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03
Formation and Diagenesis
of Carbonate Sediments
J. W. Morse
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
7.03.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND are usually the most important quantitatively,
7.03.1.1 General Overview of Sedimentary followed by foraminifera. In sediments overlain
Marine Carbonates by waters of intermediate depth such as mid-ocean
ridge crests, aragonite derived from pelagic
Carbonate minerals in modern marine sediments pteropods and heteropods can be found. Calcite
can readily be divided into those found in shoal-to- cements containing abundant magnesium can also
shallow and deep-water environments. The factors occur in deep-water sediments, but they are
controlling the sources, mineralogy, and diagen- relatively rare.
esis of carbonates in these environments are very Shallow-water carbonate-rich sediments are
different. Within the shoal-to-shallow water largely confined today to the subtropic and tropic
environment, the sources and diagenesis of climatic zones, but they are found even at high
carbonates differ substantially between carbon- latitudes. Their occurrence is strongly influenced
ate-rich and primarily siliciclastic sediments. by factors such as water temperature and terrige-
Almost all deep-sea carbonate-rich sediments nous input. These sediments are generally domi-
are composed of calcite low in magnesium (. 99% nated by aragonite, followed by calcites rich in
CaCO3). This material is primarily derived from magnesium (. 4 mol.%). Low-magnesian calcite
pelagic skeletal organisms. Coccolithophores is usually a minor component. Dolomite occurs
67
68 Formation and Diagenesis of Carbonate Sediments
only in special environments, and even then it is equilibrium with respect to high (,13 mol.%)
generally not a major component of the sediment. magnesian calcites. However, dolomite is
Shallow-water carbonates are primarily produced rarely found in modern sediments. Sediments
by the disintegration of the skeletons of benthic containing “recent” dolomite are generally found
organisms, such as corals, echinoids, mollusks, associated with exceptionally high salinity enviro-
foraminifera, and coralline algae. In some nments. Aragonite and high-magnesian calcites
environments, inorganic precipitates such as dominate shoal-to-shallow water carbonate sedi-
cements and oöids are also abundant. As discussed ments. Seawater must be , 22 times or more
later in this chapter, the source of aragonite needle supersaturated with respect to calcite before
muds remains controversial. pseudo-homogeneous precipitation occurs (e.g.,
In siliciclastic sediments, the major source of Morse et al., 1997). However, metastable arago-
carbonates is also primarily derived from benthic nite precipitates, not calcite, due largely to the
organisms. These include bivalves, other mol- inhibiting effects of Mg2þ on calcite precipitation
lusks, sea urchins, and foraminifera. In these (Pytkowicz, 1965; Berner, 1975).
sediments there is often a zone of considerable Dolomite is one of the most abundant sedimen-
undersaturation produced near the sediment – tary carbonate minerals. However, after years of
water interface, where the oxidation of organic intense study its mode of formation remains
matter and bacterially produced sulfides can result controversial, and its properties under Earth
in almost complete dissolution of sediment surface conditions are less well known than for
carbonate. Carbonates from organisms that bur- most other carbonate minerals. The primary
row beneath this zone of intense diagenetic reason for this is that its formation is kinetically
activity are often well preserved. In organic-rich hindered by its well-ordered structure. Another
siliciclastic sediments sulfate reduction may be problem in understanding dolomite may be as
very extensive, with the increase in alkalinity stated by Land (1985): “there are dolomites and
outweighing the decrease in pH, resulting in the dolomites and dolomites.” Most recently formed
precipitation of calcium carbonate. marine dolomites are classified as “protodolo-
Carbonates in ancient sedimentary rocks are mites.” They are far from being perfectly ordered
dominantly calcite and dolomite, as predicted by structurally and usually contain a few percent
equilibrium thermodynamics. This indicates that excess calcium. Attempts to measure their solu-
metastable shallow-water sedimentary carbonates bility have been frustrating, but it does appear that
have undergone major diagenetic changes. The they can be one or two orders of magnitude more
distribution of calcium carbonate in deep-sea soluble than ideal dolomite. Thus, seawater may
sediments indicates that extensive early diagen- not be supersaturated with respect to
esis has led to the loss of most carbonate minerals protodolomites.
from these sediments. This loss appears to be High-magnesian calcites are common com-
linked to the saturation state of the overlying ponents of shallow marine sediments. They are
waters. However, kinetic and biogeochemical derived from the skeletons of organisms, such as
processes also play a major role in controlling benthic foraminifera and sea urchins, and by direct
the distribution of carbonate minerals. This precipitation of marine cements. Their solubility
chapter examines the geochemistry of the early is strongly influenced by their magnesium content.
diagenesis of carbonates in marine sediments. The solubilities of biotic and synthetic magnesium
calcites differ substantially (Figure 1). In sea-
water, biogenic magnesian calcite containing
,11 mol.% MgCO3 may have about the same
7.03.1.2 Geochemistry of Major Sedimentary
solubility as aragonite.
