Mathematical Geology, Vol. 28, No.

4, 1996

Permeability Semivariograms, Geological Structure,

and Flow Performance 1

J. L. Jensen, z P. W. M. Corbett, z G. E. Pickup, z and

P. S. Ringrose z

Clastic sediments may have a strong deterministic component to their permeability variation. This
structure may be seen in the experimental semivariogram, but published geostatistieal studies have
not always exploited this feature during data analysis and eovariance modeling, h~ this paper, we
describe sedimentar T organization, its importance fi)r flow modeling, and how the semivariogram
can be used fi~r identification of structure. Clastie sedimentary structure occurs at several scales
and is linked m the conditions of deposition. Lamination, bed, and bedset scales show repetitive
and trend features that should be sampled carefully to assess the degree of organization and levels
of heterogeneiO,. Interpretation of semivariograms is undertaken best with an appreciation vf these
geological units and how their features relate to the sampling program. Sampling at inappropriate
intervals or with instruments having a large measurement volume, fi~r example, may give misleading
semivariograms. Flow simulations for models which include and ignore structure show that the
repetitive features in permeability can ehange anisotropy and recovery perfi~rmance sign(ficant(v.
If systematic variation is present, carefid design of the permeabili O, fields thert~re is important
particularly to preserve the structure efft, ets.

KEY WORDS: semivariograms,sedimentarystructure, permeability.

INTRODUCTION

Clastic sediments are rarely " u n i f o r m " in lithology, grain size, cementation,
and textural features and variations in these attributes can change the petro-
physical properties significantly. Permeability, which controls the flow of fluids
within the subsurface, may differ by several factors of ten. Indeed, as a result
of these factors, sandstone reservoirs with several orders of magnitude variation
in permeability (0.001-10000 mD) are widespread (Brendsdal and Halvorsen,

t Received 20 January 1995; accepted 15 August 1995.

-'Petroleum EngineeringDepartment, Heriot-Watt University,Riccarton, Edinburgh EHI4 4AS,
Scotland:jerry~jensen@pet,hw.ac.uk

419

01482-8121;~6/()51X)-1~195(~ 5()/I lYgf) Inlcmatamal As~'latlon h~r Mathclnallcal Ge~d~g~

420 Jensen, Corbett, Pickup, and Ringrose

1993; Ball and others, 1994). Faced with such large variability and apparent
disorder, obtaining realistic models of permeability seems daunting.
This variability, however, may be well organized, especially in clastic
sediments. An important control on permeability is the grain size (Beard and
Weyl, 1973; Brayshaw, Davies, and Corbett, 1995). Grain-size variation in
sediments is a function of supply, sorting, and depositional environment. In
sedimentary systems, many of the energy sources have cyclic components caused
by a number of processes: storms, tides, winds, river surges, and turbidity
currents, just to name a few. The result of these quasiperiodic or episodic
depositional events is a sediment where the grains are deposited in elements
having near-regular variations at several, well-defined scales.
The genetic controls on the arrangement of laminations and beds indicates
that the resulting lamina-sets, beds, and bedsets have limited architectural forms
which usually occur repetitively throughout a reservoir. The discipline of sed-
imentology relies on the recognition of these tbmas, combinations of which can
be used to give an environmental interpretation. This organization of sedimen-
tary variation translates to similar structures for permeability variation. Knowl-
edge of this structure can be exploited when developing models of permeability
variation tbr flow simulations, giving better flow-property predictions (Ringrose
and others, 1993b; Jones and others, 1993).
In this paper, we give an overview of sedimentary organization (architec-
ture) and the scales at which it occurs. We discuss how these features appear
in the sample semivariogram and particularly how the sampling program, in
relation to the geology, can affect the semivariogram form. This knowledge
allows the semivariogram to become a diagnostic tool for understanding the
sedimentary organization, in addition to a method of determining a covariance
model for siFnulation. When structure is present, an alternative to covariance
models is to model the permeability field deterministically. We conclude with
examples showing how structure affects flow performance.

