (8.4%), self employed
(4.1%) or none of these options (1.8%). The majority of participants
were white, and a total of 38.7% were British, with the rest mostly
being American (20.4%) or Australian (13.7%) or Spanish (9.3%). The
remaining 17.9% were a wide variety of nationalities.
A total of 364 (87.5%) reported to play video games, 271 of
whom reported to play MMORPGs.
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Personality
Empathy was assessed by the short version of the Empathy
Quotient (EQ; Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004), which com-
prises of 22 items (a = .89), six of which were reverse scored. Par-
ticipants were required to indicate to what extent they agreed or
disagreed with the items, with one point for slightly agreeing or
disagreeing (whichever indicates a greater degree of empathy),
and two points for strong empathizing response.
The extraversion subscale of the short form revised Eysenck
Personality Question (EPQR-S; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985)
measured extraversion, using 12 items (a = .73). Participants were
required to answer on a five point scale.
2.2.2. Social capital
Social capital was measured by the Internet Social Capital Scales
(ISCSs; Williams, 2006). This consists of a total of 40 items, with 20
assessing online social capital (a = .94) and 20 assessing offline so-
cial capital (a = .93). These items were identical, except for the
words ‘‘offline’’ and ‘‘online’’ in the question. The 20 items mea-
sured two subscales, bridging and bonding, with 10 items in each.
The bridging subscale had good reliability in both the offline
(a = .92) and online (a = .94) measures, as did the bonding subscale
(a = .89 and .92, respectively).
2.2.3. Prosocial tendencies
Prosocial behavior was measured by the prosocial tendencies
measure (PTM; Carlo & Randall, 2002). The PTM has been used
successfully with adults in the context of video games (Saleem,
Anderson, & Gentile, 2012) and has been shown to have suitable
reliability and validity (Carlo, Hausmann, Christiansen, & Randall,
2003; Carlo & Randall, 2002). This scale comprises of 23 items
(a = .85), answerable on a five point likert scale ranking from 1
(‘‘Does not describe me at all’’) to 5 (‘‘Describes me greatly’’). This
scale is not intended to measure the frequency or extent of past
prosocial behaviors directly, but instead provides an indication as
to the individual’s tendency towards such acts and has been found
to correlate with the frequency (Carlo & Randall, 2002). It was felt
that measuring the tendency may be more useful and less suscep-
tible to memory effects or distortions due to exceptional circum-
stances occurring in the specified timeframe (for example, being
on holiday or stressed at work).
2.2.4. Problematic video game play
Video game use was assessed by asking participants to report
how many hours per week they played different genres of games,
namely first person shooters, action and adventure, sports, role
playing, fighting, strategy or simulation, casual or flash and most
importantly for the current experiment, MMORPGs.
1936 E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940

PVGP was measured by the short version of the Game Addiction

Note: EQ = Empathy Quotient, EPQE = Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire-Extraversion, ISCS = Internet Social Capital Scale, PSTs = prosocial tendencies. All game play variables are measured in hours spent playing per week, with
.119**

.126**
scale (GA; Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2009), comprising of se-

.242**

.216**
.227**

.497**
.362**
.162**
.259**
.379**

.541**
.263**
.230**
0.03

0.05
Game

0.005
total
ven items, answerable on a five point scale indicating how often

acronyms relating to first person shooters, Action/Adventure, Sports Games, Fighting Games, Strategy/Simulation Games, Social/Party Games, massively multiplayer online role playing games, and Casual/Flash Games.
0
during the last six months the respondents had experienced the

0.027

0.011

0.018

0.007
situation described, choosing from never, rarely, sometimes, often

.177**

.162**
.281**
.350**
0.027

0.072

0.064

0.054
0.006

.089*

.096*
.090*
CFG
and very often. This scale demonstrated good reliability (a = .85)
and each item is directly based on one of the seven vital criteria

.126**

.125**
0.036
0.021

0.064
for addiction, namely salience, tolerance, mood modification, re-

.216**
.216**

.223**
.128**

.146**
.171**
.240**
MMO

0.038

0.077
0.001
lapse, withdrawal, conflict and problems.

