DesigningVacuumtower (VDU)

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Designing Distillation Columns

for Vacuum Service
Karl Kolmetz
Sulzer Chemtech, Singapore
karl.kolmetz@sulzer.com
Andrew W. Sloley
VECO USA, Inc.
andrew.sloley@veco.com
Timothy M. Zygula
Houston, Texas
tmz21@hotmail.com
Peter W. Faessler
Sulzer Chemtech Singapore
peter.w.faessler@sulzer.com
Wai Kiong Ng
waikiong.ng@sulzer.com
K. Senthil
k.senthil@sulzer.com
Tau Yee Lim

tauyee.lim@sulzer.com
Prepared for
The 11th India Oil and Gas Symposium

and International Exhibition
6-7 September 2004

Grand Hyatt
Mumbai, India
Kolmetz.Com is a chemical engineering web site that publishes
Abstract
Many hydrocarbon separation applications can be improved by vacuum
distillation. The relative volatility of many hydrocarbon binary pairs of
components improves with lower pressure, improving the separation
efficiency. At lower pressures hydrocarbon components vaporize at lower
temperatures, reducing the degradation of products by condensation or
polymerization.
Typically applications of distillation columns in vacuum service include refinery
vacuum columns, ethyl-benzene / styrene distillation, mono- / di – / tri - /
ethanolamine distillation, and oleo chemicals. A review of each of the
applications can provide an insight to the overall picture of designing columns
for vacuum service.
Introduction – Advantages of Vacuum Distillation

Distillation is the separation of key components by the difference in their
relative volatility, or boiling points. It can also be called fractional distillation or
fractionation. Distillation is favored over other separation techniques such as
crystallization or membranes when;
1. The relative volatility is greater that 1.2,
2. Products are thermally stable,
3. Large rates are desired,
4. No corrosion, precipitation or explosion issues are present.
Close boiling mixtures may require many stages to separate the key
components. One tool to reduce the number of stages required is to utilize
vacuum distillation.
Vacuum distillation increases the relative volatility of key components in many
applications. For vapor and liquid equilibrium a K- value is defined for each
species i by,
Ki = Yi / Xi
where Y is the mole fraction in the vapor phase and X is the mole fraction in
the liquid phase. (1)
For vapor liquid separation operations, an index of the relative ease of
separation for two chemical species i and j is given by the relative volatility
alpha defined as the ratio of their K values
alpha ij = Ki / Kj = Pi / Pj
Pi and Pj are the vapor pressures of components i and j at a given
temperature.
Page 2 of 2
The number of theoretical stages required to separate two species to a

desired degree is strongly dependent on the value of this index. The greater
the departure of the relative volatility from a value of one, the fewer the
equilibrium stages required for a desired degree of separation. The alpha
value of many binary pairs can be improved by lowering the pressure of the
system leading to separation efficiencies.
1.0
0.8 α=5
0.6 α=3
Y
0.4 α=2
0.2 α=1
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

X
Knowing the relative volatility for a system is also useful in determining the
amount of separation possible. A relative volatility of 1.0 indicates that both
components are equally volatile and no separation takes place via normal
distillation. When the relative volatility is low, less than 1.05, separation
becomes difficult because a large number of stages are required. The higher
the relative volatility, the more separable are the two components; this
connotes fewer stages in a distillation column in order to effect the same
separation between the overhead and bottoms products. Lower pressures
increase relative volatilities in most systems.
Page 3 of 3
The alpha values for ethyl-benzene and meta-di-ethyl-benzene, which are in

styrene distillation, are 2.85 at a pressure of one bar, and 2.50 at a pressure
of three bar. Higher pressure for this separation requires more theoretical
stages at constant reflux.
One of the few cases where lower pressure does not help distillation is 1,1 –
Di Phenyl Ethane, and 1,2,3,4 – Tetra Ethyl Benzene, as shown in the
attached graph. (9)
A second advantage of vacuum distillation is the reduced temperature

requirement at lower pressures. For many systems the products degrade or
polymerize at elevated temperatures. Vacuum Distillation can improved by
1. Prevention of product degradation or polymer formation because of
reduced pressure leading to lower tower bottoms temperatures,
2. Reduction of product degradation or polymer formation because of
reduced mean residence time especially in packing applications,
3. Increases in capacity, yield, and purity.
A third advantage of vacuum distillation is the reduced capital cost, at the
expense of slightly more operating cost. Utilizing vacuum distillation can
reduce the height and diameter, and thus the capital cost of a column.
Page 4 of 4
Refinery Vacuum Columns