Carbonate Minerals
Berner (1976) reviewed the problems of
Before proceeding to the “natural world,” a brief measuring calcite solubility in seawater, and it is
commentary on the chemistry of major marine these problems, in part, that have led to the use of
carbonate minerals is offered first. A vast literature stoichiometric solubility constants for calcite and
exists on this topic: Morse and Mackenzie (1990) aragonite (see Section 7.03.3). The most difficult
can provide an introduction. problem is that, although the solubility of pure
Marine carbonate minerals have both biotic calcite is sought in experiments with seawater
(dominant) and abiotic (minor) sources. Their solutions, extensive magnesium co-precipitation
formation is often controlled by kinetic factors or can produce magnesian calcites. The solubility of
biomediated processes in organisms. Surface these magnesian calcites differs from that of pure
seawater is most highly supersaturated (the ion calcite. Thus, it is not possible to measure the
activity product (IAP) is much greater than the solubility of pure calcite directly in seawater.
solubility product) with respect to dolomite Another problem is the determination of
(,50 £ ), followed by pure calcite (,6 £ ), aragonite solubility in seawater. A study of the
then by aragonite (,4 £ ). It may be close to solubility of calcite and aragonite in seawater
Introduction and Background 69
7.8
8.0
7.03.1.3 The CO2 System in Oceanic Waters
8.2 The chemistry of the carbonic acid system in
seawater has been one of the more intensely
8.4
studied areas of carbonate geochemistry. This is
8.6 Synthetics because a very precise and detailed knowledge of
this system is necessary to understand carbon
8.8 dioxide cycling and the deposition of carbonate
0 10 20 30
sediments in the marine environment. A major
mol.% MgCO3
concept applicable to problems dealing with the
behavior of carbonic acid and carbonate minerals
Figure 1 The equilibrium IAP for magnesian calcites
of biogenic and synthetic origin versus magnesium in seawater is the idea of a “constant ionic
concentration (after Morse and Mackenzie, 1990). medium.” This concept is based on the obser-
vation that the salt in seawater has almost constant
composition, i.e., the ratios of the major ions are
the same from place to place in the ocean
was conducted by Morse et al. (1980); their results (Marcet’s principle). Possible exceptions can
for calcite solubility were in good agreement with include seawater in evaporative lagoons, pores
earlier work (e.g., Ingle, 1975). However, for of marine sediments, and near river mouths.
aragonite they found a much lower solubility Consequently, the major ion composition of
than observed by previous investigators. It was seawater can generally be determined from its
demonstrated that the primary reason for this salinity. It has been possible, therefore, to develop
difference was that earlier investigators had not equations in which the influence of seawater
waited for a sufficiently long period of time to composition on carbonate equilibria is described
reach equilibrium and that strangely, for equili- simply in terms of salinity.
bration periods of less than about a month, In theory, it should be possible to deal with all
different solubility values can be obtained in a carbonate geochemistry in seawater by knowing
reversible manner. This result points to some the appropriate activity coefficients and their
type of short-term, solubility controlling surface response to changes in how salinity, temperature,
phase. The value obtained by Morse et al. (1980) and pressure affect them. In practice, we are only
for aragonite was in good agreement with the now beginning to approach the treatment of
value predicted from thermodynamic solubility activity coefficients with sufficient accuracy to
products and ion activity coefficients in seawater, be useful for most problems of interest. That is
and the value for the solubility ratio of aragonite to why “apparent” and stoichiometric equilibrium
calcite in seawater was 1.51, in good agreement constants, which do not involve the use of activity
with dilute-solution studies. From these consider- coefficients, have been in widespread use in the
study of marine carbonate chemistry since the
ations, it appears that the co-precipitation of
early 1970s. The stoichiometric constants, usually
magnesium (, 8 mol.% MgCO3) with calcite
designated as K p ; involve only the use of
forming slowly from seawater does not change
concentrations ðmÞ; whereas expressions for
its solubility beyond the uncertainty in the
apparent equilibrium constants ðK 0 Þ contain both
measurements, which is estimated to be less
concentrations and apparent hydrogen activities
than 10%.
ðaHþ) or concentrations. Examples of these
In addition to magnesium, at least trace
different types of constants are
amounts of many components present in seawater
can be incorporated into marine carbonates. p
Concentrations range from trace (e.g., heavy stoichiometric constant : Kcalcite ¼ mCa2þ mCO22
3
5
matter is at higher concentrations and where it
4 exerts even a greater influence on carbonate
diagenesis.