0.062

0.013

.111**
.224**
.183**
.267**
.237**
.103**
0.035

0.013

0.034
0.076

0.036
.100*
2.3. Procedure

SPG
Measures were presented on an online questionnaire, hosted by

.114**
.097**

.110**

0.051

.256**
.311**
.173**
.369**
.102**

.102**
0.046

0.053
.082*
EFS Survey software (http://www.unipark.de). Incomplete data

SSG
sets were excluded. All complete data sets were used in the analy-
sis and it took an average of 26 min to complete. Participants were

0.044
0.053
0.065
0.043
0.074
0.029

0.053

.236**
.367**
.272**
0.03

0.072
recruited through social networks, online forums (mostly those

FG
relating to gaming), survey websites and by posters and e-mails

0.075
0.042
0.032
0.041

0.029
0.049
distributed by the university.

.116**
.156**
0.07
0.024

0.047
A combination of correlational and between subjects analyses

SG
were employed.

.082*

.093*

.075*
.079*

.296**
0.049

0.036

0.012
0.058
0.045
AA
3. Results

0.031

0.049

0.002
.138**
.154**
.160**
0.07
0.012

0.02
FPS
3.1. Correlations

.146**
In order to assess the overall associations between the vari-
.193**

.120**

.108**
0.031

0.013
0.064
.086*
PSTs

ables, the data were entered into a Kendall’s Tau correlational anal-
ysis, the results of which are summarized in Table 1. Due to non-
players automatically scoring zero in the PVGP measure (and thus
ISCS online
bridging

potentially skewing the results concerning this variable), the corre-

.129**

.713**
.119**

.446**
0.06

0.057
.086*

lations were repeated for gamers only. For this analysis, PVGP was
found to correlate negatively with the offline capital total score
(s = .173, p < 0.01) and the offline bonding (s = .142, p < 0.01)
ISCS online

and bridging subscales (s = .154, p < 0.01). It also correlated pos-

bonding

.089**
0.044

itively with the online capital total score (s = .131, p < 0.01) and the
.751**
0.06
0.04

0.02

bonding (s=.114, p < 0.01) and bridging subscales (s=.116,

p < 0.01).
ISCS offline
bridging

.272**

0.023
.259**

.761**

.335**

3.2. Comparisons

PVGPs (n = 73), NPVGPs (n = 263) and NVGPs (n = 71) were also

Correlations between personality, social capital and video game use measures.

ISCS offline

directly compared. PVGPs were identified as those answering three

bonding

.166**

or above on the GA scale to at least half of the questions. The means

.282**

.601**
.075*

and standard deviations are summarized in Table 2. Mann Whitney

comparisons (see Fig. 1 for mean rankings) with Bonferonni correc-
0.056
online

tions indicated that although not differing in empathy or extraver-

.090**

0.008
ISCS

sion, PVGPs were significantly higher in online social capital

(U = 7256.5, p < 0.01), online bridging capital (U = 7427.5,
.261**
offline

p < 0.01) and online bonding capital (U = 7718, p < 0.05) than
.313**
ISCS

NPVGPs. They were also and lower in offline social capital

(U = 7021, p < 0.01) and the offline bonding (U = 7080.5, p < 0.01)
.243**

and bridging subscales (U = 7510.5, p < 0.01) than the other exper-
EPQE

imental groups, mirroring the correlational findings. A similar pat-

tern emerged when comparing PVGPs to NVGPs, with PVGPs
showing higher online social capital (U = 1418.5, p < 0.01) includ-
ing online bridging (U = 1540.5, p < 0.01) and bonding (U = 1587,
ISCS offline bridging

ISCS online bridging

ISCS offline bonding

ISCS online bonding

p < 0.01) and significantly lower in offline social capital

(U = 1706, p < 0.01), offline bonding (U = 1974, p < 0.05) and offline
bridging (U = 1731.5, p < 0.01).
ISCS offline
ISCS online
EPQE total

The only significant differences between NPVGPs and NVGPs

p < 0.01.
p < 0.05.

were that NPVGPs were higher in online social capital (U = 7141,

MMO
Table 1

PSTs

CFG
SPG
SSG
FPS
AA
EQ

SG

p < 0.05) and in both the online bonding (U = 7346, p < 0.01) and
FG

bridging (U = 7325, p < 0.01).