SURVEY O F P E R M E A B I L I T Y M O D E L S IN T H E L I T E R A T U R E
Several reported attempts to analyze and model permeability fields of sed-
imentary rocks using geostatistical methods have not exploited the architecture.
The reasons for this include the poor quality of conventional (e.g., core plug)
data, the statistical variability of the semivariogram, and inadequate sampling.
Undoubtedly, semivariogram analysis has a large interpretative component: fea-
tures such as holes and the nugget can be ascribed to several causes, including
sampling variability, measurement errors, and physical (geological) causes.
Usually the interpretation pays little regard to the geological causes in favor of
statistical factors. This practice diminishes the utility of the semivariogram as
Semivariograms, Structure, and Flow Performance 421

a diagnostic tool and simply uses it as a necessary step in fitting a covariance

model for stochastic simulation. We illustrate these ideas with a few examples
from the literature.
Desbarats (1994) recently has used a geostatistical model to investigate
reservoir performance in an estuarine tidal complex (Lower Cretaceous, Crystal
Viking Field, Alberta). Based on core plug permeability data, the spatial cor-
relation structure of log-permeability was characterized by an exponential model
with a horizontal range set uniformly at 100 times the vertical range. Desbarats
(1994) noted that two problems arose during the fitting of the exponential model
to the sample semivariogram:
(1) there was a large discrepancy between the theoretical semivariogram
sill and the sample variance at lag 10 m, and
(2) there was a large nugget in the sample semivariogram.
Desbarats (1994) attributed the first factor to possible sedimentary periodicity
and the second to irregular sample spacing and location. Our analysis supports
his first observation and suggests an alternative, geological cause for the second
item.
A study of the field data (Reinson, Clark, and Foscolos, 1988) reports that
8- to 12-m-thick channels are present which could explain the high variance
feature. Fluvial channels usually have a characteristic grain-size variation and
stacked, multiple units would have a periodic permeability variation. The large
nugget could be the result of the insufficient sampling of variability in the more
heterogeneous facies, and particularly in the conglomeratic elements. As we
discuss in more detail later, the size of the core plugs used for the study may
not have been sufficient to filter out the small-scale variability for the coarser
grained sections. Reinson, Clark, and Foscolos (1988) also point out a NE-SW
elongation of the sand bodies that might not be represented in the permeability
models used, which assumed a laterally isotropic correlation structure.
There are other examples in the literature, both geological and engineering,
of spherical or exponential models being fitted to sample semivariograms show-
ing distinct signs of sedimentary periodicity. Goggin and others (1988, fig. 15)
suggests aeolian dune bedset cyclicity of approximately 40 m. Woodbury and
Sudicky (1991, fig. 3) indicate a periodic component at 80 cm wavelength.
Daws and Prosser (1992, fig. 10) show a strong cyclic component at 30 to 120
cm in tidal channels. These semivariograms are not necessarily suffering so
much from sampling induced variation, rather they are reflecting the sedimentary
induced structure.
Phillips and Wilson (1989) discuss the role of geological information in
determining the correlation scale of permeability. They advocate reference to a
geologist to estimate sandbody sizes and suggest that incorporating geological
422 Jensen, Corbett, Pickup, and Ringrose

information in geostatistical parameters would be a "significant advance." They

also state that published correlation functions are more for mathematical con-
venience than reflecting reality. We would go further and propose that sedi-
mentary structure may be recognized explicitly and exploited in reservoir mod-
eling.
In the forward to Journel and Huijbregt's (1978, p. v) book, Matheron
comments that geostatistics has the aim of recognizing both structure and ran-
domness. Therefore, our proposal is in keeping with what was intended when
Matheron coined the term "geostatistics" about 30 years ago. Some important
analysis has been done already (e.g., Serra, 1967, 1968; Journel and Huijbregts,
1978, chap. IV; Rendu and Readdy, 1982) to tie geological structure to the
semivariogram in nonsedimentary environments, but structure is so pervasive in
sedimentary rocks that a clear understanding of its role in semivariogram be-
havior and modeling is needed.

