Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Research Article
Sedimentation in the Afikpo graben (SE Nigeria) thus commenced with the Campano-
Maastrichtian marine and paralic shales of the Enugu and Nkporo Formations, overlain by the
Mamu Formation. The fluviodeltaic and subtidal sandstones of the Ajali Formation lie on the
Mamu Formation. The overlying deltaic Nsukka and marine shales of the Imo and Ameke
Formations were deposited during the Paleocene. These two formations (Mamu and Nsukka)
consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales and siltstones
interpreted as deltaic deposits. The primary minerals are Feldspar, Quartz, Pyroxenes, Haematite.
The secondary minerals are further classified into two major groups of 1:1 clay minerals and 2:1
clay minerals. The 1:1 clay minerals are kaolinite and halloysite, while the examples of 2:1 mineral
are montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite. Clay fractions of shale samples obtained from the
Cretaceous Mamu and Nsukka Formations in the Afikpo graben, South eastern Nigeria through
the process of sedimentation technique were air – dried and analyzed using the empyrean
diffractometer manufactured by Panalytical to determine the presence of clay mineralization in
the area. The result shows that the bulk mineral composition of the shales comprises of quartz,
clay minerals, carbonates and iron rich minerals, while the dominant clay mineral is kaolinite (70
– 80%) with minor amounts of illite (4 – 7 %) and smectite (10 – 20) as typical composition of
tropical sediment.
Key words: Tropical soil, Clay mineralization, Sedimentation, Cretaceous, Afikpo, Nigeria.
INTRODUCTION
Clay minerals refer to sheet-structured alumino-silicate and chlorites with illites and chlorites increasing seawards
minerals that primarily occur in the clay-sized (2μm) and kaolinites decreasing seawards (Keller,
fraction of soils, sediments, sedimentary rocks, and 1970).Diagenetical processes of clay minerals based on
weathered or altered rocks (Nesse, 2000). They are grain sizes under marine conditions shown that clay
formed as a result of chemical weathering of pre-existing mineral grain decreases with depth offshore as a result of
rocks, through hydrothermal alteration of granitic rocks water current (Porrenga, 1967), therefore kaolinite will be
and as a result of diagenesis. Clay mineral compositions associated with continental to shallow marine
in shallow marine and deep marine environments are environments while montmorillonite, illites and chlorites
largely controlled by detrital clay derived from the will suggest deposition in outer shelf (deep marine )
continents. Also the mineralogical composition of clay environment.
minerals depends on the environment of deposition
(Porrenga, 1967). Therefore, they can be used in
determining the depositional environments of sediments *Corresponding Author: Mmaduabuchi Uche Uzoegbu,
(Agumanu and Enu, 1990, Mamman et al, 2010). Department of Geology, College of Physical and Applied
Sciences, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture,
Research has shown that clays in open marine Umudike, PMB 7267, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. E-
environment contained mainly of illites, montmorillonite mail: mu.uzoegbu@mouau.edu.ng; Tel: 08030715958
Indeed, clay minerals are used widely for different low alkaline pH favor the formation of montmorillonite and
scientific purposes such as interpreting and understanding three-layer clay minerals.
such problems as tectonics, provenance, facies,
boundaries, correlation, zonation, age, metamorphism, oil Clay mineral occurrence has being widely investigated in
exploration with its latest application in paleoclimate Nigeria, which are of utmost importance in agriculture,
determination. According to Churchman (2000), the two- construction and the oil and gas industry.
layer/three-layer clay mineral ratio is mainly controlled by The degree of soil reactivity, ability to retain water or
climate. Therefore, it is easy to recognize between warm nutrients and cation exchange capacity are dependent on
and humid conditions typical for kaolinite or halloysite the type of minerals in a soil. Generally, most of the tropical
formation, or dry seasons, specific for illite or smectite soils are dominated by the 1:1 silicate minerals such as
formation. Furthermore, the formation of kaolinite and kaolinite which is referred to as low activity clay (Dudek,
halloysite is favored by an acidic (pH ~3) conditions, and 2001). Table 1 shows some of the soil minerals and their
high leaching environments. Conversely, relatively low or properties.
no leaching environment and conditions under neutral to
A second transgressive – regressive of deposition in the The shales are also characterized by species of
Turonian to Santonian was again terminated by a phase of monticeras and elobiceras ammonites (Offodile, 1976).