3
Submarine lithification and precipitation of
2 cements in deep-sea carbonate sediments are
relatively rare in typical major ocean basin
1 sediments (Milliman, 1974; Milliman and Müller,
0
1973, 1977). The cements consist of aragonitic
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 and magnesian calcite mineralogies. They are
1–Ω largely restricted to shallow seas such as the
Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and to sediments
Figure 2 Rate of carbonate dissolution from deep-sea
in the shallower parts of major ocean basins in
sediment versus ð1 2 VÞ: Solid line from Hales and
Emerson (1996), dotted line from Keir (1980), dashed which biogenic aragonite is also present. Mucci
line from Atlantic Ocean, and dotted and dashed line (1987) (see also Garrels and Wollast, 1978)
from Pacific Ocean sediment results of Morse (1978). summarized much of the data on the composition
Note that Hales and Emerson (1996) used a different of magnesian calcite cements in different environ-
calcite solubility product. ments. He found that many of the shallow-water and
Sources and Diagenesis of Shoal-water Carbonate-rich Sediments 75
∆ pH ∆ pH
0 η
C=1
2 ηC = 1
Depth (cm)
3
ηC = 4.5
4
6
ηC = 4.5
Figure 3 DpH versus depth for sediments from the Ontong-Java Plateau and Ceara Rise. n is the reaction order used
to fit the data (after Hales and Emerson, 1996).
deep-sea carbonate cements contain 10–15 mol.% of fecal material. Oöids are spherical to ovoid,
magnesium; there is a strong maximum in 0.2 –1 mm grains with an internal concentric or
magnesium abundance at , 13 mol.%. radial structure. Lithoclasts are fragments of
previously deposited, and usually somewhat
lithified, carbonate sediment. Relict grains are of
older origin, having formed under previous
7.03.3 SOURCES AND DIAGENESIS OF environmental conditions.
SHOAL-WATER CARBONATE-RICH The skeletal components of carbonate sedi-
SEDIMENTS ments represent the complete or partial skeleton,
or the decomposed and disaggregated skeletal
7.03.3.1 Sources of Shoal-water Carbonates
remains, of organisms extant at the time of
7.03.3.1.1 General considerations deposition of the sediment. Sedimentary particles
can be produced from calcareous organisms by
Because shelves in tropical to subtropical
disaggregation of their skeletons, by mechanical
environments are capable of producing major
quantities of carbonates, they are often referred to means related to wave and current energy, or by
as “carbonate factories.” A model in which bioerosion of carbonate substrates such as corals,
carbonate production decreases with increasing mollusks, and rocks. The wide diversity of shoal-
water depth was produced by Bosscher and water organisms and their complex composition
Schlager (1992). Others (e.g., Bowman and Vail, and morphology, in combination with the varied
1999) have included the influence of distance processes causing their disaggregation, account
from the platform edge as an important factor in for the very complex mixture of biogenic
carbonate production in shallow-to-shoal water carbonate grains in shoal-water sediments.
environments. Seawater in the upper regions of the ocean is
Carbonate sediments can be subdivided into strongly supersaturated with respect to calcite,
skeletal and nonskeletal components. Nonskeletal aragonite, and ideal dolomite. Why these min-
carbonate grains have been divided into five major erals fail to precipitate directly from it has been a
types: mud, pellets, oöids, lithoclasts, and relict. problem of major interest. In experimental
Carbonate muds are common deposits in low- studies (e.g., Pytkowicz, 1965, 1973; Berner,
energy environments, such as tidal flats and 1975), the magnesium ion has been observed to
subtidal areas. Pellets are formed by the ingestion be a strong inhibitor of calcite precipitation and
of sediment by marine organisms and excretion largely responsible for its failure to precipitate
76 Formation and Diagenesis of Carbonate Sediments
directly from seawater. The presence of mag- algae. It is necessary, therefore, to examine the
nesium can also elevate the supersaturation chemistry of the needles to determine their origin.
necessary for aragonite precipitation in the However, even their chemical characteristics are
absence of nuclei, to a level far beyond that not unambiguously diagnostic (e.g., Lowenstam
likely to be found in natural waters. Natural and Epstein, 1957; Milliman, 1974; Bathurst,
organic matter can also strongly inhibit CaCO3 1975; Loreau, 1982).
precipitation (e.g., Berner et al., 1978). It is Not nearly as much attention has been paid to
unlikely, based on this experimental work, the production of lime mud from calcitic sources,
that conditions appropriate for direct (homo- but these muds can be the dominant component
geneous) nucleation of calcium carbonate will be in peri-reefal (Debenay, 1985) and lagoonal
found in normal modern seawater (Morse and (Reid et al., 1992) environments where 70 – 90%
He, 1993). However, these experimental results of the mud may consist of magnesium cal-
do not preclude the precipitation of carbonate cite. This can form from the micritization and
minerals on pre-existing carbonate mineral recrystallization of skeletal grains (Reid et al.,
nuclei. 1992), and the breakdown of foraminiferal tests
(Debenay et al., 1999).