**
*
 E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940 1937

Table 2
Mean scores across experimental groups (with standard deviations in parentheses).

EQ EPQE ISCS offline ISCS offline ISCS offline ISCS online ISCS online ISCS online PSTs
total bonding bridging total bonding bridging
PVGP 22.86 (7.88) 17.38 (2.56) 71.34 (15.77) 39.31 (8.68) 32.03 (9.37) 68.18 (16.16) 29.21 (9.30) 38.97 (9.18) 58.91 (14.73)
NPVGP 22.92 (8.84) 17.41 (2.83) 79.31 (13.50) 43.21 (6.96) 36.10 (8.69) 60.87 (18.72) 25.85 (10.61) 35.02 (10.53) 59.14 (11.06)
NVGP 24.62 (9.21) 16.96 (3.23) 77.74 (20.90) 41.54 (9.78) 36.20 (12.45) 52.57 (21.11) 22.77 (10.09) 29.80 (13.42) 61.01 (14.19)

Note: EQ = Empathy Quotient, EPQE = Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire-Extraversion, ISCS = Internet Social Capital Scale and PSTs = prosocial tendencies.

Fig. 1. Mean rankings across the measures for problematic, non-problematic and non-gamers.

3.3. MMORPG use
MMORPG players were also selected for separate analysis
(n = 166). A Kendall’s Tau correlational analysis demonstrated no
significant correlations with PVGP in this sample, although a neg-
ative correlation with offline bonding capital (s = .107, p = 0.052)
and the offline capital total (s = .105, p = 0.054) approached sig-
nificance. When compared with Mann Whitney tests, PVGPs were
found to be significantly higher in online social capital (U = 2106,
p = 0.03) and online bridging capital (U = 2116, p = .032).
4. Discussion
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between prob-
lematic and non-problematic video game use, in particular
1938 E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940
MMORPG play and social personality traits, social capital and pro-
social tendencies. Overall, it was found that neither empathy nor
extraversion were significantly associated with general video game
play, MMORPG play or PVGP, although significant relationships
emerged with online and offline social capital. Throughout the var-
ious analyses, it was found that PVGP was associated with signifi-
cantly higher online social capital and lower offline social capital
whereas NPVGPs appeared to demonstrate only higher online cap-
ital than non-players. Whilst this aspect was in line with the
hypotheses, contrary to predictions, prosocial tendencies were
not found to be in any way associated with MMORPG use or prob-
lematic or non-problematic video game play.
4.1. Personality
Extraversion has previously been found to be positively associ-
ated with online game play (Teng, 2008), although some studies
have also reported no differences between MMORPG players and
non-players (e.g. Collins et al., 2012) so this may not be a straight-
forward relationship. A similar result occurred in relation to PVGP,
as extraversion was not found to differ between PVGPs, NPVGPs
and NVGPs, despite some studies suggesting that PVGPs are lower
in this trait (e.g. Peters & Malesky, 2008). Once again, however,
Collins et al. (2012) also reported a null result, suggesting that this
relationship may be specific to certain samples, for example only
highly engaged World of Warcraft players, as in Peters & Malesky
(2008) study. These findings therefore contribute to the field’s
understanding of the role of extraversion in the development of
online relationships, video game play and PVGP.
Trait empathy similarly did not differ between MMORPG play-
ers and non-players. This could be because MMORPGs, while
requiring social interactions to succeed, do not rely on empathetic
reactions or the ability to identify and respond to others’ emotions.
As PVGPs and NVGPs also demonstrated similar levels of trait
empathy, this would suggest that a lack of empathy is not a con-
tributing factor to PVGP. This is the first study to directly address
this, and it is therefore difficult to assess how well this corresponds
with previous literature. However, as social deficits have been
blamed for the development of PVGP (Lemmens et al., 2009) and
considering the integral role of empathy in social competence
(Baron-Cohen, 2003), it may run counter to established literature.
Conversely, it may be that while deficits in real life interactions
do predispose individuals to PVGP, this is not due to low levels
of socially orientated personality traits but perhaps external
factors such as the accruement of social skills.
4.2. Online and offline social capital
The discovery that PVGP was associated with lower offline and
higher online social capital is suggestive of a reliance on online so-
cial support networks and the absence of offline equivalents. It also
offers some support for theories that suggest reduced levels of off-
line social interaction either encourage the development of PVGP
or occur as a result (Wan & Chiou, 2006), although the present
study is unable to inform as to the direction of this relationship.
It does however indicate that strong emotional bonds with fellow