S T R U C T U R E IN C L A S T I C SEDIMENTS
Wind and water, the two principal carriers of sediment, have significant
periodic components to their energy spectra (e.g., Lumley and Panofsky, 1964,
p. 42-44; Bras and Rodrfguez-Iturbe, 1985, p. 202-205). During deposition,
these repetitive and systematic forces may contribute a strongly deterministic
aspect to clastic sediments at several scales (Allen, 1985, p. 243-265). Even in
steady, unidirectional flows, sediment movements and deposits may take on
periodic forms (Yalin, 1977, p. 209-236; Allen, 1985, p. 74-78). The regular
variations take the form of layers (mms to cms thick) of differing grain size,
giving the sediment a laminated appearance (Fig. 1, top). At a larger scale (cms
to ms) and longer time frame, cyclic variations in the system give rise to beds,
composed of numerous laminations (Fig. 1, center). At larger scales (ms to 100s
of ms), sets of beds may develop (Fig. 1, bottom), showing a systematic vari-
ation in the environment of deposition as sediment builds up and long-term
climatic and sealevel changes occur.
Such systematic and periodic features form the basis for geological analysis
(e.g., Schwarzacher, 1975, p. 223-320; Allen, 1985, p. 63-66). These "build-
ing blocks" (stratal elements) have been defined for shallow marine sequences
(Fig. 2), but a hierarchy also is recognized in the architectural elements in fluvial
systems (Miall, 1988) and in the bounding surfaces in eolian systems (Brook-
field. 1977). Meandering rivers may show regular, sinuous forms (Allen, 1985,
p. 96-99). Eolian dunes move because of the regular build-up of sediment which
then avalanches down the dune face (Allen, 1985, p. 68-70). Tidal processes
are particularly deterministic natural phenomena. In sediments deposited by tidal
systems, clear periodic components at diurnal, lunar, and precessional frequen-
cies can be detected (Martino and Sanderson, 1993). Structured permeability
Semivariograms, Structure, and Flow Performance 423

Figure I. Lamination, bed, and bedset scales of sedimentary

structure with schematic pemmability variations (after Rin-
grose and others. 1993a).

fields therefore are characteristic of clastic reservoirs and can be a feature in

carbonate reservoirs (Grant, Goggin, and H a m s , 1994).
Postdepositional processes (diagenesis) can modify the primary structure in
sediments. Once deposited, biological, chemical, mineralogical, and mechanical
effects can change the original sediment patterns. These changes can enhance
or diminish the structure. Also, the changes may not be constant throughout the
reservoir (e.g., oil vs. water legs). Thus, in some reservoirs, there may be a
random (unpredictable) component to the permeability variation. Even in sedi-

Figure 2. Shallow marine stmtal elemenls (adapated

from van Wag,.mer and others, 1990).
424 Jensen, Corbett, Pickup, and Ringrose

ments with considerable diagenetic overprint, primary structure may be an im-

portant control on permeability variation (e.g., Hartkamp-Bakker, 1993).

SEMIVARIOGRAM BEHAVIOR IN STRUCTURED MEDIA

If geological structure is present, the sampling program, interpretation, and
modeling will all be affected (e.g., Warrick and Meyers, 1987: Barnes, 1988).
To be detected, the sample spacing should be less than one-half of the structure
size to satisfy the Nyquist criterion (Lumley and Panofsky, 1964, p. 54-55).
Otherwise, any repetitive feature will be " a l i a s e d " into a lower frequency
(greater length). Repetitive features that are well sampled will produce " h o l e s "
in the semivariogram at the appropriate lag. Under-sampled features may pro-
duce a noisy semivariogram trace and a large nugget (e.g., Journel and
Huijbregts, 1978, p. 152: Corbett and Jensen, 1992: Daws and Prosser, 1992).
The effects of a periodic component upon the correlation structure of a
signal are well known (e.g., Schwarzacher, 1975, p. 169-179). We will review
some of the salient points as they affect the sample semivariogram. Suppose
that reservoir pernleability k(z) along a line has a periodic component with
wavelength X. The permeability semivariogram, 3,(h), will exhibit holes, that is
reductions in the covariance, at lags h = iX, where i = 1, 2 . . . . (Fig. 3). The
depth of the holes will depend upon the size of the periodic component compared
to any random component(s) present in k(z). The depth of the holes also may
diminish with increasing lag, h, depending upon the nature of the sedimentary
system and the nature of its energy source (Schwarzacher, 1975, p. 268-274).
Even strongly repetitive features in sediments usually are not perfectly periodic