folding and faulting in the early Santonian times which
affected all the sediments deposited before the tectonism The regressive phase of the first marine transgression led
and this gave rise to the Afikpo (Abakiliki) syncline (Fig. 1). to the deposition of the Cenomanian sediments. This is
Imprint of tectonism on the sediments in the lower Benue found in the southeastern part of the basin around Calabar.
trough were preserved by series of joints trending NW – These beds have been assigned as Odukpani Formation
SE. Typical depositional environments of a syncline are (Reyment, 1965). It was deposited under shallow water
marine, continental and transitional environments which conditions (Kogbe, 1976). The basal beds are comprised
produced lithostratigraphic units of Asu River Group, Eze- of arkosic followed by quartzose –felspathic sandstone
Aku Group (Table 4) etc. and siltstone facies while shales predominate in the upper
part of the formation (Reyment, 1965).
The first marine transgression in Nigeria occurred during
the middle Albian. Albian sediments unnamed and The type locality of the Eze-Aku Group is found at the Eze-
undifferentiated constitute the Asu River Group and its Aku River valley in the southeast of Eze-Aku. The
equivalents (Ojoh, 1999).Ukaegbu and Akpabio (2009) formation is comprised of hard grey to black shale and
have differentiated the Asu River Group northeast of the siltstone. The thickness varies but may attain 100m locally.
Afikpo Basin as consisting of alternating shale, siltstone The Eze-Aku shale represents shallow marine deposits.
with occurrence of sandstone. The maximum thickness of The fossil contents indicate a basal Turonian age (Carter
the Asu River Group is 1000m, Albian in age and rich in et al., 1963; Ukaegbu and Akpabio, 2009).
ammonites as well as foraminifera, radiolarian and pollens.
Enugu Shale
Santonian
Coniacian Agwu Shale Agwu Shale
Turonian
New Netim
Eze-Aku Group Eze-Aku Group
Marl
Cenomanian
Ekenkpon
Shales
Albian
Asu-River Group Mfamosing
Limestone
Aptian
Awi Formation
MATERIAL AND METHOD produced the reflection peaks which correspond to the
basal spacing (d-spacing) of the mineral.
The field analysis involved the collection of shale and clay
samples from hand dug wells in the Nsukka and Mamu
Formations from the Afikpo Basin (Fig. 2). Shale samples
of the Nsukka Formtaion were collected at Amuvi,
Obotme, and Okobo while those of Mamu Formation were
collected at Nkana and Amakofia, all within the Afikpo
Basin.
respective angles. A peak in intensity usually occurs when RESULT AND DISCUSSION
a mineral contains lattice planes with d-spacing
appropriate to diffract x-rays at the value of θ. Also, each The results obtained from unheated, air dried and
peak consists of two separate reflections (Kα1 and Kα2), unglycolated shale samples shown that the bulk mineral
at small values of 2θ, the peak locations overlap with Kα2 composition of the shales from both Mamu and Nsukka
appearing as a hump on the side of Kα1. Greater Formations as in the Tables 3 and 4 is comprised of quartz,
separations occurs at higher values of θ. Although these clay minerals, carbonates, iron rich minerals such as
combined peaks were treated as one. The 2λ position of haematite, etc. Kaolinite is the major clay mineral present
the diffracted peak is typically measured as the centre of in both Formations with minor amounts of illite and
the peak at 80% height. smectite (with the smectite mainly occurring in the Nsukka
Formation along Amuvi). Secondary minerals were difficult
Results were presented as peak positions at 2θ and x-ray to identify due to the greater peaks of kaolinite and quartz.
counts in the form of a table or an x-y plot. Intensity (I) is The figures 5 and 6 below are results from the XRD
reported as peak height intensity (intensity above analysis.
background). The relative intensity is recorded as the ratio
of the absolute intensity of every peak to the absolute
intensity of the most intense peak, and then be converted
to a percentage.