players may compensate for a lack of support offline and motivate
further use (Cole & Griffiths, 2007), supporting research suggesting
this to be a main motivation for developing online relationships
(Mesch & Talmud, 2006). An alternative explanation for these find-
ings is that those experiencing PVGP may become so absorbed with
gaming that offline relationships deteriorate and that only friend-
ships and interactions that occur online can be maintained. Further
research may wish to try to establish causation and investigate
which scenario most accurately describes the situation.
The number of hours spent playing video games, and more spe-
cifically MMORPGs were once again negatively correlated with off-
line social capital and positively with online social capital,
although interestingly neither measure was correlated with the
subscale of offline bonding social capital. This is indicative of even
high levels of video game use only affecting weaker relationships
(if this association is causal), leaving the individual able to main-
tain the stronger offline relationships. The weaker ties may be
more prone to erosion due to the notion that these relationships
are normally forged through organized activities such as employ-
ment or sports teams and therefore may not be maintained if these
activities are ceased. Griffiths et al. (2004) report that as many as
20.8% of the MMORPG players interviewed admitted to sacrificing
relationships in order to play the desired amount, and this may
therefore explain the deterioration of bridging capital, if this rela-
tionship is indeed causal.
As bonding capital is the most valuable in terms of positive psy-
chological health (Poortinga, 2006), video games may not be as
much of a threat to offline relationships as has been previously ar-
gued. The significantly higher online capital is also indicative of
meaningful and emotionally supportive online community, which
may contribute to players’ continued involvement.
4.3. Prosocial tendencies
Unexpected null findings were also generated for the prosocial
tendencies measure, as this score was not related positively to
MMORPG use or negatively to PVGP as was predicted. Previous re-
search has linked cooperative video games to increases in prosocial
behaviors, cognitions and accessibility of prosocial thoughts
(Greitemeyer, 2011; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2009, 2011) and it
was hypothesized that the level of cooperation and in-game help-
ing behaviors characteristic of MMORPGs would produce a similar
effect. This was especially in light of findings showing greater
engagement in civic activities in MMORPG players (Zhong, 2011).
Although civic engagement and prosocial behaviors are related,
they are still quite distinct, as an individual can score highly on
measures of civic engagement by taking part in activities that are
not prosocially motivated, such as casting a vote in an online poll.
These novel findings suggest that it is possible that while involve-
ment in MMORPGs may encourage participation in community
based events or activities, this might not necessarily translate into
tendencies towards prosocial acts. It is also worth noting that the
cooperative games normally studied in terms of prosocial out-
comes are not multiplayer and consequently, cooperation occurs
in a very different way to MMORPGS. MMORPGs rely on interac-
tions with real players and therefore may produce different out-
comes than those featuring cooperation with computerized
characters (for instance, in ‘‘Lemmings’’; Greitemeyer & Osswald,
2011). The present study also wished to measure the tendency to-
wards prosocial acts rather than specific retrospective instances or
accessibility to prosocial thoughts due to the cross-sectional nature
of the investigation, and this may have further contributed to the
discrepant findings.
Furthermore, due to the level of autonomy in some online
games and MMORPGs, players have the option to not take part in
the cooperative and helpful behaviors that are most likely to elicit
prosocial outcomes, or can at least minimize them in favor of alter-
native activities. The content may therefore be an influential factor
and as such, if social interactions are avoided by players, this may
have a direct effect on the resultant behaviors. Future research
should consider collecting data on the number of in-game interac-
tions and the prevalence of prosocial events when investigating so-
cial outcomes. That said, Ducheneaut, Yee, Nickell, and Moore
(2006) argue that even when not directly participating in any of
the social elements of MMORPGs, simply being present is a social
 E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940
experience. Along this reasoning, it could be claimed that irrespec-
tive of in-game activities, the fact that you are playing alongside
other individuals may be sufficient to produce outcomes relating