2.0 15

1.5-
.=
1.0-
05
0.5-
Peffeclly cychc, k
................... Slightly ; t ~ y c t i c , k'
0.0 I I I 0.0 (j ' ,
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 0.0 I .0 20.0 30.0 40.0
Position Lag (h)

Figure 3. E~aruple pem~eabilily plots and normalized s e r n i v a r i o g m m s constructed

from series k(z,) = I + 0.4 sin(~z,/6) + ().4e,, where ~, - N(0. 1) and .-., ( = 0 , I,
. . . ) is position, showing evidence of structure (cyclicity with ~ = 12 units).
Acyclic series is k'(=.,) = I + 0.4 sin(~z,/6 + 6) + 0.4~,, where 6 = 0.01[:,/12]
and 1:,tl21 is greatest integer less than or equal to 7.,112. Left figure shows deter-
minislic components o f k(:) and k'(:).
Semivariograms, Structure, and Flow Performance 425

and, therefore the hole effect may be weaker than one may expect. For example,
a slightly aperiodic signal (Fig. 3, left) has a smaller first hole (Fig. 3, right)
and smaller subsequent holes than its periodic equivalent. Yet, the structure
represented by each signal is equivalent.
The sampling program used to measure permeability at fixed locations, z
= zj, j = 1, 2 . . . . . n, can have a strong influence upon how well the sample
semivariogram, ~(h), reproduces 7(h) (e.g., Olea, 1984; Warrick and Meyers,
1987). For many measurement schemes, samples are collected on a regular grid
of constant mesh size Az = Izi - z, ~ ~1. Because the region of interest and
sampling budget are limited, samples are taken only for distances up to n A z ,
where n is the maximum n u m b e r of samples taken in a given direction. A
normalized -~(h) for that direction can be obtained from some estimator such as
n - I

1 ~ [k(zi) - k(zi + jAZ)I ~-

~'(JAz) - 2 N ( j A z ) s ~ ~= I

where N ( j A z ) is the number of pairs at lag h = j A z and s~ is the sample variance

of k. The relationship of ~. to AZ and n influences "~(h). If the wavelength X is
large with respect to the sample span n A z , the hole effect will not appear. There
are two reasons for this: (1) sampling variability (Russo and Jury, 1987), or (2)
j being less than n/2. At the other extreme, if ~. < 2 A z , a hole will not appear
at lag h = X but at the lowest integer multiple of X that exceeds 2Az (Fig. 4).
The measurement method for obtaining k(z~) also has an effect upon ~,(h).
If the measurement " w i n d o w " is a considerable fraction of X, the measuring
instrument is, in effect, acting as a low-pass filter (Lumley and Panot~ky, 1964,
p. 46-51). Thus, no matter how small zkz is in relation to X, the instrument is
filtering ( " a v e r a g i n g " ) out the periodic component with wavelength X. No hole
will be observed in ~,(h) and it typically will have a small nugget. For example,
core plugs ( - 2 . 5 cm diameter) may contain several laminations and could not
be used to detect lamination-scale structure. An exception to this would be in
coarse-grained (e.g., conglomeratic) intervals, where the grain size is sufficiently
large that core plugs do not average out the small-scale variability. In this