General Overview
Refinery vacuum columns utilize vacuum

distillation due to increase the distillate
recovery which avoiding the thermal
degradation of the atmospheric tower
bottoms, which is the vacuum tower feed.
The goal of a refinery vacuum column is
produce light vacuum gas oil (LVGO) and
heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO) which can be
catalytically converted to gasoline in a
Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU) or
hydrotreater. The LVGO and HVGO should
contain low amounts of asphaltenes and
metals. Typical ranges for asphaltenes
would be 0.02 to 0.20-wt % and 1 to 10 ppm
for metals.
The atmospheric tower bottom begins
thermal cracking to produce coke at the
vacuum tower transfer line. The design of the transfer line and vapor inlet
distributor is very important in the design of refinery vacuum distillation.
The rate of thermal cracking is directly proportional to time and increases
exponentially with temperature. Both residence time and temperature must
be minimized to avoid coke deposits. Typical limits in the transfer line are 425
C (800 F) and about 412 C (775 F) in the flash zone.
Condensation is a reaction where two or more small molecules combine to
from large stable structure molecules. Extreme condensation is the formation
of coke at high temperature and long residence times. Coke forms when
hydrogen atoms are removed from the hydrocarbon radicals until the extreme
of leaving only a layer of elemental carbon or coke. These condensation
products leave the gas phase and settle as a layer of hard coke that is difficult
to remove.
Steam multi stage vacuum ejectors reduce the pressure at the top of the
tower with condensers, and may have as many as three stages of vacuum.
The top of the tower is typically 20 mbar of pressure and the tower internals
are designed to reduce the overall tower pressure drop and liquid volume,
thus reducing the transfer line pressure, and by equilibrium, the temperature.
Vacuum Service Design Guidelines

A tower design is normally made in two steps, a process design followed by a
mechanical design. The purpose of the process design is to calculate the
required stream flows and number of required theoretical stages. The
purpose of the mechanical design is to select the tower internals, column
diameter and height. Additional items to be reviewed include thermal stability,
chemical stability, corrosion, and safety requirements.
Page 5 of 5
Older refinery vacuum tower designs utilized trays to make the required
separation. Each tower internal has advantages and disadvantages.
In low-pressure systems, packing has been shown to be more efficient, but
proper application is important for fouling services. In high-pressure
distillation applications trays have been shown to be more efficient than
packing. For absorption where equilibrium is not the limiting factor, packing
however can be utilized in high-pressure applications.
Trays have few advantages in refinery vacuum service. Their disadvantages
include lower stage efficiency, higher mean residence time, and higher-
pressure drop. A normal designed tray will have 5-mbar pressure drop per
stage.
The advantages of packing in a refinery vacuum service are;
1. the higher stage efficiency,
2. reduced mean residence time,
3. smaller residence time distribution,
4. and lower pressure drop.
These advantages can increase yield of LVGO and HVGO without the
addition of asphaltenes or metals. Currently most vacuum towers have grids
in the wash section and packing in the HVGO and LVGO sections.
Page 6 of 6
The challenging part of the Vacuum Column is the wash bed, which removes
the entrained heavy key from the light and intermediate keys. The entrained
heavy key can lead to many fouling phenomena as highlighted by this
example.
The industry average wash bed run length approaches 5 years. The average
life of a wash bed is based on a variety of factors, which include;
1. Design of inlet feed system to reduce entrainment

2. Design of inlet transfer line to reduce velocity and resulting entrainment
3. Design of furnace to prevent high flux areas which cause cracking and
coking
4. Design of collector tray, this can be sloped to reduce residence time
5. Rate of wash bed oil flow
6. Amount of vacuum – the high vapour velocities caused by deep cut
vacuum designs will result in more velocity gradients, leading to more
entrainment with the same internal tower diameter
Design Of Feed Inlet System to Reduce Entrainment
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), or the use of computers to solve fluid

flow problems has advanced enormously in the last ten years. The
commercially available CFD packages have led the development in software
that have enabled numerous fluid flow applications to become commonplace.
These tools are now used extensively throughout the fluid machinery industry.
Three dimensional flow analyses through the utilization of CFD have led
Page 7 of 7
substantial improvements into the performance of specific fluid machinery

