26 Int. J. Vehicle Design, Vol. 38, No.

1, 2005

Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code

Calogero D'Anca, Antonio Mancuso and

Gabriele VirzõÁ Mariotti*
Dipartimento di Meccanica UniversitaÁ di Palermo,
Viale delle Scienze 90128 Palermo, Italy
E-mail: Virzi@dima.unipa.it E-mail: Mancuso@dima.unipa.it
*Corresponding author

Abstract: In this paper fluid dynamics simulations have been executed using
a CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) commercial code, on a Maserati
Biturbo mod. 222 ± 1988. At first some surfaces are optimised, choosing the
more important ones for the reduction of the resistance, by a manual
variation of their geometry, hence a large surface is optimised in an
automatic way, by means of an own software, developed in the MatLab
environment, returning the optimised surface according to a specific
objective function (the resistance in this paper).
The aerodynamics resistance results are given under the form of
aerodynamics penetration coefficient CD , taking into account the vehicle
shape effect, the speed, the fluid properties and the orientation.

Keywords: aerodynamic resistance; CFD simulations; shape optimisation.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: D'Anca, C., Mancuso, A.

and VirzõÁ Mariotti, G. (2005) `Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD
code', Int. J. Vehicle Design, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp.26±41.

Biographical notes: Calogero D'Anca received his mechanical engineering

degree in 2003. He collaborates with the Mechanical Department, Palermo
University, and is an independent engineering professional.

Antonio Mancuso has been Assistant Professor since 1996 at the

Department of Mechanics of the Faculty of Engineering of Palermo
University, Italy. He obtained his degree in aeronautical engineering in 1991
and his PhD in mechanical engineering in 1995 with a dissertation on
filament wound pressure vessels for aero-spatial applications. His research
interests are structural and shape optimisations, mainly in the sailing yacht
field, cooperating with yacht designers. He also works in virtual reality
applications for an Italian research project.

Gabriele VirzõÁ Mariotti has been an Associate Professor of mechanical

engineering design, UniversitaÁ di Palermo, Italy, since 1992. His particular
research interests are: numerical methods (FEM, BEM) for stress analysis
and other applications; design of mechanical components, in particular for
the automotive industry, such as disk brakes and others; behaviour
prevision of a vehicle on the road and the determination of the solicitations;
shape optimisation of a hull and design of naval components; and
characterisation of the material behaviour (metals and composites) under
fatigue and fracture.

Copyright # 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code 27

1 Introduction

The reduction of the aerodynamic resistance is an important aim pursued since many
years, in order to increase the efficiency (Agathangelou and Gascoyne, 1998; Basara,
2003; Emmelmann et al., 1990; Kobayashi and Kitoh, 1992; Koromilas et al., 2000;
Lietz et al., 2000; Pien et al., 2000; Werner et al., 1998; Yanagimoto et al., 1994;
Zhang et al., 2003). Today the experimental techniques use the wind tunnel in natural
or reduced scale; the study is executed recurring to the mechanical similitude theory
(Hucho, 1987; Milliken and Milliken, 1995). Empirical methods can also be used as
the White one (Morelli, 1974), as described in the Section 2.1 or CFD simulations
(Anderson, 1995; Basara, 2003; Kobayashi and Kitoh, 1992; Versteeg and
Malalasekera, 1995; Zhang et al., 2003), that in the last years have found great
diffusion, thanks to the great development of hardware and software. The fluid
dynamic simulation permits the visualisation of the flux field around the vehicle and the
pressure distribution on its surface. The current trend is the development of automatic
optimisation software that gives satisfactory results reducing the working time.
The purpose of this work is to set up an efficient procedure able to reduce the
aerodynamic resistance of a vehicle, by its shape optimisation. The fluid dynamics
simulations have been executed using the module CFD, Tdyn, of the software GID
of Compass. The model examined, as an example, is Maserati Biturbo 222 of 1988
(Pasta and VirzõÁ Mariotti, 1989), digitised and modelled in Rhinoceros.