to social experiences. Direct investigation into the differing effects
of in-game activities is therefore needed.
4.4. Limitations
This study does have several other limitations that also need
addressing. Although the usual issues with self report measures
apply to a lot of studies in the field, one particular problem may
arise from relying on self perceptions of social support. Impression
management may encourage some to exaggerate social capital, for
example or conversely, factors such as depression or low self es-
teem may lead to underestimations. Depression has been linked
to PVGP and problematic internet use (e.g. Gentile et al., 2011),
making this limitation particularly relevant to these analyses.
Including a clinical diagnosis in the questionnaire would have been
problematic, although this is something that should be considered
when interpreting the results.
Future research may also wish to assess the external social con-
texts of the games played. Participants were asked how many
hours they spent playing various genres of games but this did
not provide data regarding whether this was a social experience
or not (for instance, if they were playing alone or with friends). De-
tailed information on game-play, such as whether the games in
question were multiplayer, online or offline or played alone would
be beneficial. Moreover, investigation into how familiar partici-
pants were with the games they played and the influence of differ-
ent aspects of game design would have further informed the
interpretation of the findings. This would have allowed more spe-
cific conclusions to be drawn and for the elements responsible for
improving social capital and prosocial tendencies to be identified.
It has also been noted that offline and online relationships (and
consequently social capital) are not mutually exclusive and it
can therefore be difficult for the two to be separated out
(Haythornthwaite, 2002). For example, regular face-to-face offline
interaction may have occurred as a result of initially online contact,
making it difficult to know how to best categorize that relation-
ship. Therefore, a more qualitative or interview based approach
may be best suited to collecting additional information, so that
relationships and online and offline social capital can be estimated
in a more accurate way.
Furthermore, there is little existing evidence that this reduction
in offline social capital in PVGPs is in fact detrimental or if it is
something that needs to be corrected, especially as it occurs along-
side increased online social capital. A substantial amount of re-
search has linked high social capital or social support with
superior mental and physical health and lower levels with the re-
verse (Poortinga, 2006; Rose, 2000) so it is evident that if negative
correlations existed for social capital across modalities, this could
be a concern. However, it may be that the high levels of online sup-
port counter any negative impact from a lack of offline support.
More research is needed for this to be clear.
4.5. Implications and conclusions
These findings do, however, have important implications in
terms of understanding the potential effects of video games on
interpersonal relationships online and offline, as well as providing
an insight into associations with PVGP. As online games are
increasing in popularity, it is important that research attempts to
keep up with these changes in gaming preferences. This is to en-
sure the field has an accurate and current understanding of media
effects and how games can be used to benefit individuals. As game
time in itself irrespective of genre was not related to prosocial
1939
tendencies, this may suggest that encouraging individuals to play
games may not be sufficient to encourage more helpful behavior.
That said, these outcomes may still arise if the games contain a
large number of cooperative and prosocial tasks, something that
can be written into to the game design or promoted to a greater de-
gree within existing games. The finding concerning high levels of
online social capital in MMORPG users has implications for individ-
uals that lack the emotional support needed in offline environ-
ments, as these games may be able to operate as a relatively
stress-free way to develop important and significant relationships
with other players. These results also suggest that video games
may not be as detrimental to existing offline relationships as has
been previously proposed. The lower offline bridging capital may,
however, result in fewer employment opportunities and so this
may need to be investigated as a potential negative outcome of
MMORPG use. Moreover, focusing on encouraging offline social
capital in PVGPs may be an effective way to treat or prevent this
issue, making this a particularly interesting focus for future work.
It is currently unclear whether this is a cause or effect of PVGP,
