International Journal of Geology and Mining

Vol. 5(2), pp. 275-283, July, 2019. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 3019-8261

Research Article

Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments

from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria
*1Uzoegbu, M. U., 2Agbo, C. C.
1,2Department
of Geology, College of Physical and Applied Sciences, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike,
PMB 7267, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria

Sedimentation in the Afikpo graben (SE Nigeria) thus commenced with the Campano-
Maastrichtian marine and paralic shales of the Enugu and Nkporo Formations, overlain by the
Mamu Formation. The fluviodeltaic and subtidal sandstones of the Ajali Formation lie on the
Mamu Formation. The overlying deltaic Nsukka and marine shales of the Imo and Ameke
Formations were deposited during the Paleocene. These two formations (Mamu and Nsukka)
consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales and siltstones
interpreted as deltaic deposits. The primary minerals are Feldspar, Quartz, Pyroxenes, Haematite.
The secondary minerals are further classified into two major groups of 1:1 clay minerals and 2:1
clay minerals. The 1:1 clay minerals are kaolinite and halloysite, while the examples of 2:1 mineral
are montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite. Clay fractions of shale samples obtained from the
Cretaceous Mamu and Nsukka Formations in the Afikpo graben, South eastern Nigeria through
the process of sedimentation technique were air – dried and analyzed using the empyrean
diffractometer manufactured by Panalytical to determine the presence of clay mineralization in
the area. The result shows that the bulk mineral composition of the shales comprises of quartz,
clay minerals, carbonates and iron rich minerals, while the dominant clay mineral is kaolinite (70
– 80%) with minor amounts of illite (4 – 7 %) and smectite (10 – 20) as typical composition of
tropical sediment.

Key words: Tropical soil, Clay mineralization, Sedimentation, Cretaceous, Afikpo, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION

Clay minerals refer to sheet-structured alumino-silicate
minerals that primarily occur in the clay-sized (2μm)
fraction of soils, sediments, sedimentary rocks, and
weathered or altered rocks (Nesse, 2000). They are
formed as a result of chemical weathering of pre-existing
rocks, through hydrothermal alteration of granitic rocks
and as a result of diagenesis. Clay mineral compositions
in shallow marine and deep marine environments are
largely controlled by detrital clay derived from the
continents. Also the mineralogical composition of clay
minerals depends on the environment of deposition
(Porrenga, 1967). Therefore, they can be used in
determining the depositional environments of sediments
(Agumanu and Enu, 1990, Mamman et al, 2010).
Research has shown that clays in open marine
environment contained mainly of illites, montmorillonite
and chlorites with illites and chlorites increasing seawards
and kaolinites decreasing seawards (Keller,
1970).Diagenetical processes of clay minerals based on
grain sizes under marine conditions shown that clay
mineral grain decreases with depth offshore as a result of
water current (Porrenga, 1967), therefore kaolinite will be
associated with continental to shallow marine
environments while montmorillonite, illites and chlorites
will suggest deposition in outer shelf (deep marine )
environment.
*Corresponding Author: Mmaduabuchi Uche Uzoegbu,
Department of Geology, College of Physical and Applied
Sciences, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture,
Umudike, PMB 7267, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. E-
mail: mu.uzoegbu@mouau.edu.ng; Tel: 08030715958

Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria

Uzoegbu and Agbo 276

Indeed, clay minerals are used widely for different
scientific purposes such as interpreting and understanding
such problems as tectonics, provenance, facies,
boundaries, correlation, zonation, age, metamorphism, oil
exploration with its latest application in paleoclimate
determination. According to Churchman (2000), the two-
layer/three-layer clay mineral ratio is mainly controlled by
climate. Therefore, it is easy to recognize between warm
and humid conditions typical for kaolinite or halloysite
formation, or dry seasons, specific for illite or smectite
formation. Furthermore, the formation of kaolinite and
halloysite is favored by an acidic (pH ~3) conditions, and
high leaching environments. Conversely, relatively low or
no leaching environment and conditions under neutral to
low alkaline pH favor the formation of montmorillonite and
three-layer clay minerals.
Clay mineral occurrence has being widely investigated in
Nigeria, which are of utmost importance in agriculture,
construction and the oil and gas industry.
The degree of soil reactivity, ability to retain water or
nutrients and cation exchange capacity are dependent on
the type of minerals in a soil. Generally, most of the tropical
soils are dominated by the 1:1 silicate minerals such as
kaolinite which is referred to as low activity clay (Dudek,
2001). Table 1 shows some of the soil minerals and their
properties.

Table 1: Some Silicate Clay Minerals and their Properties.