1.5-

1.0-

Figure 4. Semivariogramsusing Figure 3 periodic series k(z,I

0.5- but sampled at other AZ. Sampling at ,-~ = h/I.5 is below
Nyquist criterion lbr cyclic coruponent. For Az _< h/2.4. "rih)
~24 .... O---- ~1.5 . . . . "lll----
00 r
loses evidence of structure because of increased aliasing ef-
I I
0 10 20 30 40 fects of noise component, whose upper frequency limil ex-
Lag (h) m ceeds cyclic component.
426 Jensen, Corbett, Pickup, and Ringrose

situation, the significant nugget might be interpreted mistakenly as being the

result of measurement error rather than a geologically caused representative
volume issue.
Even with sufficiently dense measurements appropriate to the scales of
structure to be detected, the sampling variability of the semivariogram can ob-
scure evidence of structure. Conversely, sampling variability can cause semi-
variograms to exhibit hole and nugget effects where none are justified. Robust
methods have been suggested (e.g., Cressie, 1991, p. 74-83), but further testing
is needed to determine how well these estimators perform on quasiperiodic
fields. Our experience has been that a jackknife procedure, discussed in Shafer
and Varljen (1990), is helpful to assess semivariogram variability. This ap-
proach, however, requires that at least tour or five measurements per sedimen-
tary unit be taken in order to sufficiently sample the structural component.
Sedimentary bodies may have several, nested structural features: one at the
lamination scale (hj~,, - mms); one at the bed scale (hb~ - ms): and another
at the bedset or parasequence scales (Xp~rj - 10s m). Depending upon the
measurement, the lamination component may be filtered out and undersampling
may obscure the evidence for repetitive beds.
An example from a shoreface sediment illustrates clearly these successive
scales. Figure 5 (top) shows ~,(h), with ever-increasing values, reflects the sys-
tematic coarsening-up structure at the parasequence scale. With the typical in-
dustry practice of sampling with one plug per 30 cm (=Az), the small nugget
indicates that smaller scale features are not being detected because the plug
volume filters out the lamination variability and the sample spacing is too large.
Larger scale features (20 m > 2~ > 1 m) are sampled adequately, however,
with four or more samples per feature. The holes at approximately 2 m and 16
m suggest two further features in this fornaation: bed- and bedset-level structure.
This stoma-dominated shoreface consists mostly of cross-stratified beds of 1-2
m thickness, which are not always sampled sufficiently. The 16 m hole indicates
that there are actually two coarsening upwards cycles in this formation, perhaps
related to changes in the sealevel during the shoreface development. These last
two features, evident in the variogram, are not obvious from simply viewing
the permeability profile (Fig. 5, top right).
More detailed examination of the shoreface data (Fig. 5, center) shows that
h~d cyclicity is just evident with the plug data, despite the fact that four samples
per bed comfortably exceeds the Nyquist criterion for this interval. Probe per-
meameter measurements (4 mm orifice) at Az = 5 mm give ~,(h) with a distinct
hole at hb~d = 1.2 m, confirming the plug semivariogram hole at that distance.
We could not determine any geological significance for the plug semivariogram
hole at 0.6 m. The probe "i'(h) has a large nugget: 30% of total variance. This
"'noise" is the result of the lamination cyclicity superimposed on the bed scale
Semivariograms, Structure, and Flow Performance 427

1.50 -3060
o ~ o~,
-3070-
1.00 - o ~o~S
.c

0.50 -

0.00
o.J .c -3080-

-3090-

-3100
o oo o o

i t i
0 5' '
10 I '5 20 10 10o 100o 10000

Lag (h) m Permeability, mD

090
1.00 I=

-3091 1 +7.
0.50r ~ / ,-+~*'r~*l:3 ]

0001 , Co~e~,,~
Core Plu~ [''1
]
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 1 10 I00 1000

Lag (h) m Permeability, mD

1.50 -3082.35 -
o o
-3082.37- g
o o
o o
1.00 o o
o o -3082.40 - o o ~
A
o o
o
o ~ -3082.42- o
o
0.50 o
o
-3082.45- %
Oo
0.00 -3082.47 n o
i q i I i i
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 50 I(~0 150 200

Lag (h) m Permeability, mD

Figure 5. Pemleability patterns and nomlalized sample semivariograms for shoreface