but previous research has suggested that the social deficits associ-
ated with PVGP are in fact both, as they can precede PVGP but then
be exacerbated by the preoccupation with online forms of commu-
nication (van Rooij et al., 2010). Consequently, this may be an indi-
cation that PVGP is encouraged by a lack of offline social support,
but then continues to contribute to this by removing opportunities
for this to be remedied. However, research directly investigating
the cause and effects of PVGP will be needed to ascertain whether
this is the case for social capital.
More broadly, these findings contribute to the ongoing debate
concerning whether video games are a positive or negative influ-
ence, suggesting that both beneficial and detrimental outcomes
may be possible, at least in terms of social capital. The present
study suggests that this may be dependent on the presence of
PVGP; those playing video games or MMORPGs without experienc-
ing PVGP stand to accrue online social capital while seemingly
remaining able to maintain strong offline bonds, whereas this is
not the case for those with PVGP. This positive outcome may be
best utilized by those for whom socializing in real life is difficult
or stressful, for instance those low in extraversion or empathy
which stand to impede the development of offline relationships
but do not negatively impact on online ones. Online opportunities
to socialize and form friendships may be particularly useful in
allowing these individuals to meet their social needs. Future work
may wish to directly address how the increased online social cap-
ital encouraged by MMORPG use may be best exploited.
References
Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S.-W. (2002). Social capital: Prospects for a new concept.
Academy of Management Review, 27, 17–40.
Anderson, C., & Keltner, D. (2002). The role of empathy in the formation and
maintenance of social bonds. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 21–22.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The essential difference: Men, women and the extreme male
brain. London: Penguin.
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient (EQ): An
investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome and high-functioning autism,
and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34,
163–175.
Bartholow, B. D., Sestir, M. A., & Davis, E. (2005). Correlates and consequences of
exposure to video game violence: Hostile personality, empathy, and aggressive
behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1573–1586.
Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer.
Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Beranuy, M., Oberst, U., Carbonell, X., & Chamarro, A. (2009). Problematic Internet
and mobile phone use and clinical symptoms in college students: The role of
emotional intelligence. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 1182–1187.
Bergmark, K. H., Bergmark, A., & Findahl, O. (2011). Extensive internet
involvement—Addiction or emerging lifestyle? International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 8, 4488–4501.
Block, J. J. (2008). Issues for DSM-V: Internet addiction. The American Journal of
Psychiatry, 165, 306–307.
1940 E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940
Bowman, N. D., Schultheiss, D. & Schumann, C. (2008). Community vs. soloplaying
in multiplayer internet games. Proceedings of The Player Conference. 452–468.
Caplan, S. E., Williams, D. C., & Yee, N. (2009). Problematic Internet use and
psychosocial well-being among MMO players. Computers in Human Behavior, 25,
1312–1319.
Carlo, G., Hausmann, A., Christiansen, S., & Randall, B. A. (2003). Sociocognitive and
behavioral correlates of a measure of prosocial tendencies for adolescents.
Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 107–134.
Carlo, G., & Randall, B. A. (2002). The development of a measure of prosocial
behaviors for late adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 31–44.
Cole, H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). Social interactions in massively multiplayer online
role-playing gamers. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 10, 575–583.
Collins, E., Freeman, J., & Chamarro-Premuzic (2012). Personality traits associated
with problematic and non-problematic massively multiplayer online role
playing game use. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 133–138.
Ducheneaut, N., Yee, N., Nickell, E., & Moore, R. J. (2006). ‘‘Alone together?’’
Exploring the social dynamics of massively multiplayer online games. In: ACM
conference on human factors in computing systems. Montreal, Canada: ACM.
Dupuis, E. C., & Ramsey, M. A. (2011). The relation of social support to depression in
massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 41, 2479–2491.
Eaton, L. G., & Funder, D. C. (2003). The creation and consequences of the social