Clay Minerals Surface Area (mm2) CEC* Charge Type ** Expandability
Kaolinite 10 – 20 10 – 150 PD None
Illite 60 – 100 10 – 40 PD None
Montmorillonite 600 – 800 900 – 1200 PERM, PD High
Vermiculite 600 – 800 1200 – 150 PERM, PD Medium
Chlorites 70 - 150 100 - 400 PERM, PD None
Source: Adepetu et al., 2014
*CEC = Cation Exchange Capacity (Mmol/kg) **PD = pH dependent charges, PERM = Structured permanent charge
Table 2: Classification of Primary Minerals
S/N Mineral Group Member Chemical Composition
1 Quartz Graphite SiO2
2 Feldspar Orthoclase KAlSiO8
Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8
3 Mica Muscovite (white mica) KAl2(AlSi3O10(OH,F)2
Biotite (black mica) K(MgFe)3 (AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2
4 Ferromagnessian Minerals
-Pyroxenes Augite Ca(Mg,Fe,Al,)(SiAl)2O6
-Amphiboles Actinolite Ca2Fe2(Si4O11)2(O11)2
-Olivine Olivine (MgFe)2SiO4
Source: Ibia (2012).
According to Churchman (2000), the two-layer/three-layer high leaching environments. Conversely, relatively low or
clay mineral ratio is mainly controlled by climate. no leaching environment and conditions under neutral to
Therefore, it is easy to recognize between warm and low alkaline pH favor the formation of montmorillonite and
humid conditions typical for kaolinite or halloysite three layer clay minerals. This paper deals with the
formation, or dry seasons, specific for illite or smectite determination and evidence of clay mineralization in the
formation. Furthermore, the formation of kaolinite and sediment of the studied area.
halloysite is favored by an acidic (pH ~3) conditions, and

Table 3: Common Secondary Minerals in the Soil.

S/N Mineral Group Member Chemical Composition
1 Oxides Haematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
2 Hydroxides Gibbsite Al2O3 – 3H2O
Geothite FeO – OH
3 Silicate Kaolinite 2[Al2 Si2O5(OH)4]
Montmorillonite Al2Si4O10(OH)2
Illite KAl2(SiAl)4O10(OH)2nH2O
Vermiculite Mg3Si4O10(OH)xH2O
4 Sulphate Gypsum CaSO4H2O
5 Carbonates Calcite CaCO3
6 Phosphate Apitite CaF(PO4)3
Source: Ibia (2012).
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria

STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING
The Santonian deformational process resulted in the
fragmentation of the lower Benue trough (Fig. 1) into the
Figure 1: Generalized geological map of Nigeria showing location of studied area.
A second transgressive – regressive of deposition in the
Turonian to Santonian was again terminated by a phase of
folding and faulting in the early Santonian times which
affected all the sediments deposited before the tectonism
and this gave rise to the Afikpo (Abakiliki) syncline (Fig. 1).
Imprint of tectonism on the sediments in the lower Benue
trough were preserved by series of joints trending NW –
SE. Typical depositional environments of a syncline are
marine, continental and transitional environments which
produced lithostratigraphic units of Asu River Group, Eze-
Aku Group (Table 4) etc.
The first marine transgression in Nigeria occurred during
the middle Albian. Albian sediments unnamed and
undifferentiated constitute the Asu River Group and its
equivalents (Ojoh, 1999).Ukaegbu and Akpabio (2009)
have differentiated the Asu River Group northeast of the
Afikpo Basin as consisting of alternating shale, siltstone
with occurrence of sandstone. The maximum thickness of
the Asu River Group is 1000m, Albian in age and rich in
ammonites as well as foraminifera, radiolarian and pollens.
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 277
Abakiliki syncline (Kogbe, 1976). The predominantly
Albian-Cenomanian marine depositional cycles terminated
by a phase of folding (Nwachukwu, 1976; Olade, 1975)
have affected the Asu River Group in the area.
The shales are also characterized by species of
monticeras and elobiceras ammonites (Offodile, 1976).
The regressive phase of the first marine transgression led
to the deposition of the Cenomanian sediments. This is
found in the southeastern part of the basin around Calabar.
These beds have been assigned as Odukpani Formation
(Reyment, 1965). It was deposited under shallow water
conditions (Kogbe, 1976). The basal beds are comprised
of arkosic followed by quartzose –felspathic sandstone
and siltstone facies while shales predominate in the upper
part of the formation (Reyment, 1965).
The type locality of the Eze-Aku Group is found at the Eze-
Aku River valley in the southeast of Eze-Aku. The
formation is comprised of hard grey to black shale and
siltstone. The thickness varies but may attain 100m locally.
The Eze-Aku shale represents shallow marine deposits.
The fossil contents indicate a basal Turonian age (Carter
et al., 1963; Ukaegbu and Akpabio, 2009).
Uzoegbu and Agbo 278

Table 4: Stratigraphic units of the lower Benue trough.