Ibnnation. Top: parasequence scale variation shows typical deterministic coarsening up-
ward effccts of grainsize on k and % Center: cyclic bedfonn (hummocky cross-stratifi-
cation) shows hole at approximately 1.2 m. Bottom: 2-cm thick laminations in a bed.

structure (Fig. 5, bottom). T h e occurrence of a considerable size nugget w h e n

nested scales of variation are present also has been noted elsewhere (e.g., Lum-
ley and Panofsky, 1964, p. 44; J o u m e l and Huijbregts, 1978, p. 152).
Experimental s e m i v a r i o g r a m s having holes, representing significant sedi-
mentary structure, can be recognized in a wide variety o f depositional settings,
including tidal (Daws and Prosser, 1992), eolian (Goggin and others, 1988),
shoreface (Corbett and Jensen, 1992), fluvial ( H a r t k a m p - B a k k e r , 1993), and
428 Jensen, Corbett, Pickup, and Ringrose

submarine fan (Prosser and others, 1995). Tidal channel sandstones may exhibit
clear periodic semivariogram structures (Daws and Prosser, 1992) but insuffi-
cient sampling can make the smaller scale (lamination) periodicity difficult to
identify. In some of these examples, the permeability data and ~, helped the
sedimentologist to recognize the existence of structure, particularly if it occurred
over several lengths of core so that it was not visually obvious. Daws and Prosser
(1992) show that core plugs at l-foot spacing in channels are insufficient and
that "~s derived from plug data lack the detail seen by the probe permeameter.
Corbett and Jensen (1992) illustrate the semivariograms of probe and plug data
for comparable intervals and show that only if the sedimentary structure is
significantly larger than the sample spacing will the sample semivariograms
show the structure which is there.
Careful sampling at a variety of scales and of representative elements clearly
is needed to reveal the structure of sedimentary rocks (Corbett and Jensen, 1992;
Hartkamp-Bakker, 1993; Brendsdal and Halvorsen, 1993). However, intensive
sampling may not be required throughout the reservoir. Once the lamination
level structure in a small number of prototype beds has been assessed, similar
beds can be assumed to have similar internal structure. A similar approach holds
at the larger levels. Once the structure has been assessed, further sampling needs
only to be done to ensure that the permeability variability and structure have
not departed significantly from the original assessments.
Strategic sampling in structured sediments has another advantage. Bed-scale
features may represent relatively rapid sediment deposition, which then are left
for a considerable period before the next depositional episode. During this hia-
tus, fine-grained material may be deposited on the top of the bedforna beiore
the next bed is deposited. These fine-grained, interbed deposits can be over-
looked in sampling schemes which tend to sample for large intervals with nu-
merous beds. Once bed-scale structure is recognized, part of the strategic sam-
piing plan can test for these interbed features which, whereas being thin, can
reduce interbed flow considerably (e.g., Corbett, 1993).

I N C O R P O R A T I N G S T R U C T U R E IN G E O S T A T I S T I C A L MODELS

The sample semivariogram may be used to develop the covariance model

for use in statistical simulation of permeability fields. Where structure is present
in the form of holes, a limited selection of models is available (Journel and
Huijbregts, 1978, p. 168-171): "),(h) = 1 - sin(h)/h is valid for one-, two-, or
three-dimensional models, whereas --/(h) = 1 - cos(h) can be used for simu-
lating periodicity in one direction. Although such models can be fitted to ~,(h)
without any knowledge of the geological causes of the structure, we encourage
the statistical modeler to determine underlying reasons for the behavior. If a
geological cause can be established, the model will be more reliable and, in the
Semivariograms, Structure, and Flow Performance 429