7.03.3.1.2 Sources of carbonate muds
The origin of carbonate mud is a long-standing 7.03.3.1.3 Formation of carbonate sands
topic of considerable debate and controversy. The
three major potential sources generally considered Carbonate-rich sediments that are dominated by
are (e.g., Reid et al., 1992): (i) physicochemical or sand-sized grains are common in shoal-water
biochemical precipitation, (ii) postmortem disin- sediments. In most cases they are associated
tegration of calcareous algae, and (iii) physical or with moderate- to high-energy environments
biological abrasion of skeletal material. Research such as beaches and behind fringing reefs. They
has generally focused on either the aragonitic or are often composed of carbonates of mixed
magnesium calcite mud components. Andrews mineralogy from a variety of biogenic sources
et al. (1997) have found that generally within the produced by physical abrasion, boring, and other
silt and clay sizes (#63 mm), there is little biological processes.
mineralogic, elemental, or stable isotopic Subspherical carbonate grains, generally
variation. referred to as oöids because of their resemblance
Fine-grained carbonate-rich sediments that are to fish eggs, comprise sandy sediments called
dominated by small (a few micrometers) needle- oölites. They are common members of modern
shaped aragonite grains are called aragonite needle shoal-water tropic and subtropic carbonate-rich
muds. The two major sources for the aragonite sediments. Oöids are variable in both mineralogy
needles are generally considered to be acalcareous and structure. Aragonite, high-magnesian calcite,
algae and abiotic precipitates. Milliman (1974), and calcite have been observed to occur in oöids
Bathurst (1975), Scoffin (1987), and Morse and (e.g., Land et al., 1979). Radial, concentric-
Mackenzie (1990) have reviewed numerous tangential (laminated), and micritic structures are
studies of the source of aragonite in calcareous commonly observed around a central nucleus of
muds. Most of the interpretations of its origin non-oöid material. The majority of modern, and
are based on chemical data, although needle probably most ancient, oöids are (or originated as)
morphology has also been used. either aragonite with a laminated structure or
Attempts at making budgets of carbonate high-magnesian calcite with a radial structure.
production and accumulation have also been The laminated aragonitic oöids are by far the most
used in attempts to define the source of arago- abundant type of oöids in “recent” sediments and
nite needle muds. In areas such as British have received the majority of attention.
Honduras and Florida Bay, the supply of biogenic Oöids are believed to be of nonbiogenic origin
material appears to be sufficient to provide the and represent one of the most important modes of
sediment for the carbonate muds, although nonbiogenic removal of CaCO3 from the ocean. In
some abiotic precipitation cannot be ruled out. addition, it has frequently been pointed out that
However, in other areas such as the Great their mineralogy and structure reflect those of
Bahama Bank and the Persian Gulf, the bio- marine carbonate cements (e.g., Fabricius, 1977;
genic supply appears to be insufficient, and an Land et al., 1979). In fact, they grade into each
abiotic source of aragonite needles is needed other in the case of Bahamian grapestone. Land
(e.g., Milliman et al., 1993). et al. (1979) stressed the tie between carbonate
Unfortunately, the precipitation of aragonite cements and oöids, pointing out that oöids can be
from seawater produces needles of a size and viewed as cements centrifugally deposited on
morphology that is very similar to those produced grains, whereas submarine cements can be viewed
by the breakdown of common codiacean green as centripetally coated pores.
Sources and Diagenesis of Shoal-water Carbonate-rich Sediments 77
Hypotheses for the processes responsible for 2.5
the existence of oöids are based on bacterial-
mechanical, algal, and chemical mechanisms for
oöid formation. Some investigators have 2.0
suggested models that involve more than one of
Supersaturation
1.0
Undersaturation
7.03.3.2 Early Marine Diagenesis of Shoal-water
Carbonate-rich Sediments
0.5
7.03.3.2.1 Pore-water chemistry
The chemistry of sediment pore waters provides
important information regarding chemical reac- 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
tions in sediments. In many cases, the reactions
between pore waters and solids are not obvious % Sulfate reduction
from observations of the solids alone, but because
Figure 4 The saturation state with respect to aragonite
the solid-to-solution ratio in sediments is so large,
versus the extent of sulfate reduction for a closed
major changes can occur in pore waters during system containing seawater (after Morse and
diagenesis. If equilibration alone were to take Mackenzie, 1990).
place in carbonate-rich sediments between the
pore waters and metastable solids, precipitation of
a stable phase would occur until equilibrium was bioirrigation rates in many carbonate sediments,
reached. However, the oxidation of organic matter depth profiles of dissolved sulfate may be poor
can also be an important process in these indicators of the importance of sulfate reduction in
sediments. The carbon dioxide generated by this the oxidation of sedimentary organic matter in
process can be sufficient to cause undersaturation, shoal-water carbonate sediments.
