Water Problems in Monsoon Asia and

International Contribution
based on Japan’s Experiences
モンスーン・アジアの水問題と日本の経験を生かした国際貢献

Katumi Musiake
Professor, Fukushima University
Professor Emeritus, University of Tokyo
 Contents of My Talk

• To make an overview of “global water problems”

• To clarify what characterizes water problems in
monsoon Asia, especially in humid Asia, and
describe several examples of water problems
particular to humid Asia.
• To discuss about international cooperation and
contribution in the field of water management,
based on Japan’s experiences.
 Structure
Structure of
of “Global
“Global Water
Water Crisis”
Crisis”
Population & Human
Activity Increases
Energy Consumption Food Production

Limited Natural Capacity

Climate Change Environmental
Deterioration

• Imbalance between Water Supply & Demand

• Water Pollution
• Increase in Water-related Disaster Potential
 Projection of人口推計・予測
Population　 　World
in　 中位推計　（Middle)
（(中位推計)
Population（
　Future（ U.N.　 ) 　Middle)
U.N.　 　 　

10,000 Oceania
9,000 N. America
C.&S. America
8,000 Europe
Population (millions)

7,000
6,000
5,000 Increment：：1.7Billion Asia
4,000 ：５２％
Rate：５２％

６０％
3,000
2,000
1,000 ：1.1Billion Africa
Increment：
：161％
Rate： ％
0

2050
2000
1950

2010

2040
1960

1970

1980

1990

2020

2030
Year
 Water Scarcity with a Index of Available Water per Capita
(by Oki, T. et al)

High Water Stress 　　　　Low

Global Water Problems –
Increase in Global Water Demand

Europe

N. America

2025 Africa

Asia

C.&S.
1995 America
Oceania

0 2000 4000 6000

(billion ｍ３)
Global Water Problems－
Water Shortage & Pollution
World’s
World s Population　
Population　Approx. 6 billion (2000）
(2000）
Among them:
・ 2.4 billion lack access to good sanitation
・ 1.2 billion lack access to safe water
　 ・ 5 to 10 million die every year due to water
water-
-related
diseases

“Too Little Water” Problems

 Global Water Problems –
Natural Disasters
180
Population affected by Natural Hazards
160

140
被災人口
120 Ear t h qu ake
million people

Dr o u gh t / Fam i n e
100
Fl o o ds
80 Hi gh win d
Lan d Sl i de
60
Vo l c an d
40 Ot h e r s

20

0
1973 to 1978 to 1983 to 1988 to 1993 to 1998 to
1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2000
Source：World Disasters Report 1999, 2001

Increase in “Too Much Water” Problems

Record of World Disasters Causing 100 or More of Deaths ,
1963~1992, Classified by Region and Cause of Disaster
Region Asia America Europe Mid.East／
Mid.East／Africa Caribbean Pacific

EAS SAA SAS NOA CAM SAM MEA CAF SAF •The number of disasters
Cause
Type
which caused 100 or more
Floods 130 35 10 19 2 6
of deaths in one event
42 10 78 5 3 27 9 1 9
Tropical 84 13 0 5 11 40 •Aggregated country-base
Storms 41 1 42 8 4 1 1 0 4
statistics for 30 years from
Storms, Other 27 10 1 4 0 4
1963 to 1992
8 0 19 9 0 1 3 1 0
Landslides 26 20 3 3 1 1

Drought
9 5
6
12 1 1
0
18
0
0 0
15
3
0 0 死者１００人以上
Food Short
2 4
1
0 0 0
0
0
0
0 11
3
4
0 4
の件数
-ages/
ages/ Famine 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
Earthquakes 34 20 22 22 0 4
10 10 13 4 5 11 19 2 1
Epidemics 41 16 1 74 0 0
4 3 34 0 2 14 3 49 22
Other 31 21 7 5 1 7
6 5 20 14 2 5 2 2 1

（Source: Disaster around the World – A Global and Regional View, World Conf. on IDNDR, Yokohama, Jap
Japan,
an,
May 1994）
1994）

Disasters related to “too much water” such as floods, storms and landslides are
much more serious in Asia than in North America/Europe or in Mid. East/Africa.
Roughly speaking, the frequency of serious flood disasters in North America/
Europe or in Mid. East/Africa is one order less compared to that in Asia.
 Regional classification for the above table