world: An interactional analysis of extraversion. European Journal of Personality,
17, 375–395.
Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related
behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 91–119.
Eysenck, S. B. G., Eysenck, H. J., & Barrett, P. (1985). A revised version of the
psychoticism scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 21–29.
Ferguson, C. J., Coulson, M., & Barnett, J. (2011). A meta-analysis of pathological
gaming prevalence and comorbidity with mental health, academic and social
problems. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 1573–1578.
Funk, J. B., Buchman, D., Jenks, J., & Bechtoldt, H. (2003). Playing violent video
games, desensitization and moral evaluation in children. Applied Development
Psychology, 24, 413–436.
Gentile, D. A., Choo, H., Liau, A., Sim, T., Li, D., Fung, D., et al. (2011). Pathological
video game use among youths: A two-year longitudinal study. Pediatrics, 127,
e319–e329.
Granovetter, M. (1983). The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited.
Sociological Theory, 1, 201–233.
Greitemeyer, T. (2011). Effects of prosocial media on social behavior: When and
why does media exposure affect helping and aggression? Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 20, 251–255.
Greitemeyer, T., & Osswald, S. (2009). Prosocial video games reduce aggressive
cognitions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 896–900.
Greitemeyer, T., & Osswald, S. (2011). Playing prosocial video games increases the
accessibility of prosocial thoughts. Journal of Social Psychology, 151, 121–128.
Griffiths, M. D. (2000). Does internet and computer ‘‘addiction’’ exist? Some case
study evidence. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 3, 211–218.
Griffiths, M. D., Davies, M. N. O., & Chappell, D. (2004). Online computer gaming: A
comparison of adolescent and adult gamers. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 87–96.
Griffiths, M. D., & Hunt, N. (1998). Dependence on computer games by adolescents.
Psychological Reports, 82, 475–480.
Griffiths, M. D., & Meredith, A. (2009). Videogame addiction and its treatment.
Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 39, 247–253.
Haythornthwaite, C. (2002). Strong, weak, and latent ties and the impact of new
media. The Information Society, 18, 385–401.
Helliwell, J. F., & Putnam, R. D. (2004). The social context of well-being. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 359, 1435–1446.
Hsu, S. H., Wen, M., & Wu, M. (2009). Exploring user experiences as predictors of
MMORPG addiction. Computers and Education, 53, 990–999.
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). Empathy and offending: A systematic review
and meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 441–476.
Kaye, L. K., & Bryce, J. (2012). Putting the ‘‘fun factor’’ into gaming: The influence of
social contexts on experiences of playing videogames. International Journal of
Internet Science (pp. 1–41).
Kheradmand, A., Zamani, B., Hedayati, N., Cheshomi, M., & Abedi, A. (2012).
Comparing the social skills of students addicted to computer games with
normal students. In: 20th European Congress of Psychiatry, Vol. 27. Elsevier.
Kim, J., LaRose, R., & Peng, W. (2009). Loneliness as the cause and the effect of
problematic Internet use: The relationship between internet use and
psychological well-being. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 12, 451–455.
King, D. L., & Delfabbro, P. H. (2009). Understanding and assisting excessive players
of video games: A community psychology perspective. Australian Community
Psychologist, 21, 62–74.
Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Development and validation of a
game addiction scale for adolescents. Media Psychology, 12, 1–32.
Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2011). The effects of pathological
gaming on aggressive behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 4, 38–47.
Lenhart, A., Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., Macgill, A. R., Evans, C., & Vitak, J. (2008). Teens,
video games, and civics: Teens’ gaming experiences are diverse and include
significant social interaction and civic engagement. Pew Internet & American Life
Project. Retrieved October 12th 2012 from <http://www.pewinternet.org//
media/Files/Reports/2008/
PIP_Teens_Games_and_Civics_Report_FINAL.pdf.pdf>.
Liu, M., & Peng, W. (2009). Cognitive and psychological predictors of the negative
outcomes associated with playing MMOGs (massively multiplayer online
games). Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 1306–1311.
Lo, S.-K., Wang, C.-C., & Fang, W. (2005). Physical interpersonal relationships and
social anxiety among online game players. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 8,
15–20.
Lovett, B. J., & Sheffield, R. A. (2007). Affective empathy deficits in aggressive