resulting in dissolution—not precipitation—as the Several investigations of shallow-water carbon-
dominant early reaction. ate-rich sediments have been made to determine
A major complicating factor in the diagenesis which processes control the calcium carbonate
of shoal-water carbonate-rich sediments is that IAP. Two major studies that investigated this topic
much of the organic matter oxidation can take were conducted by Berner (1966) in south Florida
place via bacterially mediated sulfate reduction. If and Bermuda and by Morse et al. (1985) in the
marine plankton-like organic matter is oxidized Bahamas. Berner’s pioneering study was impor-
via sulfate reduction, the nutrients phosphate and tant in demonstrating through pore-water chem-
ammonia are also produced (Equation (6)): istry that, in sediments exposed to normal
1 seawater, there is little diagenetic alteration of
ðCH2 OÞ106 ðNH3 Þ16 H3 PO4 þ SO22
4 sedimentary carbonates. Evidence for the dissolu-
53
16 tion of magnesian calcites was found in pore
! CO2 þ HCO2 3 þ HS þ
2
NH3 waters from sediments in the northern part of
53 Florida Bay where pore waters are fresher. Based
1 on carbonate equilibrium constants available at
þ H PO þ H2 O ð6Þ
53 3 4 the time, Berner concluded that most pore waters
Because the products are generated nearly con- are close to equilibrium with low-magnesian
stant ratios, fixed pH can be established after a calcite. Calculations using new constants indicate
moderate degree of sulfate reduction in a closed that this is not generally the case.
system (Ben-Yaakov, 1973). During the early A number of pore waters in both coarse- and
stages of reaction in seawater the pH drops to fine-grained sediments from the northern Great
, 6.9 and then remains constant. This can result in Bahama Bank and Little Bahama Bank were
undersaturated pore waters and carbonate dissolu- studied by Morse et al. (1985). Figure 5
tion. Further sulfate reduction causes the alka- summarizes their findings for the pH and TA
linity to rise while the pH remains constant. At in pore waters from sediments in different
, 35% sulfate reduction, the pore waters regain environments. Lines are also given in this figure
supersaturation with respect to calcium carbonate. for pore water in equilibrium with calcite,
Further sulfate reduction can result in calcium aragonite, and an 18 mol.% magnesian calcite,
carbonate precipitation (Figure 4). Furukawa et al. using the solubility constants of Walter and
(2000) have emphasized that, due to the high Morse (1984). Clearly, there is great variability
78 Formation and Diagenesis of Carbonate Sediments
8.2 Mg O
this chapter). Carbonate ion may be “pumped”
S O down to values at saturation with less soluble
C Og O O
O S g OO
M C M
M g g phases, as dissolution of the more soluble
C
7.8
S g C Sg
MS C O S M g S g
material eventually causes its removal. However,
MC S g
OS
MC S
g M
M gM
gg
M S
the persistence of high-magnesian calcites in
g
M g
C gM
g
C g
g g C sediments for long periods of time indicates
g g
M Mgg Cg
M Mg18-calcite that this process does not involve a large
pH
7.4 M M g
MM
M
g M
g g
M g amount of mass transfer under normal marine
gg M
g
g
M
g g conditions.
g
g
g
g Aragonite g g
The influence of seagrass beds on fine-grained
7.0 M
g sediments near San Salvador Island was investi-
Calcite
gated by Short et al. (1985), and Morse et al.
(1987) studied their influence on pore-water
6.6
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 chemistry in coarser-grained sediments near the
Total alkalinity (meq kg–1) Berry Islands. Their influence was less in the
coarse-grained sediments, but even in these
Figure 5 pH versus total alkalinity for pore waters in sediments, elevated pCO2 and alkalinity values in
Bahamian carbonate-rich sediments. M ¼ mud; sediments beneath the seagrass beds were appar-
S ¼ sand; O ¼ oölite; C ¼ coarse-grained grassbed; ent. This is probably the result of elevated organic
g ¼ fine-grained grassbed (after Morse et al., 1985). matter concentrations associated with roots and
debris from the plants. Jensen et al. (1998)
in pore-water composition, and many sediment observed that the carbonate matrix is dissolved
pore-waters are substantially supersaturated with in the seagrass rhizosphere resulting in a release of
respect to all these phases. pCO2 values are high phosphorus, which is believed to limit seagrass
in these sediments, typically at least 10 times production in carbonate sediments.
the atmospheric value. Even within a given core
it was found that calcium carbonate IAPs were
highly variable (Morse et al., 1985). Because 7.03.3.2.2 Precipitation of early carbonate
aragonite is generally the most abundant cements
carbonate phase in these sediments, control of The formation of carbonate overgrowths and
the IAP by the most abundant phase does not cements is certainly one of the most important and
explain these observations. highly studied aspects of carbonates in sediments
A number of solubility experiments, on sedi- and sedimentary rocks. This section discusses the
ments from the Bahama sites at which pore waters geochemical aspects of the formation of early
were collected, were performed by Bernstein and diagenetic cements and overgrowths. An exten-
Morse (1985) in an attempt to understand the sive literature exists on the occurrence of early
processes controlling the calcium carbonate IAP carbonate precipitates in marine sediments, where
in these sediments. Equilibrium was approached they are generally termed cements. Included in this
from both supersaturation and undersaturation for literature are books devoted solely to carbonate
different time periods up to 50 d. Generally good cements (e.g., Bricker, 1971; Schneidermann
agreement was found between the field and and Harris, 1985) and numerous reviews
laboratory observations for fine-grained sedi- (e.g., Milliman, 1974; Bathurst, 1974, 1975;
ments, indicating at least a dynamic steady state Harris et al., 1985; Morse and Mackenzie,
within the sediments between the pore water and 1990). Many investigations have been largely
some solid phase. Less agreement was found for descriptive and have focused primarily on the
coarse-grained sediments, where flow of water distribution, mineralogy, and morphology of the
through sediments (e.g., oölite banks) may result cements.