terms of Cressie (1991, p. 112-114), the geological information will help fix
the "scales of variation" for permeability.
If the geological causes for repetitive features can be determined, an alter-
native to fitting a covariance model with periodicity (perhaps at several scales)
is to model the permeability field deterministically. In our experience, the signs
of structure revealed in -~(h) may point to highly ordered systems which are well
honored by deterministic permeability models. A number of studies (e.g., Ring-
rose and others, 1993a and 1993b; Jones and others, 1993; Moissis and Wheeler,
1990) have shown that systematic permeability variation has a significantly larger
effect on flow properties than random, weakly structured variation. Where nested
structures exist, the simulations may need to be staged, producing permeability
models for each scale in succession (e.g., Kossack, Aasen, and Opdal, 1990).
Such an approach was successful tbr oil-water flow simulations in a shoreface
sediment (Corbett and others, 1992).
This is not to suggest that we recommend complete abandonment of the
semivariogram As shown in Figure 5, it can be a useful indicator of structure
which can motivate further investigation. Although other measures of structure
may be more useful in some circumstances (e.g.. Journel and Deutsch, 1993;
Hardy, 1992), the semivariogram is a straightforward and relatively easy statistic
to calculate.

FLOW EFFECTS FOR STRUCTURED MEDIA

The structure in reservoir rock will affect the flow performance. As a simple
example, based on concepts described about 50 years ago by Muskat (1937, p.
403-404), consider how the single-phase effective permeability t~)r linear flow
changes as the permeability structure of a 2-D domain is altered from layered
to a randomly distributed permeability field. If the permeability field is Iognor-
real with log-mean 4.6 and log-variance 3 [i.e., In(k) - N(4.6, 3)], the effective
permeability (k,.) for layer-parallel flow is 450 mD (the arithmetic mean); for
cross-layer flow, k,. = 22 mD (the harmonic mean); and for the randomly
organized situation, k,. = 100 mD (the geometric mean). For the layered situ-
ation, k,. is sensitive to the flow direction relative to the layering and, as in this
example, anisotropy ratios of 10:1 are easily achieved. The randomly distrib-
uted permeability situation, on the other hand, is isotropic.
The importance of single-phase anisotropy can have considerable economic
impact in reservoir exploitation. At the lamination and bed scales, horizontal
wells are sensitive to the local anisotropy (e.g., O'Byrne, Fleming, and Prentice,
1991; Sherrard, 1995). At the larger scales represented in field simulation models,
the anisotropy is a fundamental parameter used to obtain a history match and
may control the predicted behavior in several important respects, for example,
water influx, recharge of depleted zones, and gas/water coning. If sedimentary
430 Jensen, Corbett, Pickup, and Ringrose

reservoirs did not have bed- and lamination-scale structure and only had ran-
domly distributed permeability variations, the vertical-to-horizontal permeability
ratio would not be such an important parameter in many flow models and there-
fore would not require such detailed study (e.g., Corbett, 1993; Sherrard, 1995).
Therefore, the development of models, either based on the semivariogram or
deterministically, must be guided carefully to ensure the appropriate scales and
levels of variability are incorporated.
The effects of small-scale laminated rock structure are particularly signifi-
cant for the flow of immiscible fluids, such as water displacing oil, because the
capillary forces at the fluid interfaces are sensitive to the local organization of
pore throats, The effects of small-scale sediment architecture on waterflood
behavior have been described extensively elsewhere (Kortekaas, 1985; Corbett
and others, 1992: Ringrose and others, 1993a). The importance of including
structure in models used in immiscible flow calculations is illustrated here by a
simple 2-D waterflood in two permeability fields. The waterflood perfomaance
depends strongly on the length-scale modeled, as capillary forces scale inversely
with the system size. We therefore have selected a length-scale which might
represent sedimentary bedding.
Figure 6 shows the structured permeability field with a 0.25 cm (horizontal)
by 1 cm (vertical) grid. This field is based on a geometrically simplified cross-
bedded system (i.e., layers vertical rather than inclined) with a toe-set at the
bottom. Other studies (e.g., Kortekaas, 1985; Ringrose and others, 1993a) have
shown that this geometrical approximation of cross-bed architecture is an ac-
ceptable simplification for the purposes of flow modeling. The permeability in
the cross-beds differs linearly from top to bottom as usually is observed, and
the permeability contrast is kept at a modest 10:1 between the foreset layers.
The field with low structure was derived from Figure 6 by exchanging perme-
abilities (using a random number generator) along all horizontal lines (rows).
This preserved the top-to-bottom grading and the toe-set, but caused the deg-
radation of the cross-bed layers. Using 10,000 cell swaps, the structure of the

Figure 6. Cross-beddedpermeabilitymodel with bed-scalestructure.