2 Manual optimisation

2.1 White method

The vehicle design is manually varied by means of the software Rhinoceros, with the
aim of determining the geometry assuring the lower value of aerodynamics
penetration coefficient CD , respecting the constraints imposed by visibility,
habitability and necessary space for the mechanical parts, etc. The virtual model
of the vehicle is represented in Figure 1(a).
The White method (Morelli, 1974) divides the vehicle into nine parts and assigns
to every one a weight xi , that can be found in a table in depending on the part shape.
The weights are introduced in the following expression:
X
9 X
9
CD ˆ a0 ‡ xi ai ˆ 0:16 ‡ 0:0095 xi …1†
iˆ1 iˆ1

where the coefficients ai and a0 are obtained by statistical analysis of data obtained
by wind tunnel tests. The approximation of the White method is about 7%; a
CD ˆ 0:4735 is obtained for the examined vehicle.

2.2 CFD simulation

Due to the longitudinal symmetry of both model and motion field, half a vehicle was
analysed, in order to generate a more dense mesh on the model, and obtain more
accurate results. The model of Figure 1(a) presents a flat bottom, has no rear view
28 C. D'Anca, A. Mancuso and G. VirzõÁ Mariotti

mirror or frontal opening, has a smooth cover rim and has no appendages such as
handles, rearview mirror, etc. Figure 1(b) shows the mesh of a half vehicle.

Figure 1(a) Maserati biturbo 222

Figure 1(b) Close up of the vehicle mesh

Simulations have been executed using a commercial code GID (free evaluation copy)
that makes use of the Tdyn solver able to solve the RANS (Hucho, 1987; Kobayashi
and Kitoh, 1992) (Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes) equations; it requires the choice
of turbulence model (the k ÿ " model in this paper) and the constraints conditions on
solid walls. An unstructured mesh of about 200,000 cells is used, with dimensions
moving between 0.56 m far away from the car surfaces and 0.005 m close to.
At the end of the analysis a CD ˆ 0:472 is obtained, with a value very close to that
of the White method, so that parameters and turbulence model can be considered
correct.
 Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code 29

Another type of analysis has been executed determining CD versus the speed as
Figure 2 shows. One can note that CD stays almost constant, as expected, so that the
results of the successive CFD simulations at a speed equal to 130 km/h can be believed
suitable; the difference at low speed is probably due to a coarse mesh. Figures 3 and 4
show the pressure distribution on the model and the stream lines at the previous speed.
Figure 2 CD versus vehicle speed

Figure 3 Pressure distribution

Figure 4 Stream lines

30 C. D'Anca, A. Mancuso and G. VirzõÁ Mariotti

The successive simulations determine CD variations modifying some vehicle

surfaces. The obtained results, with the relative optimised surface, are shown in
Figure 5(a)±(f):

Figure 5(a) CD versus fillet radius windscreen ± roof

Figure 5(b) CD versus fillet radius in the front corners

Figure 5(c) CD versus the shrinking of the back

 Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code 31

Figure 5(d) CD versus fillet radius roof ± rear window

Figure 5(e) CD versus fillet radius roof ± rear window (S.W.)

Figure 5(f) CD versus fillet radius roof ± rear window (S.W. with more inclined rear window)

Table 1 shows the values for the several particulars depicted in Figure 5. If all the
configurations, assuring the lower CD values in Table 1, are considered, the model
shown in Figure 6(a) is obtained, that can be compared visually with the original one
in Figure 6(b). This model gives CD ˆ 0:456, with a reduction, with regard to the
original value, equal to 3.4%. It is not the minimum absolute value, because a linear
relation between all the adopted parameters does not exist, the relations are often
strongly non-linear, so that the superposition principle is not valid. A low CD value
can be obtained by carefully studying the streamlines and putting together the
solutions reducing phenomena such as the wakes, the separation, the vortices, etc.
32 C. D'Anca, A. Mancuso and G. VirzõÁ Mariotti