in a residence time too short for dynamic Carbonate cements in calcareous sediments
equilibrium to be reached. An interesting obser- belong to three major groups. The most common
vation was that oöids, although composed almost are those that occur in voids found in biogenic
entirely of aragonite, were significantly more carbonates. This group is especially important in
soluble than aragonite, in agreement with the reefs, which are discussed in a separate section of
Weyl (1965) hypothesis of a magnesian calcite this chapter. Cements also occur on the exterior of
coating. carbonate particles, where their intergrowth can
Field and laboratory observations are consist- cause formation of hardened pellets, grapestones,
ent with the idea that dissolution in carbonate crusts, hardgrounds, and beachrock. This type of
sediments can proceed faster than precipitation, cementation may also be important in oöids (e.g.,
and that the pore waters reach steady-state IAPs Fabricius, 1977). Micritic cements associated with
close to those of the most unstable phase boring algae comprise the third common type of
(dissolution processes will be discussed later in cement.
Sources and Diagenesis of Shoal-water Carbonate-rich Sediments 79
One of the most interesting questions about low-energy environment and low sedimentation
carbonate cements in the marine environment is rates (e.g., Taft et al., 1968; Shinn, 1969).
why they are not more abundant. In carbonate-rich However, Dravis (1979) found that hardgrounds
sediments carbonate surfaces for overgrowths are could form quickly even under high-energy and
abundant, and both overlying seawater and many rapid sedimentation rate conditions. He found
pore waters are supersaturated with respect to that in such environments endolithic algal
carbonate minerals. Morse and Mucci (1984) filaments play an important role in binding the
demonstrated that precipitation of cements from sediment and providing sites of cement for-
pore waters of carbonate sediments is severely mation. Aragonite and high-magnesian calcite
inhibited by studying Iceland spar calcite crystals cements can form under most environmental
that had been buried for several months in a conditions, but aragonite is generally favored
variety of carbonate sediments in the Bahamas. under higher-energy conditions. Given and
After recovery and analysis using very sensitive Wilkinson (1985) suggested that this is because
depth-profiling Auger electron spectroscopy, precipitation rates are faster under higher-energy
overgrowths were detected on only a few crystals. conditions and that a faster precipitation rate
The calculated growth rates of the precipitates favors aragonitic cements.
were much less than those observed in laboratory A major concern in studies of the chemistry of
experiments using seawater at the same super- carbonate cement formation is the source of the
saturation state. calcium and carbonate ions necessary to form the
At least part of the reason for these observations cements. The obvious source is seawater, but large
must be that precipitation is severely inhibited by volumes of seawater are necessary if significant
organics such as humic acids (Berner et al., 1978). amounts of cement are to be produced. Cement
Mitterer and co-authors (e.g., Mitterer and formation is consequently favored near the
Cunningham, 1985) have explored the possible sediment – water interface and in high-energy
role of organic matter in cement formation. These environments where water can be flushed through
authors suggested that, whereas some types of porous structures such as reefs. The observation
organic matter inhibit precipitation, other types, that cements usually form only in thin crusts near
particularly those rich in aspartic acid, favor the sediment –water interface also demonstrates
precipitation by complexing calcium. Inhibition the importance of normal seawater for cement
of precipitation, coupled with slow transfer of precipitation. Further evidence for cement for-
fresh supersaturated seawater into sediment pores, mation in normal seawater comes from stable
seems to account for the lack of extensive early isotopes. The d13C values of cements are usually
cementation. close to those predicted for carbonates precipitat-
The factors controlling the mineralogy and ing from seawater (e.g., see Given and Wilkinson,
chemical composition of carbonate cements in the 1985). Another possible source of the ions
marine environment have also been investigated necessary for cement formation is the dissolution
extensively. Bathurst (1975, 1987) summarized of carbonate phases more soluble than the
many of the observations (e.g., Glover and Pray, cements. High-magnesian calcites could provide
1971). In some cases the host carbonate mineral is such a source, as has been demonstrated in
a factor in determining mineral composition. periplatform oozes in the Bahamas (Mullins
Usually aragonite grains have aragonite over- et al., 1985) and for coastal carbonate sediments
growths, whereas high-magnesian calcite grains of the Bay of Calvi in Corsica (Moulin et al.,
have high-magnesian calcite overgrowths of 1985). This process is consistent with the
similar magnesium content. In some instances, previously discussed chemistry of many pore
syntaxial formation of cement is observed. waters.