EAS(Eastern Asia): Japan, Democratic Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea,

People’s Republic of China, Republic of China, Mongolia, Hong Kong
Macao, Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea, Thailand, Myanmar
SAA(Southeastern Asia/Australia): New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia,
Malaysia
SAS(Southern Asia): Bangladesh, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan, Afghanistan
NOA(North America): Canada, United States, Mexico
CNA(Central America): Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
Panama
SAM(South America): Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, Peru,
Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina
MEA(Middle East/North Africa): Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Bahrain,
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen,
Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco
CAF(Central Africa): Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Sudan, Chad,Central Africa, Cameroon,
Niger, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali,
Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Senegal,
Gambia, Mauritania, Cape Verde
SAF(Southern Africa): Mauritius, Madagascar, Comoros, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi,
Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho,
Congo, Zambia, Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Gabon,
Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome & Principe
 What Characterizes Regional Characteristics
of Water Problems ?
気候条件
Climatic
ClimaticConditions
Conditions
人間活動

Hydrological Cycle Human

HumanActivities
Activities
(Human
(HumanIntervention
Interventionto
to
the
theNatural
NaturalEnvironment)
Environment)

Land
LandConditions
Conditions
土地条件
We take three factors – climatic and land conditions, and
human activities (human intervention to the natural
environment) - in order to characterize regional regions in
water problems.
 What Characterizes each of Factors to Express
Regional Characteristics of Water Problems in Humid Asia
From a Macroscopic Point of View ?

Climatic
ClimaticConditions
Conditions Asian
AsianMonsoon
MonsoonClimates
Climates
(Temperate
(TemperateHumid
Humid++Humid
HumidTropics=Warm-humid)
Tropics=Warm-humid)

Land
LandConditions
Conditions Tectonic （（変動帯／造山帯）
Tectoniczones（
zones（変動帯／造山帯）

Human
HumanActivities
Activitiesparticular
particularto
toHumid
HumidAsia
Asia Paddy
PaddyCultivation,
Cultivation,
Mountain
MountainSlope
SlopeCultivation,
Cultivation,Urban
UrbanDevelopment
Developmenton
onAlluvial
AlluvialFlood
Flood
Plain,
Plain,etc.
etc.
 Climatic Conditions of Warm-humid Asia
• Humid climate is tentatively defined as areas with annual precipitation of
more than 1000mm
• Abundant precipitation with large Intra-/Inter-variability

World Distribution of Annual Precipitation

Warm-humid

Characteristics of water problems in humid Asia are not

sufficiently expressed only by climatic conditions
 Land Conditions: Two Major Divisions of the Earth’s Crust

- Tectonic Zones and Stable Regions -

•Tectonic zones: zones where mountain-making activities
take place due to tectonic plate motion
•Stable regions: regions which are composed of old
geology and not affected by seismic and/or volcanic
activities 変動帯 安定帯

Tectonic Stable region

沖積平野 zone 構造平野：侵食河川
Alluvial plain Structural plain: erosive river
 There are two tectonic zones in the world
-Alpine-Himalayan Zone : Alps -- Mediterranean Coast -- Middle and Near East -- Himalayas
-- Sumatra – Java

-Circum-Pacific Zone : New Zealand – New Guinea – Philippines – South-

South-western fringe of Asian continent
-Japan Archipelago–
Archipelago– Aleutian Islands – West Coasts of both North and South America

Land conditions of Indian peninsula and eastern fringe of Africa

are similar to those of TZs

World Distribution of Tectonic Zones

The Asia Pacific region is widely covered by tectonic zones. Land conditions
formed by PTM make special characteristics different from stable regions.
 Characteristics of Water Problems
in Humid Asia
• Humid Asia; superposition of warm-humid
climate on tectonic zones
• People’s life placed on
- fragile mountain areas affected by seismic /
volcanic activities due to plate tectonic motion,
and
- alluvial flood-risk plains formed by sediments
transported from the upper reaches of fragile World Distribution of Tectonic Zones
mountain areas.
• The most densely populated region in the world,
supporting about half of world population,
and the population is still increasing in many
developing countries.
• Abundant precipitation with large variability;
torrential rainfall and drought as well.
• We can observe a variety of human-water
interactions particular to humid Asia–tectonic zone,
which make water issues considerably different World Distribution of Annual Precipitation
from stable regions like most parts of European
and American continents.
Warm-humid Climate
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia

High Potential of Hydro-power Generation

包蔵発電水力
• (High mountains + Abundant Precipitation)
provides “high potential of hydro-power” Economically Developable Potential
and Developed Hydropower
• In developed countries along tectonic in Developing Countries of Asia
zones, such as France, Italy, Switzerland, Developable Developed
Ratio
H-Power H-Power
Japan, west coast of Canada and USA, etc., (MW) (MW)
(%)

almost of economically developable hydro- Indonesia 7500 3012 40

power potentials had been developed China 378000 70000 19
Thailand
before the middle of 20th century. 15000 3900 26
Malaysia 29000 2058 7
• On the other hand, in developing countries Philippine 12310 2230 18
of Asia, most of hydro-power potentials are Vietnam 9000 3343 37
India 94000 22448 24
remained for the future energy
Pakistan 33572 4825 14
development.
Sri Lanka 1137
Bangladesh 600 230 38
（Source: Electric Power Industry in each country
(JEPIC 2000) ， APEC ENERGY DATABASE ）
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia
　山腹農業
Mountain slope cultivation　
• Fragile mountain lands formed up due to mountain making activities,
such as slopes of volcanoes, fractured zones, Tertiary formation and
weathered granite areas, can be cultivated, if those areas have necessary
temperature and water. mountain slope cultivation in humid Asia -
tectonic zones
• On the other hand, the areas are disaster-risk lands vulnerable to slope
failure, landslide, debris/mud flow, etc..
• “Land productivity” and “Disaster risk” are both sides of coin.
Chugoku district, JAPAN

Cameron Highlands, MALAYSIA

Brantas basin, Java,

INDONESIA
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia
Debris/mud flow and drifting fallen tree disaster
土石流と流木
- People become to live even at disaster-risk sites in
mountain areas concurrently with rapid population growth.
- Damages due to debris/mud flows are increasing in
developing countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, etc..

Debris/mud flow with drifting fallen trees in Debris flow with drifting fallen trees in
Ban Nam Kor, Petchaboon ( located along Kawauchi-cho, Ehime Pref. JAPAN, in 15
the upper reaches of the Pasak River ), September 1999.
THAILAND, in 11 August 2001.
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia
多量の土砂生産と山地災害
Heavy Sediment Yield and Sediment-related Disasters
in Mountain Areas
• The steep slope and fragile geology bring about high
sediment yield, slope failure, landslide, volcanic
eruption and debris/mud flow in mountainous areas.
• Sabo engineering
(debris control,
landslide and slope
failure measures, and
hazard mapping) can
be applied to prevent
or mitigate damages
due to sediment-
A debris control dam constructed in the
related disasters. upper reaches of the Ade river, JAPAN
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia
沖積平野での水田稲作
Paddy cultivation in the alluvial plain

• Since the alluvial plain is low-lying and wet

land, it is used for paddy cultivation if the
high temperature and sufficient water can
be obtained.

• The paddy cultivation is the most suitable Indonesia

crop for the low-lying wet alluvial plain in
humid Asia.

• It has a special water management with

irrigation/drainage technologies different
from dry crop cultivation in stable regions.

Vietnam
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia
沖積氾濫原に都市が立地
Urban areas located in the alluvial plain
• The alluvial plain is the most
densely populated area in tectonic
zones ; big cities, town and villages
are located in the alluvial plain.
Bangkok, Thailand
1983
• Alluvial plains, formed up by
flooding of rivers, have a nature
vulnerable to be flooded.
Therefore, flood control and flood
disaster mitigation measures are
much more important in tectonic
zones than in stable regions.
Flooding in Jakarta, Indonesia
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia
Difference in flood plain management between SRs & TZs
氾濫原管理の考え方の違い
• Stable regions: almost of river reaches
are erosive and in those reaches the
The Thames
bottom of valley is flood plain , which is
relatively only limited areas. Most of
population lives on undulating terrains
The Thames River and London City Area :
above the valley.
Flooding areas are so limited
• Tectonic zones: large alluvial flood
plains along the middle and down
reaches of river, where a lot of people
live and human activities are most
active.
• Therefore the idea of flood-plain
management is basically different
between two regions. Cross Section of Down Town Tokyo Metropolitan Area:
Flooding areas are so large

