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McDowall
Nickel-Metal Hydride
Ni-MH batteries are chemically rather similar to Ni-Cd, but
have much higher energy density, a factor that is vital in EVs,
but of much less importance for substations.
Although Ni-MH batteries are maintenance-free with respect
to the electrolyte, this advantage is offset by increased sensitiv-
ity to high temperatures, compared with Ni-Cd. Since high tem-
perature operation is one of the essential factors in considering
batteries other than vented lead-acid, this seems to count against
Ni-MH. Having said this, there are continual developments in
this technology, and it is possible that some future development
will improve this situation.
Unfortunately, Ni-MH batteries are also more costly than
Ni-Cd. While it is possible to justify the use of Ni-Cd in high
temperature applications, this will not be possible with Ni-MH
unless the high-temperature aging characteristics are signifi-
cantly improved.
Lithium Ion
Recent developments in Li-ion technology have led to this bat-
tery type supplanting Ni-MH in many high-end consumer appli-
cations, such as laptop computers. This battery type also shows
considerable promise in EV and energy storage applications.
However, one of the main attractions of Li-ion is its energy den-
sity, which is around 6-8 times as high as typical vented
lead-acid substation batteries. As mentioned previously, how-
ever, energy density is not a major factor in substations, so it
120 V vented lead-acid substation battery on a two-step seismic rack would be difficult to justify Li-ion on this basis alone.
6 IEEE Power Engineering Review, November 2000
High temperature operation is a definite plus for Li-ion. In The other battery types in this comparison are, or are likely to
cycling tests at 60 ºC (140 ºF), there is very little difference in be, more expensive than vented lead-acid. While some of their
the rate of aging compared with tests at 25 ºC (77 ºF). characteristics may be desirable, the question has to be asked:
Li-ion batteries are hermetically sealed, so they are com- Are they worth it? The only accurate way to answer this ques-
pletely maintenance free with respect to the electrolyte. Since tion is to perform a life-cycle cost analysis. Such an exercise
their chemistry dictates that no water be present in the system, considers all the costs associated with battery ownership over a
there can be no electrolysis or gas evolution. This makes them certain period of time, including the replacement of shorter-life
safer to handle and gives them an ampere-hour charge effi- batteries and all associated maintenance and testing activities.
ciency of virtually 100%. Saft has developed software for life-cycle costing that is
To date, most testing of this battery type has been directed to- freely available to battery users. This software allows estab-
wards the cyclic operation of charge and discharge, since this is lished battery types to be compared for a given application, with
the normal usage mode in consumer and EV applications. Bat- a graphical analysis that clearly shows the relative cost benefits
teries in substations, however, are subjected to continuous float of the different technologies. All costs are under the user’s con-
charging, and much work remains to be done to characterize trol, so that an unbiased comparison can be made.
Li-ion for this type of operation. Initial indications point to a
float life of 15 years or more. Conclusions
As many laptop computer users are aware, Li-ion batteries For many substations in which the operating environment is rel-
are very expensive, compared with Ni-MH, which in turn are atively mild, vented lead-acid batteries will continue to be the
more expensive than Ni-Cd. Their cost will come down as pro- battery of choice for the foreseeable future. For those installa-
duction volume increases, but will still be significantly higher tions in which the battery is exposed to higher temperatures, op-
than lead-acid. portunities exist for cost-effective deployment of other battery
types. Of the currently available technologies, nickel-cadmium
offers the best potential.
Lithium Polymer In the author’s opinion, the current trend towards the use of
There are various types of Li-polymer batteries, with markedly VRLA batteries in substations poses a significant risk of cata-
different characteristics. The type discussed here is a dry polymer strophic failure. Utilities using, or considering the use of, this
type that is being developed for telecommunications applications technology should reevaluate their position based on the current
and has been discussed in at least one technical paper [5]. level of industry knowledge of this battery type.
The electrochemical basis for Li-polymer batteries is essen- While newer technologies, particularly lithium ion, offer
tially similar to that of Li-ion, except that the organic electrolyte some interesting characteristics, the higher cost of these new
of the Li-ion types is replaced by a solid polymer that encapsu- batteries will be difficult to justify in this application for at least
lates the electrodes. This construction offers a further improve- the next few years.
ment in safety compared with Li-ion, by reducing flammability. Whenever a new battery type is considered, it is important to
In order to achieve adequate conductivity in the polymer review all the costs involved in owning that battery. The best
electrolyte, these cells must be operated at high temperatures, way to do this is to perform a life cycle cost analysis.
typically 60-80 ºC (140-176 ºF). This means that the ambient
temperature in substation use is not a factor, and the battery will References
give its full life expectancy under all conditions. [1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for
Just what that life expectancy is, remains to be seen. As with Stationary Applications, IEEE Standard 485, 1997
Li-ion, Li-polymer batteries are still under development, and little [2] IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Re-
is known about their life expectancy under float charging condi- placement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applica-
tions. There is also some question whether these batteries will be tions, IEEE Standard 450, 1995.
cost effective for the capacities typically used in substations. [3] IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Re-
placement of Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary
Applications, IEEE Standard 1188, 1996.
Availability [4] D.O. Feder, “Performance measurement and reliability of VRLA
Larger capacity Ni-MH batteries are now in production for EVs. batteries,” in Proc. 1995 Int. Telecommunications Conf. (INTELEC
Large Li-ion cells are being produced at a pilot plant level. To ’95), pp. 22-28.
qualify either type for stationary applications such as substa- [5] C. Letourneau, D. Wilmont, and D. Worboys, “Lithium polymer
tions, however, will require additional work. At present, the best batteries: The next generation power source,” in Proc. 1997 Int.
estimate for availability of these battery types in large-scale pro- Telecommunications Conf. (INTELEC ’97), pp. 87-91.
duction for stationary applications is 3-5 years.
About the Author
James A. McDowall is business development manager for the
Importance of Life-Cycle Costing Industrial Battery group of Saft America, Inc. He is a graduate
Utility users are very familiar with the characteristics of vented of the Royal Institute of Chemistry in London, UK. He has
lead-acid batteries, and it is reasonable to compare competing worked in the battery industry since 1977, providing technical
brands based on their initial cost. support services to customers and sales personnel. During this
As users begin to consider other battery types, a comparison time, he has worked extensively with nickel-cadmium, vented
based on initial cost is no longer valid. For example, VRLA bat- lead-acid, and valve-regulated lead-acid batteries. He is very
teries generally have a lower initial cost than their vented coun- active in the battery standards field and has been a working
terparts. However, if all the IEEE recommendations for group chair for a number of IEEE standards projects. He is
maintaining VRLA batteries are followed, and the real life chair of the IEEE PES Stationary Battery Committee and is
(rather than the warranty) is factored in, VRLA can turn out to chair of the IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 29 on
be a much more expensive proposition. Stationary Batteries.
IEEE Power Engineering Review, November 2000 7