AGE ANAMBRA AFIKPO BASIN CALABAR
BASIN FLANK
Tertiary

Oligocene Ogwashi-Asaba Fm Ogwashi-asaba Fm

Eocene Ameki Group Ameki Group
Paleocene Imo Shale Imo Shale
Nsukka Formation Nsukka Formation

Ajali Sandstone Ajali Sandstone

Maastricthtian Mamu Formation
Mamu Shale Nkporo Shale Nkporo Shale
Enugu Shale
Nkporo Shale Afikpo Sandstone
Campanian
Cretaceous

Enugu Shale
Santonian
Coniacian Agwu Shale Agwu Shale
Turonian
New Netim
Eze-Aku Group Eze-Aku Group
Marl
Cenomanian
Ekenkpon
Shales
Albian
Asu-River Group Mfamosing
Limestone

Aptian
Awi Formation

Precambrian Basement Complex

MATERIAL AND METHOD produced the reflection peaks which correspond to the
basal spacing (d-spacing) of the mineral.
The field analysis involved the collection of shale and clay
samples from hand dug wells in the Nsukka and Mamu
Formations from the Afikpo Basin (Fig. 2). Shale samples
of the Nsukka Formtaion were collected at Amuvi,
Obotme, and Okobo while those of Mamu Formation were
collected at Nkana and Amakofia, all within the Afikpo
Basin.

Clay fractions (<2µm) was extracted from the samples

through sedimentation technique. These samples were
air-dried for about 24 hours and mounted on glass slides.
The air-dried oriented samples were analyzed using X-Ray
Diffractometer (XRD) with copper K alpha radiation
running at a rate of 2θ (Copper K alpha radiation was
preferred because of its relatively high pick energy,
intensity, low peak to background ratio, convenient
wavelength, the high heat conductivity of the target
material and the symmetry of the K alpha 1 and K alpha 2
composite peaks).Identification of the clay minerals was
based on the basal reflection patterns on the Figure 2: Location map of the sampled area.
diffractograms (Figs 3 and 4). The diffraction angles (2θ)

Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria


Figure 3: XRD pattern for Mamu Formation
Figure 4: XRD pattern for Nsukka Formation
Comparison of the reflection peaks with those from
established standard minerals such as the Joint
Committee on Powder Diffraction Standard (JCPDS)
alongside other references helped in the identification of
the clay mineral assemblage.
The data was analyzed at the Nigerian Geological
Research Laboratory (NGRL), Kaduna using an Empyrean
Diffractometer with a copper anode material manufactured
by Panalytical.
The samples obtained were finely grounded to pass
through 63µm, homogenized and average bulk
composition was determined. Powdered samples were
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 279
then prepared using the sample preparation block and
compressed in a flat sample holder to create a flat, smooth
surface that was later mounted on the sample stage in the
XRD cabinet.
Mounted samples were analyzed using the reflection –
transmission spinner stage with 2 theta settings. 2 theta
starting position was 0.00483 and ends at 75.000 with a 2
theta step of 0.026 at 37s per step. Tube current was 40Ma
and the tension was 45VA. Fixed divergent slit size of 1°
was used and the Goniometer radius was 240mm.
The intensities of diffracted x-rays were continuously
recorded as the sample and detector rotate through their
Uzoegbu and Agbo 280

respective angles. A peak in intensity usually occurs when
a mineral contains lattice planes with d-spacing
appropriate to diffract x-rays at the value of θ. Also, each
peak consists of two separate reflections (Kα1 and Kα2),
at small values of 2θ, the peak locations overlap with Kα2
appearing as a hump on the side of Kα1. Greater
separations occurs at higher values of θ. Although these
combined peaks were treated as one. The 2λ position of
the diffracted peak is typically measured as the centre of
the peak at 80% height.
Results were presented as peak positions at 2θ and x-ray
counts in the form of a table or an x-y plot. Intensity (I) is
reported as peak height intensity (intensity above
background). The relative intensity is recorded as the ratio
of the absolute intensity of every peak to the absolute
intensity of the most intense peak, and then be converted
to a percentage.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained from unheated, air dried and
unglycolated shale samples shown that the bulk mineral
composition of the shales from both Mamu and Nsukka
Formations as in the Tables 3 and 4 is comprised of quartz,
clay minerals, carbonates, iron rich minerals such as
haematite, etc. Kaolinite is the major clay mineral present
in both Formations with minor amounts of illite and
smectite (with the smectite mainly occurring in the Nsukka
Formation along Amuvi). Secondary minerals were difficult
to identify due to the greater peaks of kaolinite and quartz.
The figures 5 and 6 below are results from the XRD
analysis.