In stable regions, they apply mainly non-structural measures such as land use restriction
without the construction of flood control facilities like large-scale embankment, while we
cannot help applying structural measures in tectonic zones.
 Water Problems particular to Humid Asia
“Too little water” problems
水不足・汚染・衛生問題
• Although there is much precipitation in
The Sumida River, Tokyo,
humid Asia, serious water shortage is around 1960’s
taking place in most of developing
countries due to the imbalance between
water demand and supply.

Also, serious water pollution and

sanitation problems are taking place at the
same time.
Surabaya River,
Indonesia
• Such “too little water” problems in humid
Asia are considerably different in
countermeasures to solve them from arid
or semi-arid region, where the groundwater
is a major source of available water.
 Japan’s Experiences: Rapid Population Increase
Population (Thousand)

Japan

France

England
year
• In the year 1900 The population as same as France and U.K.
• In the year 2000 2 times more than France and England
 Japan’s Experiences after the 2nd WW
Japan has faced a variety of serious water problems in its
modernization processes over more than 100 years,
especially in a time of rapid socio-economic change after
the 2nd World War as showed below;

<Postwar Rehabilitation Period; 1945~the half of 1950’>

- Food Shortage
- Frequent Flood Disasters in Large River Basins
<High Economic Growth Period; ~the first half of 1970’>
- Water Shortage / - Water Pollution
- Deterioration of Water-front Environment
- Frequent Flood Damages in Urbanizing Areas
<Stable Economic Growth Period and After That; ~to Date>
- Increasing Demand of Natural Environment Conservation
and Restoration from the Public
 <Postwar Rehabilitation Period; 1945~the half of 1950’>
- Food Shortage
- Frequent Flood Disasters in Large River Basins
• 1950 国土総合開発法:
国土総合開発法 Integrated Flooding of the Tone River
River Basin Development in Sept. 1947

• 1953 治山治水基本対策要綱：
National land conservation on
river basin basis
• 1957 特定多目的ダム法：
Coordination/integration of flood
control & water utilization Dead & missing:1930 persons

• 1960 治山治水特別措置法／
　　　　治水特別会計法：Basis
　　　　治水特別会計法： for long-
term flood control planning Down town of Tokyo
• 1964 New River Law: Flood control／
water resources planning
in river system unit
 <High Economic Growth Period; ~the first half of 1970’>
- Water Shortage / - Water Pollution
- Deterioration of Water-front Environment
- Frequent Flood Damages in Urbanizing Areas
• 1977 Comprehensive Flood Control
Serious urban flood disaster
Measures　総合治水対策 around Nagoya in Sept. 2000

- Reinforcement of river improvement works

- Introduction of storm runoff reduction
measures in the watershed
- Land use regulation
- flood-risk map ~ flood hazard map
(not sufficiently effective due to
increasing urbanization pressure)
• 2003 Law for Urban Flood Damage
Mitigation Measures 特定都市河川浸水被害対策法
- Reinforcement of watershed-base measures
- Linkage／collaboration among river, sewerage
and urban planning sectors
 A Direction of International Contribution,
Utilizing Japan’s Abundant Experiences

• To overcome these issues, various technological and

institutional measures have been applied in a step-by-step
manner. Some of them are successful and effective, but
some of them are not.
Although respective critical situations at the beginning time
were overcome, we have still many problems which have
not been completely resolved yet.
• Now, many developing countries face serious water
problems similar to those which Japan had faced after the
2nd World War, such as water shortage, water pollution and
sanitation problem, increase in flood damages, etc..
 A Direction of International Contribution,
Utilizing Japan’s Abundant Experiences (Contd.)

• Japan’s experiences in technological and institutional

measures are not entirely applicable to developing countries
in humid Asia.
But, there are a lot of lessons learnt from Japan’s
experiences, including both successful and unsuccessful
cases. These lessons might be useful for shortening the
time to improve the problems.
• Japan should utilize its abundant experiences more in the
international contribution in water sectors.
 Thank you very much
for your attention !!