components through a better understanding and control of the complex flow
phenomena involved.
The key advantage of CFD analysis is that it can be used as a numerical test
bed that can minimize the required prototype testing and other associated
costs for product development. It also offers substantial support to design
optimization of existing configurations as shown in below examples (Elder, et.
al., 2003) (8).
One of the keys to successful design of vacuum systems is the feed inlet
system. Currently there are several options available. A CFD study was
conducted by Wehrli et. al., (4), to evaluate the current systems.
Optimum operation of packed separation columns require even distribution of
liquid films and gas flow. While the role of proper liquid distribution was never
disputed, the vapor initial distribution has been secondary. Its importance
becomes evident as large column diameters and packings with lower pressure
drop are considered.
The purpose of the vapor feed system is to introduce process gas or vapor,
coming for example, from the reboiler into the column and to distribute the
vapor evenly over the whole cross section. To achieve this, the vapor velocity
needs to be reduced over a short distance. At the same time, the inlet should
not unduly block the column cross-section or lead to excessive pressure
drops. For economic reasons, a minimum distance between the nozzle and
the packing is desired.
While major challenges within the CFD field, like simulation of multiphase
flows, await better understanding and models of general applicability, many
problems of lower complexity can now be addressed. The goal of the CFD
study was to determine the uniformity of the vapor velocity profile right under
the lower packing or tray edge.
This is the computational domain and boundary conditions of the CFD Study.
The velocities used in this study were within normal design ranges, F factors
of less than 20.
Page 8 of 8
Standard inlet
This is a standard radial inlet without a vapor feed inlet device. Typical
guidelines would be to have the first tray three to five time the inlet pipe
diameter above the top of the inlet piping.
Page 9 of 9
The CFD study results show very high velocities (red) along the opposite wall
from the feed inlet, at a point just below the packing inlet. This would be the
expected result from a standard inlet. The vapor flow in the packing would be
non-uniform and resulted in reduced packing efficiency.
The streamlines show the similar expected phenomena.
Page 10 of 10
Orifice Baffle
This is a typical orifice baffle vapor feed inlet device. It is used in many
applications. It has a specially designed channel baffle with lateral opening
and a central orifice.
The orifice baffle design shows high velocities along the opposite wall and
adjacent sidewalls. Once again the vapor distribution is less than optimal, but
slightly better than the first case. The packing efficiency would again be
reduced.
Page 11 of 11
The streamlines show even more detail of the maldistribution.
Page 12 of 12
Vapor Horn
This is a vapor horn feed inlet device that uses the advantage of a tangential
feed entry and wall effects to reduce the vapor feed velocity. This device is
usually applied with flashing streams or high velocity vapor feed carrying a
large disperse liquid fraction. Utilizing this device can reduce the height
requirement to the first tray.
Page 13 of 13
This is a representation of the vapor distribution at the vapor horn.
This is a representation of the vapor horn profile just below the packing. It has
no high velocity red components below the packing inlet, and will lead to
increased packing efficiency.
Page 14 of 14
The streamlines show improved velocity gradients and a vapor horn should be
utilized when possible on a tangential tower entry.
This is an example of a vacuum tower CFD with the chimney tray included in
the simulation.
Page 15 of 15
Ethyl Benzene/Styrene Distillation

General Overview
The purpose of an ethyl benzene

(EB) / styrene splitter is to separate
ethyl benzene from styrene. The
distillate EB is recycled to Styrene
reactors and the bottom product
Styrene Monomer (SM) is sent to the
Styrene Finishing column for heavy
key removal. The EB impurity in the
SM should be in the range of 100 ~
500 ppm.
EB/SM Splitters are operated under
vacuum due to the polymerization
potential of styrene at elevated
temperature. Polymers are
undesirable in the monomer
distillation column and can lead to
plugging of distributors or packing
and unit outages.
The rate of polymerization is directly
proportional to time and increases exponentially with temperature. Both
residence time and temperate must be minimized to reduce polymerization
deposits. Current guideline is to keep the tower bottoms temperature below
120°C
Generally steam ejector systems are used to maintain vacuum at the top of
the tower. The typical column top pressure is 100 to 400 mbar and the
internals are carefully designed to reduce the tower overall pressure drop,
minimize liquid hold up; reduce the bottom temperature and residence time.
Some producers are increasing the tower pressure due to improvements in
inhibitor formulations. This can increase capacity and improve heat recovery.
Page 16 of 16
Ethyl Benzene/Styrene Splitter Service Design Guidelines

During the early days of styrene manufacturing, trays were used as column
internals for the separation. The trayed columns have a high-pressure drop
and high bottoms temperature. Currently the industry standard is to use high-
capacity structured packing as column internals for EB/SM splitters.
The EB/SM splitter may require 80 to 100 theoretical stages depending on the
purity requirements. The columns may have 5 to 7 beds of structured packing
and require very good quality liquid distributors and collectors.
Table of Number of Theoretical Stages Verses Reflux Ratio

at Different Pressures
NTS versus Reflux-Ratio
120
100
80
NTS
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Reflux Ratio
P=150mbar
Page 17 of 17
NTS Versus Reflux-Ratio
120
100
80
NTS
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Reflux-Ratio
P=400mbar
CASE Top Pressure NTS Reboiler Condenser Reflux-