Clay Mineral Distribution a common detrital clay mineral in sediments derived from
granitic and gneissose source. It is stable in low ph waters
The shales are dominated by quartz, clay minerals and and tends to be deposited in continental environments. It
minor amounts of carbonates and iron rich minerals (Table may be converted to illite during diagenesis in the
3). Kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral in both presence of alkaline connate water. Kaolinite is also
Formations followed by minor amounts of illite and known to be concentrated in near shore sediments and
montmorillonite (Onyeogu et al., 2016). Kaolinite 65 - 80% decrease in abundance with distance from the shoreline
continental related clay mineral specie is the major clay as other clay minerals increases (Parham, 1966).
mineral present in both Formations. It mainly occurs in
open environments with high acidic content. The low Table 6: Clay mineral composition of the shales.
content of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium Kaolinite Illite Smectite Others
ions in the shales of the Mamu and Nsukka Formations Location (%) (%) (%) (%)
also suggests exhaustive leaching under acidic, warm, Amuvi 79.00 6.00 12.00 3.00
tropical conditions. Such conditions are further Okobo 76.80 9.70 12.30 nd
strengthened by the occurrence of coal seams and leaf Obotme 70.40 10.80 15.58 3.22
impressions in both Formations. According to (Rao and Nkana 82.00 5.00 13.00 nd
Srihari, 1980), under such conditions, smectite and marine Amakaofia 80.00 6.00 14.00 nd
type clay lose their characteristic ions (K+, Na +, Ca2+, and nd = Not Determine
Fe2+) while H+ is added to produce kaolinite. Due to its
stability in low Ph waters, it may be converted to illite Illite5-10% is the most common clay mineral found in
during diagenesis in the presence of alkaline connate marine deposits. Formation of illites is generally favoured
water. by alkaline conditions with high concentration of aluminium
and potassium. Its presence in the Mamu and Nsukka
Kaolinite is non-marine in origin because kaolinites quickly Formation is minimal. The low amount of illite from both
transforms to a more complex clay in the presence of sea formations might be as a result of erosion on the rock
water. It is formed from feldspars both by hydrothermal bearing minerals and the acidic conditions that prevailed
alteration of granitic rocks and by surficial weathering. It is during the time of deposition. Illites are more commonly
the detrital clay found in marine deposits and contains up Dunoyer de Segonzac (1970) noted that illite and chlorite
to 8% K2O. The potassium may be due to incomplete are more abundant in the older rocks such as Paleozoic
degradation of potash feldspars to kaolinite or as a result and Precambrian due to diagenetic changes.
of the diagenesis of kaolinite within the marine
environment. It is the most abundant clay mineral in The nature of the marine environment and diagenesis are
sediments although it’s less obvious than kaolinite. such that variations in the character of the source material
Smectiteis within 7-15%, a clay mineral that commonly might be reflected in the sedimentary accumulation. For
results from the weathering of basic rocks, favoured by example, kaolinite rich marine sediment means a kaolinitic
poor drainage, occurs in the presence of calcium at the source area since kaolinite is not formed in the sea. Also,
expense of potassium and mostly associated with mildly it means relatively rapid accumulation with the persistence
alkaline conditions (marine environment). They occur of kaolinite through an environment fundamentally
sporadically in the basin. While kaolinite is mainly unfavorable for it (Griffin et al., 1968). Therefore, if a
concentrated in continental to marginal marine formation is said to be deposited in a marine environment
environments, smectite is usually known for its abundance (perhaps from biostratigraphic study) contains a large
in normal marine sediments. Also, during size sorting, proportion of kaolinite, it means that the source material is
while kaolinite and illite tends to be concentrated in near a kaolinite source and rapid accumulation must have been
shore environments due to their grain sizes and their ability taking place for the kaolinite to be preserved. Nwajide
to flocculate, smectites usually settles as finer particles in (2013), using XRD analysis shows that the principal
deep offshore environments. component of the Imo shale is kaolinite and minor amount
of montmorillonite and illite. From microfaunal evidence, it
Chlorites are mixed layer clays that occur as an alteration is thought to be deposited in a neritic environment.
product of primary micas and are common accessory Due to the response of clays to environment and cation
minerals in immature sand and shales. Chlorites also content, they have been used as facies indicators (Moore
replace illite and other diagenetic minerals at the point and Reynolds, 1997).
where diagenesis merges into metamorphism.