Semivariograms, Structure, and Flow Performance 431

50.0 .

-~ 40.0
,...Y

30.0

20.0
1
-
f

to.o-
- - Cross-b~dded field

........... RandomLzed field

0.0

Figure 7. Oil recovery performances for the field 0.0 o12 oi~ o16 0.8

of Figure 6 and a field without the cross bedding. Pore volumes injected

smaller scale cross-bedding was thus erased while preserving the larger scale
structure and the permeability histogram for the two fields.
The flow direction tbr both fields was horizontal with no-flow boundaries
at the top and bottom. The frontal advance rate, 0.25 m per day, is a typical
field rate and the oil and water viscosities were 5 and 1 cp, respectively. The
capillary pressure and relative permeability functions have been reported else-
where (Ringrose and others, 1993a). Figure 7 shows the oil recovery behavior
for the two models; the less structured model gives a considerably better recov-
ery performance. The water cut behavior was similar tbr both fields.
The "perfect" repetitive structure of the Figure 6 mode[ is seldom observed
in practice because adjacent beds may differ in thickness. We theretbre simulated
the recovery of a model with different layer thicknesses, with one layer of 5
cm, one of 3 cm, and one of 7 cm. The recovery performance was indistin-
guishable from the perfectly repetitive model.
This illustration of bed scale flow performance, where viscous and capillary
lbrces are competing, is just one of several flow dynamical effects that could
result from structure in geostatistical permeability fields. At the bed/bedset scales,
viscous-gravitational force competition would be present and could be affected
by the structure. The precise effects of the fluid-structure interaction depend
upon several factors, including the rock wettability, geometry, level of hetero-
geneity, and fluid properties, and need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.
New methods of analysis and measurements (e.g., the probe permeameter
and high-resolution wireline resistivity and acoustic imaging tools) in elastic
reservoirs are leading to a better perception of the structured nature of sediments.
These structures, at several scales, can be incorporated into flow models to
interpret flow performance from core plug-sized volumes (e.g., Honarpour and
others, 1995), through the wellbore scale (Sherrard, 1995), right up to the full
field (Kossack, Aasen, and Opdal, 1990; Corbett et al., 1993). If this structure
432 Jensen, Corbett, Pickup, and Ringrose

is recognized and exploited, the formation flow properties can be determined

better (Corbett and Jensen, 1992: Corbett and others, 1992).

CONCLUSIONS
We have observed that, although considerable amounts of structure exist
in elastic sediments, a number of modeling studies have neglected it. Published
permeability semivariograms show clear signs of this structure but the covariance
models have not generally incorporated it.
Structurc occurs at several well-defined scales because of specific forces
and deposition modes in the sedimentary environment. Structure will affect the
semivariogram in various ways, dcpending upon the sample spacing and instru-
mentation. A simple 2-D example shows bed-scale structure easily can alter
flow performance from that predicted using a model with no structure.
Awareness of structure in sediments can lead to more effective sampling
programs, better interpretation of measurement statistics, and better flow models.
The improvement is based on the recognition that the geological character of
the reservoir is an important element in the data collection, analysis, and de-
velopment of flow models. Exploiting geological infi~rmation leads to more
confidence and robust models.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank colleagues in the Edinburgh Reservoir Description Group for
their support and we thank the reviewers for helpful comments. This study is
part of the Reservoir Heterogeneity Project thnded by Amerada Hess, Bow
Valley, British Gas, Chevron, Conoco, Deminex, Elf, Exxon, Mobil, Shell,
and the U.K. Department of Trade and Industry. Intera Information Technolo-
gies is thanked for use of the Eclipse flow simulator. P. W. M. Corbett's post
is funded by the Elf Geoscicnce Research Center.

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