CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, filter and its characteristics or parameters are explains. Various order of band
pass filter is described.

2.2 Filters
A filter can be define as a system, or circuit. The function is to change frequency spectrums
of a signal. The components in the filter circuit can be utilized as specification or set of
requirements. Filter can be function to attenuate or amplify the components. The can be used as to
tune the frequency range. In addition, it can solve to reject or isolate the specific frequency desired.
Hence a filter can act as transmission system with the capability to let some frequency pass or to
not. For this project, will be focused on band pass filters.

An analog filter is typically a single-input single output system. The input-output

relationship is governed by the network function in the complex frequency domain. There are five
ideal filter magnitude characteristics as Lowpass , Highpass, Bandpass and Bandreject

Figure 1: Types of filters

2.2.1 Band Pass Filter
The cut-off frequency or ƒc point in a simple RC passive filter can be accurately controlled
using just a single resistor in series with a non-polarized capacitor, and depending upon which way
around they are connected either a low pass or a high pass filter is obtained.

One simple use for these types of Passive Filters is in audio amplifier applications or
circuits such as in loudspeaker crossover filters or pre-amplifier tone controls. Sometimes it is
necessary to only pass a certain range of frequencies that do not begin at 0Hz, (DC) or end at some
high frequency point but are within a certain frequency band, either narrow or wide.

By connecting or “cascading” together a single Low Pass Filter circuit with a High Pass
Filter circuit, we can produce another type of passive RC filter that passes a selected range or
“band” of frequencies that can be either narrow or wide while attenuating all those outside of this
range. This new type of passive filter arrangement produces a frequency selective filter known
commonly as a Band Pass Filter or BPF for short. Using capacitors and inductors, a bandpass filter
has a structure similar to the one shown in the diagram below.

Unlike a low pass filter that only pass signals of a low frequency range or a high pass filter
which pass signals of a higher frequency range, a Band Pass Filters passes signals within a certain
“band” or “spread” of frequencies without distorting the input signal or introducing extra noise.
This band of frequencies can be any width and is commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
 Figure 2: Amplitude and phase plot for a general bandpass filter

2.2.2 Mathematical Basic of filter

2.2.2.1 Transfer Function
In Radio Frequency (RF) applications, for defining transfer function we use the scattering
parameter S21. In many applications we use instead the magnitude of S21, the quadrate of S21 is
preferred.

ε is the ripple constant, Fn(Ω) filter function and Ω is frequency variable. If the transfer
function is given, the insertion loss response of the filter can calculated by below equation.

For lossless conditions, the return loss can be found by below equation.
2.2.3 Butterworth Filters
Filters designed with Butterworth approach show the maximal flat characteristics in the
pass region. The figure below shows the attenuation characteristics of lowpass Butterworth filter.
In the pass band region, f < fc, the attenuation of ideal low pass filter is 0 dB, good approximation
must have characteristics close to zero from the frequency zero Hertz to a certain so-called cut off
frequency fc. For f > fc, the ideal low pass filter attenuates the signal completely or LA→∞. The
Butterworth approach is expected to have the attenuation factor as high as possible

Figure 3: Parameter illustration for a band pass filter

The figure below gives the circuit implementation of the filter by means of concentrated
components like inductors (L) and capacitors (C), for the even and odd filter degree (n). The
Butterworth approach for designing filter uses the condition attenuation of 3 dB at the frequency
Ω=Ωc=1, so that the following equations can be used for collecting the values of L and C for the
circuits. The quadrate of the magnitude of the transfer function.

The value of n can be determined if an additional constraint is given, for example, the filter
must have minimal attenuation factor at a certain frequency.
 Figure 4: Parameter illustration for a band pass filter

2.2.4 Chebyshev Filter

In practical implementation, the specification for losses in pass region can normally be
higher than zero. Chebyshev approach exploits this not so strictly given specification values. It can
be 0.01 dB, or 0.1 dB, or even higher values. The Chebyshev approach thereby shows certain
ripples in the pass region, this can lead to better (higher) slope in the stop region. Figure 3 shows
the attenuation characteristics for lowpass filter based on Chebyshev approach. The quadrate of
the magnitude of the transfer function with Chebyshev approach is given by
Figure 5: Ideal response of a Chebyshev low pass filter
2.1.5 Transformation to Bandpass Filter
The previous observation was done for low pass implementation. A transformation to Band
pass is needed for getting bandpass characteristics. In the transformation, the component L will be
converted to serial combinations of Ls and Cs, whereas the component C becomes parallel combination
of Lp and Cp. With the cut-off frequencies ω1 and ω2 as lower and upper boundary, we can calculate
the center frequency and the relative frequency bandwidth as follows.
2.3 Filter realization with microstrip technology
2.3.1 Microstrip Transmission Line
Microstrip transmission line is the most used planar transmission line in Radio frequency
(RF) applications. The planar configuration can be achieved by several ways, for example with the
photolithography process or thin-film and thick film technology. As other transmission line in RF
applications, microstrip can also be exploited for designing certain components, like filter, coupler,
transformer or power divider. If a microstrip transmission line, as depicted in Figure 4, is used for
transport of wave with relative low frequency, the wave type propagating in this transmission line
is a quasi-TEM wave. This is the fundamental mode in the microstrip transmission line. The width
of the strip W together with the dielectric constant and the thickness of the substrate determines
the characteristic impedance Zo of the line.

Figure 6: Diagram of a microstrip transmission line

The electromagnetic field in the microstrip line is not confined only to the dielectric and
because of the fringing; the effective relative permittivity εeff is less than the relative permittivity
εr of the substrate. The electromagnetic waves in microstrip propagate in TEM (transverse electric
magnetic) mode, which is characterized by electric and magnetic fields that exist only in the plane
perpendicular to the axis of the wave propagation.