(mbar) (M.W) (M.W) Ratio
1 150 71 38.43 39.47 8.1726
2 400 79 42.45 42.94 8.1726
A special design for overhead condenser and reboiler may be used to reduce
the overall column pressure drop. Some of the advantages of using structured
packing in these applications are as follows:
1. Minimum polymer formation because of reduced pressure drop leading

to low tower bottoms temperatures. The pressure drop for high
capacity structured packing may be in the range of 1 - 4 mmHg per
meter.
2. Low inhibitor consumption because of low bottom temperature and
minimum liquid hold-up, which results in significant savings in the costs
of operation.
3. Smaller residence time distribution of the liquid phase is achieved with
high capacity structured packing as compared to tray columns. It also
reduces dead pockets and thermal degradation, which usually gives
rise to further acceleration of polymer formation.
4. Increase in capacity, yield, and purity when compared to tray column of
same size.
Page 18 of 18
5. Energy saving by increasing the number of theoretical stages when the

columns are revamped from trays or conventional packing to high
capacity structured packing.
Ethanolamine Distillation
Ethanolamine Distillation General Overview
The reaction of ethylene oxide with ammonia renders a mixture of mono-, di-,
and tri-ethanol amines. The maximum production of mono-ethanolamine from
the reactor is 70%. Beyond this maximum restriction on mono-ethanolamine,
the plant may be designed for a wide range in product distribution. This
means that the plant has very high flexibility and production and may be
adapted to changing market demands.
Page 19 of 19
Ethanolamine Distillation General Overview

Column top operating pressure for the di- and tri- ethylamine distillation is
typically 1 to 2 mbar and column bottom operating pressure is in the range of
10 to 12 mbar. To achieve this low-pressure drop and still retain high
separation efficiency at typically very low specific liquid loads, wire gauze
structured packing is specified. Liquid loads can be as low as 0.2 m3/m2hr.
Low pressure drop gauze packings in distillation columns create the lowest
possible operating temperature, preventing deterioration of product quality,
while reducing column shell diameter. The high separation efficiency is
leading to;
1. Low energy consumption through reduced reflux rates
2. High product purity, reduced column height
3. No organic wastes – from the products of polymerization.
Special design of the top condenser provides extremely low-pressure drop of
vacuum distillation. Falling film reboilers permit use of low steam
temperature, avoiding product quality deterioration and losses
Page 20 of 20
Palm Oil Refining

Palm Oil Refining General Overview
An important step in palm oil purification is physical refining, which is the
removal of free fatty acids present in the vegetable oil. This separation needs
to be completed at low temperatures to reduce the degradation of the final
products. The following factors are very important in the design of columns for
this service.
1. High Vacuum
2. Low Pressure Drop
3. Low Bottoms Temperature
4. Minimum hold up
5. Short residence time
The free fatty acids are removed using stripping steam at 250 °C. The column
top pressure is around 2 - 3 mmHg. The columns with structured packing
require much lower stripping steam than the columns equipped with trays.
Page 21 of 21
Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated aliphatic carboxylic acids with
carbon chain lengths in the range of C6 up to C24. An example of a fatty acid
is palmitic acid
CH3 – (CH2)14 – COOH
Splitting oils and fats produces the fatty acids. Glycerine is also produced as
by product. The split fatty acid is a mixture of fatty acids ranging from C6 to
C18 depending on the type of oil or fat. The pure fatty acid is used as an
important raw material in the manufacture of soaps, washing powder and
other personal care products. So it is important to purify the fatty acid to as
high a purity as possible.
Knowledge of the chemical and physical properties of the fatty acid is one of
the basic prerequisites for the design of distillation column for this service. The
odor and color specification is very important for fatty acid. The boiling points
of fatty acids are very high at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, it is necessary
to distill the fatty acids at high vacuum to reduce the vapor pressure otherwise
the product will degrade at high temperatures. The general schematic flow for
the purification of fatty acid is as follows:
Page 22 of 22
Glycerol
Glycerol (C2H8O3), 1,2,3 – propanetriol, commonly known as glycerin, is the

simplest triol. It is obtained as a by-product during the conversion of fats and
oils to fatty acids and fatty acid methyl esters.
As glycerin is a thermally very sensitive product, low column bottoms