children and adolescents: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 1–13.
Mesch, G. S., & Talmud, I. (2006). Online friendship formation, communication
channels, and social closeness. International Journal of Internet Science, 1, 29–44.
Miller, P. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1988). The relationship of empathy to aggressive and
externalizing/antisocial behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 324–344.
Ng, B. D., & Wiemer-Hastings, P. (2005). Addiction to the internet and online
gaming. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 8, 110–113.
Peters, C. S., & Malesky, L. A. (2008). Problematic usage among highly-engaged
players of massively multiplayer online role playing games. Cyber Psychology
and Behavior, 11, 481–484.
Poortinga, W. (2006). Social capital: An individual or collective resource for health?
Social Science and Medicine, 62, 292–302.
Porter, G., Starcevic, V., Berle, D., & Fenech, P. (2010). Recognizing problem video
game use. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 120–128.
Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology.
Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1–24.
Putnam, R. D. (1995). Tuning in, tuning out: The strange disappearance of social
capital in America. Political Science and Politics, 28, 664–683.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community.
New York: Simon & Schuster.
Roberts, D. F., Foehr, U. G., Rideout, V. J., & Brodie, M. (1999). Kids and media @ the
new millennium. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.
Rose, R. (2000). How much does social capital add to individual health? A survey
study of Russians. Social Science and Medicine, 51, 1421–1435.
Saleem, M., Anderson, C. A., & Gentile, D. A. (2012). Effects of prosocial, neutral, and
violent video games on college students’ affect and behaviors. Aggressive
Behavior. Advanced Online Publication. doi: 10.1002/ab.21427.
Sestir, M. A., & Bartholow, B. D. (2010). Violent and nonviolent video games produce
opposing effects on aggressive and prosocial outcomes. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, 46, 934–942.
Shen, C., & Williams, D. (2011). Unpacking time online: Connecting internet and
massively multiplayer online game use with psychosocial well-being.
Communication Research, 38, 123–149.
Smyth, J. M. (2007). Beyond self-selection in video game play: An experimental
examination of the consequences of massively multiplayer online role-playing
game play. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 10, 717–721.
Steinkuehler, C. A., & Williams, D. C. (2006). Where everybody knows your (screen)
name: Online games as ‘‘Third Places’’. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 11, 885–909.
Swickert, R. J., Rosentreter, C. J., Hittner, J. B., & Mushrush, J. E. (2002). Extraversion,
social support processes, and stress. Personality and Individual Differences, 32,
877–891.
Tajima, S., Matsuo, Y., Uryu, K., & Sakamoto, A. (2012). Effects of playing massively
multiplayer online role-playing game on the interpersonal networks of players:
An experimental study targeting new players. In Proceedings of the science of
human development for restructuring the ‘‘Gap Widening Society’’ (Vol. 17) (pp.
51–61).
Teng, C. I. (2008). Personality differences between online game players and
nonplayers in a student sample. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 11, 232–234.
Uhlmann, E., & Swanson, J. (2004). Exposure to violent video games increases
automatic aggressiveness. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 41–52.
van Rooij, A. J., Schoenmakers, T. M., van de Eijnden, R. J. J. M., & van de Mheen, D.
(2010). Compulsive internet use: The role of online gaming and other internet
applications. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47, 51–57.
Wan, C.-S., & Chiou, W.-B. (2006). Psychological motives and online games
addiction: a test of flow theory and humanistic needs theory for Taiwanese
adolescents. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 9, 317–324.
Williams, D. C. (2006). On and off the ’net: Scales for social capital in an online era.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11, 593–628.
Xu, Z., Turel, O., & Yuan, Y. (2012). Online game addiction among adolescents:
Motivation and prevention factors. European Journal of Information Systems, 21,
321–340.
Yee, N. (2001). The Norathian Scrolls: A study of Everquest. Retrieved from: <http://
www.nickyee.com/eqt/report.html>.
Zamani, E., Kheradmand, A., Chesmi, M., Abedi, A., & Hedayati, N. (2010). Comparing
the social skills of students addicted to computer games with normal students.
Journal of Addiction and Health, 2, 59–65.
Zhong, Z.-J. (2011). The effects of collective MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online
Role-Playing Games) play on gamers’ online and offline social capital. Computers
in Human Behavior, 27, 2352–2363.