According to Hower et al., 1976 and Reynolds, 1993, there
Also, calcium favors the formation of montmorillonite and should be a cautious approach in the use of clays in
kaolinite does not form so long as there is any appreciable environmental studies because environments could
amount of calcium in the environment. Clay mineral influence the minerals present through early mineral
components present in calcareous sediments and transformation in the basin of deposition. Also, diagenetic
dolomites are mainly illite and montmorillonites. The and tectonic influence can also reduce the amount of
presence of calcium tends to block the formation of provenance information in ancient shales due to
kaolinite. The increase in kaolinite content in marine conversion of smectites to illites.
sediments is as a result of either increased runoff (due to
sea level fall) or from increased rainfall (Robert and
Kennett, 1994). CONCLUSION
Akinyemi et al. (2013) noted that the Mamu Formation in Clay, earth or soil that is plastic and tenacious when moist
the south western part of the Anambra basin is and that becomes permanently hard when baked or fired.
characterized by mainly quartz and kaolinite as the major Of widespread importance in industry, clays consist of a
crystalline minerals with traces of haematitic component. group of hydrous alumino-silicate minerals formed by the
According to Kassim (2006), kaolinites are major weathering of feldspathic rocks, such as granite. Individual
indicators of detrital origin in continental systems. Weaver mineral grains are microscopic in size and shaped like
(1960) also stated that kaolinite is dominant in sediments flakes. This makes their aggregate surface area much
of fluviatile environments. greater than their thickness and allows them to take up
large amounts of water by adhesion, giving them plasticity
Ukaonu (2009) recorded that kaolinite occurs in the and causing some varieties to swell. Common clay is a
Nanka, Nsukka, Ajali, Mamuand Nkporo Formations and it mixture of kaolin, or china clay (hydrated clay) and the fine
dominates the entire Anambra basin, little amount of powder of some feldspathic mineral that is anhydrous
diagenetic smectite occurs only in the Nsukka and Mamu (without water) and not decomposed. Clays vary in
Formation, illite was observed to occur mainly in samples plasticity, all being more or less malleable and capable of
from Ajali and Nkporo Formations. It is not abundant in the being molded into any form when moistened with water.
Formations of the Anambra basin probably because of the The plastic clays are used for making pottery of all kinds,
burial history of the Formations. Chlorite is not very bricks and tiles, tobacco pipes, firebricks, and other
abundant in the Anambra basin probably as a result of the products. The commoner varieties of clay and clay rocks
burial history of the formation. Chlorite develops at depth are china clay, or kaolin; pipe clay, similar to kaolin, but
and in the zone of incipient metamorphism, where kaolinite containing a larger percentage of silica; potter's clay, not
is converted to illite and chlorite. as pure as pipe clay; sculptor's clay, or modeling clay, a
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria
Uzoegbu and Agbo 282
fine potter's clay, sometimes mixed with fine sand; brick Keller, W. D. (1970), “Environmental aspects of clay
clay, an admixture of clay and sand with some ferruginous minerals.” J. Sedi. Res., vol. 40 no. 3, p. 39-46.
(iron-containing) matter; fire clay, containing little or no Kogbe, C.A. (1976), The Upper Cretaceous Abeokuta
lime, alkaline earth, or iron (which act as fluxes), and Formation of South Western Nigeria.” Nigerian Field
hence infusible or highly refractory; shale; loam; and marl. No. 4.
Primary minerals are formed from soil parent rocks such Mamman, Y. D., Dike, E. F. C., Haruna, I. V. and Haruna,
as igneous and metamorphic rocks. These minerals A. I. (2010), “Clay mineralogy and paleodepositional
dominate the sand fraction of the soil. Secondary minerals environments of late Cenomanian - Turonian sediments
are formed from the weathering and alteration of primary in the Yola arm, upper Benue trough, Northeastern
minerals and subsequent recombination of the alteration Nigeria.” J. Min. Geol. vol. 46, no. 1, p. 1-11.
products. This group dominates the clay fraction of the Moore, D.M. and Reynolds, R.C. (1997). X-ray diffraction
soils and is usually referred to as clay minerals such as and the identification and analysis of Clay Minerals. 2nd
kaolinite, halloysite, montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite edition. Oxford University Press. Oxford, New York, 378
which dominated most of tropical sediments. pp.
Nesse, W. D. (2000), Introduction to Mineralogy. New
York: Oxford UP. New York, 346-349.
REFERENCES Nwachukwu, S.O. (1976), Approximate geothermal
gradients in the Niger delta sedimentary basin.
Adepetu, J. A., Adetunji, M. T. and Ige, D. V. (2014), Soil American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
fertility and crop nutrition. Jumak Publishers, pp. 558. 69, 1073-77.