Table 1 CD values for all the examined configurations

Fillet variation between windscreen and roof Fillet ˆ 1.4 m CD ˆ 0:446

Fillet variation of front corners Fillet ˆ 0.4 m CD ˆ 0:427
Shrinking of the back Shrinking ˆ 0.48% CD ˆ 0:439
Fillet roof ± rear window variation Fillet ˆ 1.2 m CD ˆ 0:451
Fillet roof ± rear window variation (station wagon) Fillet ˆ 0.9 m CD ˆ 0:464
Fillet roof ± rear window variation (station wagon with Fillet ˆ 1.2 m CD ˆ 0:457
more inclined rear window)

Figure 6(a) Optimised model

Figure 6(b) Original model

In this way the configuration shown in Figure 7(a) was found, having CD ˆ 0:429,
with a reduction equal to 9.11% with regard to the original one. Figure 7(b) shows
the pressure distribution.
 Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code 33

Figure 7(a) Optimised model studying the stream lines configurations

Figure 7(b) Pressure distribution

3 Automatic optimisation

The chosen optimising surface is constituted by windscreen, roof and rear window,
shown with different grey levels in Figure 8. This surface has been approximated by
means of a bi-cubic NURBS surface having 15  6 control points (De Boor, 1978).
Such control points have been assumed as design variables.
34 C. D'Anca, A. Mancuso and G. VirzõÁ Mariotti

Figure 8 Model before the optimisation

The control points belonging to the boundary curves A, B and C are fixed while that
belonging to D may change along y and z. In total one has 130 design variables, that
are DV ˆ …yi;j ; zi;j † with i ˆ 2; . . . ; 14 and j ˆ 2; . . . ; 6. To eliminate habitability
problems, some limit has to be fixed to the variation of the variables: the space in the
inside must not diminish and the height of the inside must not be lower than the
original so as not to annoy the driver and the passengers. In consequence the original
configuration is chosen as the lower bound (lb), while the surface far away 0.05 m (in
the z direction) from the original one is chosen as the upper bound (ub).
Besides constraints are imposed to avoid the optimisation routine going towards
unsuitable configurations, from the point of view of aerodynamics technology or
style (penetration, bumps and similar). The following constraints are assigned, in
consequence:
yi‡1;j ÿ yi;j  0 for i ˆ 1; . . . ; 13;
zi‡1;j ÿ zi;j  0 for i ˆ 1; . . . ; 8; …2†
zi‡1;j ÿ zi;j  0 for i ˆ 9; . . . ; 13;

Assuming as `an objective function' to be the aerodynamics resistance, the best

configuration attributes a minimum value to it, with the consequent values of the
independent variables.

3.1 Automatic loop

The problem, which is a typical constrained optimisation problem, has been solved
with the aid of the optimisation toolbox of MatLab. In particular, in order to use
efficient algorithms (Vanderplaats, 1976), the optimiser uses the BFGS quasi-Newton
method with a mixed quadratic and cubic line search procedure. This quasi-Newton
method uses the BFGS formula for updating the approximation of the Hessian matrix
since no information about the gradient of the objective function can be supplied.
All the surfaces are stored in an IGES format. In this work two IGES file were
created; the first contains information as far as the variable surface is concerned,
 Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code 35

while the other contains the remaining surfaces. IGES files are read by GID thanks
to a batch file containing all the instructions that GID has to execute. After the
reading of the batch file, GID imports the file IGES, loads all the boundary
conditions, creates the model of the simulating flux, generates the mesh, recalls the
solver and executes the simulation, as Figure 9 shows. At every step of the
optimisation loop, an IGES file of the optimising surface is modified and rewritten,
GID is rerun, the batch file is reloaded, the simulation is effected and the value of the
total resistance is stored in a text file; hence the design variables are modified, the
IGES file is updated and a new simulation runs. The loop is repeated until
convergence, or a maximum number of iteration is reached.