Table 5: Bulk mineral composition of the shales.

Location Qtz Clay Carbonate Iron Mineral Al2O3 SiO TiO
Amuvi 20.00 33.34 13.33 nd 9.99 13.32 3.33
Amuvi 18.18 30.30 13.12 6.06 12.12 6.06 6.06
Obotme 13.33 33.34 16.67 6.66 10.00 9.99 3.33
Obotme 10.00 28.00 22.00 16.00 14.00 2.00 2.00
Okobo 13.79 37.59 20.70 6.70 10.35 10.35 3.45
Nkana 15.15 24.24 27.27 6.06 12.12 3.03 6.06
Nkana 22.73 31.82 18.19 nd 18.20 nd 4.55
Nkana 17.86 36.71 10.71 7.14 10.71 7.14 3.57
nd = Not Determine

Clay Mineral Distribution a common detrital clay mineral in sediments derived from
granitic and gneissose source. It is stable in low ph waters
The shales are dominated by quartz, clay minerals and and tends to be deposited in continental environments. It
minor amounts of carbonates and iron rich minerals (Table may be converted to illite during diagenesis in the
3). Kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral in both presence of alkaline connate water. Kaolinite is also
Formations followed by minor amounts of illite and known to be concentrated in near shore sediments and
montmorillonite (Onyeogu et al., 2016). Kaolinite 65 - 80% decrease in abundance with distance from the shoreline
continental related clay mineral specie is the major clay as other clay minerals increases (Parham, 1966).
mineral present in both Formations. It mainly occurs in
open environments with high acidic content. The low Table 6: Clay mineral composition of the shales.
content of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium Kaolinite Illite Smectite Others
ions in the shales of the Mamu and Nsukka Formations Location (%) (%) (%) (%)
also suggests exhaustive leaching under acidic, warm, Amuvi 79.00 6.00 12.00 3.00
tropical conditions. Such conditions are further Okobo 76.80 9.70 12.30 nd
strengthened by the occurrence of coal seams and leaf Obotme 70.40 10.80 15.58 3.22
impressions in both Formations. According to (Rao and Nkana 82.00 5.00 13.00 nd
Srihari, 1980), under such conditions, smectite and marine Amakaofia 80.00 6.00 14.00 nd
type clay lose their characteristic ions (K+, Na +, Ca2+, and nd = Not Determine
Fe2+) while H+ is added to produce kaolinite. Due to its
stability in low Ph waters, it may be converted to illite Illite5-10% is the most common clay mineral found in
during diagenesis in the presence of alkaline connate marine deposits. Formation of illites is generally favoured
water. by alkaline conditions with high concentration of aluminium
and potassium. Its presence in the Mamu and Nsukka
Kaolinite is non-marine in origin because kaolinites quickly Formation is minimal. The low amount of illite from both
transforms to a more complex clay in the presence of sea formations might be as a result of erosion on the rock
water. It is formed from feldspars both by hydrothermal bearing minerals and the acidic conditions that prevailed
alteration of granitic rocks and by surficial weathering. It is during the time of deposition. Illites are more commonly

Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria


the detrital clay found in marine deposits and contains up
to 8% K2O. The potassium may be due to incomplete
degradation of potash feldspars to kaolinite or as a result
of the diagenesis of kaolinite within the marine
environment. It is the most abundant clay mineral in
sediments although it’s less obvious than kaolinite.
Smectiteis within 7-15%, a clay mineral that commonly
results from the weathering of basic rocks, favoured by
poor drainage, occurs in the presence of calcium at the
expense of potassium and mostly associated with mildly
alkaline conditions (marine environment). They occur
sporadically in the basin. While kaolinite is mainly
concentrated in continental to marginal marine
environments, smectite is usually known for its abundance
in normal marine sediments. Also, during size sorting,
while kaolinite and illite tends to be concentrated in near
shore environments due to their grain sizes and their ability
to flocculate, smectites usually settles as finer particles in
deep offshore environments.
Chlorites are mixed layer clays that occur as an alteration
product of primary micas and are common accessory
minerals in immature sand and shales. Chlorites also
replace illite and other diagenetic minerals at the point
where diagenesis merges into metamorphism.
Also, calcium favors the formation of montmorillonite and
kaolinite does not form so long as there is any appreciable
amount of calcium in the environment. Clay mineral
components present in calcareous sediments and
dolomites are mainly illite and montmorillonites. The
presence of calcium tends to block the formation of
kaolinite. The increase in kaolinite content in marine
sediments is as a result of either increased runoff (due to
sea level fall) or from increased rainfall (Robert and
Kennett, 1994).
Akinyemi et al. (2013) noted that the Mamu Formation in
the south western part of the Anambra basin is
characterized by mainly quartz and kaolinite as the major
crystalline minerals with traces of haematitic component.
According to Kassim (2006), kaolinites are major
indicators of detrital origin in continental systems. Weaver
(1960) also stated that kaolinite is dominant in sediments
of fluviatile environments.
Ukaonu (2009) recorded that kaolinite occurs in the
Nanka, Nsukka, Ajali, Mamuand Nkporo Formations and it
dominates the entire Anambra basin, little amount of
diagenetic smectite occurs only in the Nsukka and Mamu
Formation, illite was observed to occur mainly in samples
from Ajali and Nkporo Formations. It is not abundant in the
Formations of the Anambra basin probably because of the
burial history of the Formations. Chlorite is not very
abundant in the Anambra basin probably as a result of the
burial history of the formation. Chlorite develops at depth
and in the zone of incipient metamorphism, where kaolinite
is converted to illite and chlorite.
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 281
Dunoyer de Segonzac (1970) noted that illite and chlorite
are more abundant in the older rocks such as Paleozoic
and Precambrian due to diagenetic changes.
The nature of the marine environment and diagenesis are
such that variations in the character of the source material
might be reflected in the sedimentary accumulation. For
example, kaolinite rich marine sediment means a kaolinitic
source area since kaolinite is not formed in the sea. Also,
it means relatively rapid accumulation with the persistence
of kaolinite through an environment fundamentally
unfavorable for it (Griffin et al., 1968). Therefore, if a
formation is said to be deposited in a marine environment
(perhaps from biostratigraphic study) contains a large
proportion of kaolinite, it means that the source material is
a kaolinite source and rapid accumulation must have been
taking place for the kaolinite to be preserved. Nwajide
(2013), using XRD analysis shows that the principal
component of the Imo shale is kaolinite and minor amount
of montmorillonite and illite. From microfaunal evidence, it
is thought to be deposited in a neritic environment.
Due to the response of clays to environment and cation
content, they have been used as facies indicators (Moore
and Reynolds, 1997).
According to Hower et al., 1976 and Reynolds, 1993, there
should be a cautious approach in the use of clays in
environmental studies because environments could
influence the minerals present through early mineral
transformation in the basin of deposition. Also, diagenetic
and tectonic influence can also reduce the amount of
provenance information in ancient shales due to
conversion of smectites to illites.
CONCLUSION
Clay, earth or soil that is plastic and tenacious when moist
and that becomes permanently hard when baked or fired.
Of widespread importance in industry, clays consist of a
group of hydrous alumino-silicate minerals formed by the
weathering of feldspathic rocks, such as granite. Individual
mineral grains are microscopic in size and shaped like
flakes. This makes their aggregate surface area much
greater than their thickness and allows them to take up
large amounts of water by adhesion, giving them plasticity
and causing some varieties to swell. Common clay is a
mixture of kaolin, or china clay (hydrated clay) and the fine
powder of some feldspathic mineral that is anhydrous
(without water) and not decomposed. Clays vary in
plasticity, all being more or less malleable and capable of
being molded into any form when moistened with water.
The plastic clays are used for making pottery of all kinds,
bricks and tiles, tobacco pipes, firebricks, and other
products. The commoner varieties of clay and clay rocks
are china clay, or kaolin; pipe clay, similar to kaolin, but
containing a larger percentage of silica; potter's clay, not
as pure as pipe clay; sculptor's clay, or modeling clay, a
Uzoegbu and Agbo 282
fine potter's clay, sometimes mixed with fine sand; brick
clay, an admixture of clay and sand with some ferruginous
(iron-containing) matter; fire clay, containing little or no
lime, alkaline earth, or iron (which act as fluxes), and
hence infusible or highly refractory; shale; loam; and marl.
Primary minerals are formed from soil parent rocks such
as igneous and metamorphic rocks. These minerals
dominate the sand fraction of the soil. Secondary minerals
are formed from the weathering and alteration of primary
minerals and subsequent recombination of the alteration
products. This group dominates the clay fraction of the
soils and is usually referred to as clay minerals such as
kaolinite, halloysite, montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite
which dominated most of tropical sediments.
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Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE Nigeria