Agumanu, A.E and Enu, E.I. (1990), Late Cretaceous clay Nwajide, C. S. (2013), Geology of Nigeria’s Sedimentary
distribution in the Lower Benue Trough; its basins. CSS Bookshop Limited, Nigeria, p. 277 – 346.
Paleoenvironmental and tectonic implication. Journal of Offodile, M.E. (1976), The geology of the Middle Benue,
African Earth Sciences,10(3), pp. 465-470. Nigeria. Special Volume Palaeontological Institute,
Akinyemi, S.A., Adebayo, O.F., Ojo, O.A., Fadipe, O.A., University of Uppsala, 4, 1-166.
Gitari, W.M. (2013), Mineralogy and Geochemical Ojo, O.J. (1999) Depositional environments, palynological and
Appraisal of Paleo-Redox Indicators in Maastrichian organic geochemical studies of Gongola and Yola Basins,
Outcrop Shales of Mamu Formation, Anambra Basin, Nigeria: Implications for hydrocarbon potential”. Ph. D
Nigeria, J Natur Sci Res 3: 48-64. Thesis, University of Ilorin, Nigeria, pp. 355.
Carter et al. (1963), The geology of parts of Adamawa, Olade, M.A. (1975), Evolution of Nigeria’s Benue Trough
Bauchi and Borno provinces in northeastern Nigeria. (Aulocogen): A tectonic model”. Geology Magazine,
Geological Surveying of Nigeria Bulletin, 30, 1-108. 112(6), 575-583.
Churchman, G. J. (2000), “The alteration and formation of Onyeogu, T., Uzoegbu, M.U. and Ideozu, R.U. (2016),
soil minerals by weathering,” in Handbook of Clay Minerals Assessment from Maastrichtian Syclinal
soilscience, M. E. Summer, Ed. CRC Press New York, Afikpo, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and
vol. 1, p. 3-27. Research Publications, 6(9), pp. 746 – 753.
Dudek, T. (2001), Diagenetic evolution of illite/smectite in Parham, W. E. (1966), Lateral Variations of Clay Mineral
the Miocene shales from the Przemysl area Assemblage in Modern and Ancient Sediments.” in
(Carpathian Foredeep). PhD thesis, Institute of Proc. 1966 INTERCLAY Conf., Jerusalem, vol. 1, pp.
Geological Sciences PAN, Kraków, 148 p. 135 – 145.
Dunoyer de Segonzac, .A. (1970), The Transformation of Porrenga, D. H. (1967), Clay minerals and geochemistry
Clay Minerals during Diagenesis and Low Grade of recent marine sediments in tropical areas an
Metamorphism. Sedimentology, No 15. Pp 337 – 352. exemplified by Niger Delta, the Orinoco shelf and the
Griffin, J.J. Windom, H. and Goldberg, E. D. (1968), The shelf of Sarawak. Publiates Van het Fysisch-
distribution of clay minerals in the world oceans. Deep Geografisch: Laboratorium Van de Universiteit Van
sea research and oceanographic Abstracts, Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol .9, p. 7-23.
v.15(4), p. 433-459. Rao, D. N. and Srihari, Y. (1980), Clay mineralogy of the
Hower, J., Eslinger, E.V., Hower, M.E. and Perry, E.A. Late Pleistocene red sediments of the Visakhapatnam
(1976), Mechanism of burial metamorphism of region, East coast of India. Sedi. Geol., vol. 27(3), p.
argillaceous sediments: 1. Mineralogical and chemical 213-227.
evidence. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 87(5), 725-737. Reyment, R. A. (1965), Aspects of the Geology of Nigeria:
Ibia, T. O. (2012), Soil chemistry, Soil quality and National The stratigraphy of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic
Development. Nexus. 32nd Inaugural Lecturer Series of deposits. Ibadan University press.
University of Uyo press Ltd, Uyo. pp115. Reynolds, R.C. (1993). Three dimensional X-ray powder
Kassim, S.A. (2006), Paleoenvironmental indicators of diffraction from disordered illite: Simulation and
Clay Minerals in Miocene Sediments, interpretation of the diffraction patterns, in: “Computer
Northern Iraq. Damascus University Journal of Basic application to X-ray powder diffraction analysis of clay
Science, Vol. 22, No 1, 59-70. minerals”. R.C.Jr. Reynolds and J.R. Walker, eds. CMS