Although this explanation of host control is a The precipitation of calcium carbonate (usually,
“comfortable” one, it does not explain the but not exclusively, from petrographic evidence
common occurrence of cements of mixed miner- in the form of high-magnesian calcite, e.g.,
alogy or those that differ in mineralogy from their Alexandersson and Milliman, 1981) is generally
host grains. inferred from a decrease in dissolved pore-water
Environmental factors have also been found to calcium (e.g., Thorstenson and Mackenzie, 1974;
correlate loosely with cement formation, miner- Gaillard et al., 1986). Most studies of the
alogy, and morphology. The energy (waves, impact of chemical diagenesis on the carbonate
currents, etc.) of the environment and the rate chemistry of anoxic sediments have focused
of sedimentation are most often cited as primarily on the fact that sulfate reduction
important in shallow-water environments. The results in the production of alkalinity, which
energy of the environment is important in can cause precipitation of carbonate minerals
supplying seawater, from which the carbonate (e.g., Berner, 1971). Carbonate precipitation can
cements can be derived. Formation of hard- also occur via methane oxidation instead of
grounds was originally thought to necessitate a organic matter oxidation, resulting in distinctly
80 Formation and Diagenesis of Carbonate Sediments
13
“light” d C values for authigenic carbonates established across the cell wall of Desulfovibrio
(e.g., Ritger et al., 1987). desulfuricans, resulting in calcium carbonate
Finally, it should be noted that while most dissolution in the nearby microenvironment.
investigators have rejected the idea that carbonate Prior to the onset of sulfate reduction, extensive
cements are directly or even closely linked to organic matter degradation can occur by bac-
biological mechanisms of formation, some inves- terially mediated oxygen use as described for
tigators hold the position that organisms may be deep-sea sediments. The influence of benthic
very important for cement formation processes. bacterial activity on carbonate mineral dissolution
Marine peloids (aggregates of cemented carbonate under aerobic conditions has been demonstrated
grains) have received considerable attention in nicely by Moulin et al. (1985) for pore waters
this regard because of their close association with from sediments of the Gulf of Calvi in Corsica.
bacterial clumps (e.g., Chafetz, 1986). Fabricius Other processes, but probably less important,
(1977) has presented a lengthy brief in favor of the include nitrate reduction and fermentation (e.g.,
formation of grapestone cements and oöids by Aller, 1980).
algae. Walter and co-workers (Walter and Burton,
1990; Walter et al., 1993; Ku et al., 1999) have
made extensive efforts to demonstrate the import-
7.03.3.2.3 Dissolution of carbonates ance of dissolution of calcium carbonate in
Many studies of the impact of chemical shallow-water carbonate sediments. Up to
diagenesis on the carbonate chemistry of anoxic , 50% carbonate dissolution can be driven by
sediments have focused primarily on the fact that the sulfate reduction– sulfide oxidation process. In
sulfate reduction results in the production of calcium carbonate-rich sediments there is often a
alkalinity, which can cause precipitation of lack of reactive iron to produce iron sulfide
carbonate minerals (see previous discussion). minerals. The sulfide that is produced by sulfate
However, during the early stages of sulfate reduction can only be buried in dissolved form in
reduction (, 2 – 35%), this reaction may not pore waters, oxidized, or can diffuse out of the
cause precipitation, but dissolution of carbonate sediments. In most carbonate-rich sediments
minerals, because the impact of a lower pH is the oxidative process strongly dominates the fate
greater than that of increased alkalinity (Figure 4). of sulfide. Figure 6 (Walter et al., 1993) shows
Carbonate ion activity decreases rapidly as it is the strong relationship that generally occurs in
“titrated” by CO2 from organic matter decompo- the carbonate muds of Florida Bay between
sition leading to a decrease in pore-water total carbon dioxide, excess dissolved calcium
saturation state. This process is evident in data (calcium at a concentration above that predicted
for the Fe-poor, shallow-water carbonate sedi- from salinity), and the amount of sulfate that has
ments of Morse et al. (1985) from the Bahamas been reduced. It is noteworthy that the burrowed
and has been confirmed in studies by Walter and banks show much more extensive increase in
Burton (1990), Walter et al. (1993), and Ku et al. calcium than the other mud banks. This is in good
(1999) for Florida Bay, Tribble (1990) in Checker agreement with the observations of Aller and
Reef, Oahu, and Wollast and Mackenzie (unpub- Rude (1988) that in Long Island Sound siliciclas-
lished data) for Bermuda sediments. tic sediments an increased bioturbation leads to
Three primary processes can lead to under- increased sulfide oxidation and carbonate
saturation, in addition to the one that may result dissolution.