Figure 9 Flow chart of the optimisation loop

The lower bound (lb) and upper one (ub) are fixed, as detailed in the previous
section, while the linear constraints of Equation (2) can be arranged in a more
suitable matrix form by means of:
A
x  b; …3†

x being a column vector containing the coordinates y and z of the design variables, A,
a matrix and b a column vector of zeros.
The optimisation programme was written for the more general case (i.e. a surface
of m  n control points), successively some simplifications have been introduced due
to limited hardware resource. All the calculations are executed on a computer AMD
at 1.9 GHz.
Initially, for every line of control point (Figure 10(a)), only a point was
considered as independent variable, introducing some relation joining the remaining
36 C. D'Anca, A. Mancuso and G. VirzõÁ Mariotti

four points of the line to the above-mentioned point, in order to maintain unvaried
the windscreen curvature and the horizontal tangency of the surface across the
longitudinal plane of symmetry. Successively only seven out of 13 control points have
been considered variables, obtaining 14 design variables (providing that the control
point can change the y and z values); the variable control points are shown in
Figure 10(b).

Figure 10(a) Variable control points; general case

Figure 10(b) Variable control points; limited application

 Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code 37

4 Results

The convergence has been obtained after 147 iterations; Figure 11 shows the
normalised aerodynamics resistance (with regard to the initial value) versus the
iterations number.

Figure 11 Normalised aerodynamic resistance versus the iterations number

One can note as, varying the coordinates of only seven control points, in a range of
0.05 m, the lowering of the aerodynamics resistance is equal to 4.2% with regard to
the initial value. The obtained optimum configuration is shown in Figure 12. The
difference between initial and optimised configurations is evidenced in Figure 12(b),
where both the curves are obtained by the intersection of the surface with the middle
plane of the vehicle. The clear curve represents the initial configuration, while the
black one the optimised configuration.
The air flux near the optimised surface (Figure 13) is laminar without phenomena
of flux separation. Figure 14(a) shows that the optimised surface has a minor flux
separation on the bonnet and on the windscreen; the wake is reduced with regard to
the non-optimised one (Figure 14(b)). This is due to a greater pressure recovery in the
rear, producing a lower resistance.
Finally the comparison of Figures 15(a) and (b) shows the differences between the
original geometry and that optimised automatically.
38 C. D'Anca, A. Mancuso and G. VirzõÁ Mariotti

Figure 12(a) Optimised surface (perspective view)

Figure 12(b) Optimised surface (side view)

Figure 13 Stream lines; close up on the windscreen

 Optimisation of a vehicle shape by CFD code 39

Figure 14(a) Stream Lines around the optimised vehicle

Figure 14(b) Stream Lines around the initial vehicle

Figure 15(a) Optimised model

Figure 15(b) Initial model

40 C. D'Anca, A. Mancuso and G. VirzõÁ Mariotti

5 Conclusions

In the beginning, simulations were executed with the purpose of obtaining the
aerodynamics resistance according to the geometric configuration of some surfaces.
These simulations also furnished the pressure distribution on the vehicle surfaces,
and wake conformation; in all the cases a better configuration than the initial one
was found, with a reduction of the aerodynamic resistance coefficient of some
percent. The result of simulation is in very good accordance with the empirical White
method.
Two different vehicle configurations were found: the first putting together the
particulars in Figure 5 having a minimum value of aerodynamic resistance, the other
deriving from a careful manual study of the stream lines around the vehicle. A better
result was obtained in the second case: the superposition of optimum particulars does
not ensure the best result because a certain solution can influence the geometric
configuration of other vehicle parts in a different way. It demonstrates the difficulty
in the research of the shape, ensuring minimum aerodynamics resistance and the
importance of the designer experience.
The procedure of automatic optimisation is set creating a loop between a CFD
code that executes the simulations and an optimisation module. The procedure
permits the geometric configuration determination of the surface, which the
minimum value of aerodynamics resistance belongs. A CD reduction equal to
4.2% with regard to the initial value is obtained, only acting on seven amongst all the
control points. A better result can be obtained acting on other surfaces that were not
optimised because the resources of hardware and software were limited.
The potentialities of this method of automatic optimisation are remarkable if one
can realise a better grid and has the possibility of action on a greater number of
points; however its application requires hardware resources of high capacities.

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