during the early stages of sulfate reduction. These
are early post-death microenvironments within
organisms, oxidation of organic matter by pro- 7.03.3.2.4 Carbonate diagenesis associated
cesses preceding sulfate reduction, and oxidation with reefs
of sulfides. Commonly, these processes are most
important near the sediment – water interface. Because of the difficulties inherent in obtaining
Early studies by Hecht (1933) showed that pore waters from the interior of reefs, the chemical
dissolution of carbonate in mollusk shells can environment in reef structures went largely
begin immediately after death. In laboratory unstudied until the 1980s. Most of the studies
studies he found shell weight losses of as much of early reef diagenesis are those of Hawaiian
as 25% in two weeks. Other examples of this type and Australian reefs by Sansone and co-workers
of behavior come from a study by Berner (1969), (Sansone, 1985; Sansone et al., 1988a,b; Tribble,
who found calcium carbonate dissolution during 1990, 1993; Tribble et al., 1990, 1992). Fichez
bacterial decomposition of two types of clams, et al. (1997) and Andrié et al. (1998) have
possibly as a result of the production of organic conducted studies of chemical changes in pore
acids in addition to CO2 during early degradation waters in a deep borehole within a Tahitian
of organic matter. Birnbaum and Wiremen (1984) fringing reef. These changes occur during
have also pointed out that a proton gradient can be time periods substantially longer than those
Sources and Diagenesis of Shoal-water Carbonate-rich Sediments 81
n
tio
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
(a) TCO2 (mM) (b) Excess Ca2+ (mM)
Figure 6 Dissolved sulfate versus: (a) TCO2 and (b) excess Ca2þ in the pore waters of carbonate-rich Florida Bay
sediments (after Walter et al., 1993).
encompassed by the “early” diagenesis considered FeS formation can play an important role in
in this chapter. regulating pore-water chemistry. Systems with
The studies of Checker Reef, Oahu, Hawaii more intense FeS formation have a tendency
(a lagoonal patch reef) and Davies Reef, Great to become more supersaturated with respect
Barrier Reef, Australia (a platform reef), show to aragonite. N-poor organic matter appeared to
that microbially mediated processes of oxic result in more corrosive conditions.
respiration, sulfate reduction, and, to a lesser
extent, nitrate reduction and methanogenesis are
important in these reef structures. The interstitial 7.03.3.2.5 Early dolomite formation
waters of these reefs are highly depleted in
The formation of dolomite under conditions
oxygen, and exhibit lower pH values and elevated
encountered in modern marine sediments and
concentrations of dissolved methane, sulfide, sediment burial to moderate depths is strongly
ammonium, phosphate, and silica relative to the controlled by reaction kinetics that are slow even
seawater surrounding the reef. In Checker Reef at high supersaturations (e.g., Lippmann, 1973;
the degree of alteration of interstitial waters Morrow, 1982). A plausible explanation for the
increases from the margin to the center of the slow precipitation kinetics of dolomite is the
reef; in Davies Reef the most altered pore waters requirement that cation ordering puts a major limit
are at the margin of the reef. on the rate at which it can form (e.g., the
The differences between these reefs probably “simplexity” principle, Goldsmith, 1953). It is
reflect differences in their structural framework likely that the dehydration kinetics of Mg2þ also
and variations in wave characteristics and tidal play a role (e.g., Lippmann, 1973). Because the
range in the two environments. Anaerobic reac- precipitation kinetics of dolomite are too slow to
tions in reef interstitial waters may not progress be studied in the laboratory at near Earth-surface
far if reef structures are open and well flushed. If, temperatures (Land, 1998), experiments on
however, the systems are nearly closed, little fresh dolomite reaction kinetics (e.g., Arvidson and
reactant will enter via seawater exchange and Mackenzie, 1999) have generally been conducted
mass transfer will be limited by the reactants at elevated temperatures (typically between
trapped in the reef interstitial waters. An important 100 8C and 300 8C). Considerable interesting
conclusion of Sansone’s studies was that thermo- information has been gathered from these experi-
dynamic disequilibrium among dissolved species ments. However, the applicability of the results to
such as CH4 and SO22 4 implies microzonation of processes at lower temperatures and slower
chemical reactions. Microzonation resulting in reaction kinetics remains highly questionable.
slight differences in reef interstitial water compo- Observations of dolomite formation in natural
sitions may account for the coexistence of systems have been used for defining additional
different cement mineralogies in reef structures. factors that may influence the rate of dolomite
A pattern of initial carbonate dissolution formation. These include catalysis by certain clay
followed by carbonate precipitation as a function minerals (e.g., Wanless, 1979) and production of
of the extent of sulfate reduction occurs within organic by-products by bacteria (e.g., Gunatilaka
reefs in a manner similar to that previously et al., 1985). Mg2þ transport to sites of dolomite
described for sediments (Tribble, 1993). Through- precipitation can inhibit the reaction in hemi-
out this process the interstitial waters maintain pelagic sediments (e.g., Baker and Burns, 1985).
close to equilibrium compositions with aragonite. However, the true influence of reaction rates is
This buffers the pH of the waters. It was found that largely speculative, because the kinetic factors are
82 Formation and Diagenesis of Carbonate Sediments
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Andrews J. E., Christidis S., and Dennis P. F. (1997) Assessing
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