temperatures are absolutely essential in order to achieve good product
qualities. Glycerin is utilized in the cosmetic and pharmacy applications and
has very stringent specifications.
Low pressure drop, high efficiency sheet metal structured metal and wire
gauze packing is the best combination to insure liquid film distribution of the
packing surface. The liquid film distribution is the key to achieving high
efficiency.
Due to the presence of water in Glycerol Fractionation, the wet-ability of the

sheet metal structured packing is reduced, leading to reduced stage
efficiency. The capillary action of the wire gauze packing to spread the flow
evenly through the wire gauze at low liquid loads, even with the presence of
water, improves the separation efficiency and thus gives it an advantage in
this application. Wire gauze packing is utilized in the middle and bottom
section with the structured sheet metal utilized in the top section.
Page 23 of 23
At liquid loads of less than 10 m3/m2hr, the liquid flows within the wire gauze
(internal flow). For higher loads the liquid flows on the exterior surface of the
wire gauze (external flow) (10)
Capillarity Action in Wire Gauze Packing
Page 24 of 24
Conclusions
This paper presents four aspects of vacuum distillation. First was a review of
vacuum distillation principles. Second was a general overview of vacuum
distillation applications. Third was a review of tower feed inlet devices, which
is very important in vacuum distillation. And finally, in several application
sections, a comparison of trays and structure packing was presented, with the
advantages and disadvantages of each mentioned.
There are many advantages to Vacuum Distillation including;
1. The alpha values of binary pairs are generally improved leading to

improved separations.
2. The temperature requirement for distillation is reduced at lower

pressures. For many systems the products degrade or polymerize
at elevated temperatures.
a. Prevention of product degradation or polymer formation because
of reduced pressure leading to lower tower bottoms
temperatures.
b. Reduction of product degradation or polymer formation because
of reduced mean residence time especially in packing
applications
c. Increased in capacity, yield, and purity
3. The reduced capital cost, at the expense of slightly more operating
cost. Utilizing vacuum distillation can reduce the height and diameter,
and thus the capital cost of a column.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Sulzer Chemtech for the use of pictures and CFD
results in this paper. We also extend our special appreciations to Dr. M.
Wehrli (Sulzer Chemtech, Switzerland), and Mr. D. Summers (Sulzer
Chemtech, USA) for their invaluable comments and review.
Page 25 of 25
References
1. Andrew W. Sloley, Gary R. Martin, “Subdue Solids in Towers”, Chemical

Engineering Progress, January 1995
2. Kolmetz K, Zygula T, “Resolving Process Distillation Equipment Problems",

Prepared for The 5th Annual Regional Olefins Conference, October 31st -
November 3rd, 2000,
Johor Bahru, Malaysia
3. Kister, H. Z. “Distillation Design”, McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York,

1992.
4. Marc Wehrli, Sebastian Hirschberg, Rolf Schweizer, “INFLUENCE OF VAPOR FEED

DESIGN ON THE FLOW DISTRIBUTION”, International Conference on Distillation &
Absorption, September 30 - October 2, 2002, Baden-Baden, Germany
5. Karl Kolmetz, Andrew W. Sloley, Timothy M. Zygula, Wai Kiong Ng, Peter W.
Faessler “Design Guidelines for Distillation Columns in Fouling Service”,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, The 16th Ethylene Producers
Conference, Section T8005 - Ethylene Plant Technology, Advances in Distillation
Technology for Ethylene Plants, 29 April 2004, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
6. Seader, J.D. and Ernest J. Henley, “Separation Process Principle”s, John Wiley,
1998
7. R M Price Lecture Notes , http://www.cbu.edu/~rprice/lectures/distill.html
8. Elder, R.L., A., Tourlidakis and M.K., Yates. “Advances of CFD in Fluid Machinery
Design”, Professional Engineering Publishing, UK, 2003
9. Mauro Damiani , Peter Faessler, “Design considerations of distillation columns in

the EB- and SM- plant, operating in the positive pressure range , as well as in the
vacuum”, ABB Styrene Conference, June 22 2003, Prague, Czech Republic
10. Florian Kehrer, Peter Moritz, Mark Pilling, “The effects of perforation in structure
gauze packing” American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 29 April 2004, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Page 26 of 26

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Kolmetz.

Com is a chemical engineering web site that publishes

Designing Distillation Columns

Tau Yee Lim

The 11th India Oil and Gas Symposium

6-7 September 2004

Introduction – Advantages of Vacuum Distillation

The number of theoretical stages required to separate two species to a

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

The alpha values for ethyl-benzene and meta-di-ethyl-benzene, which are in

A second advantage of vacuum distillation is the reduced temperature

Refinery Vacuum Columns

Refinery vacuum columns utilize vacuum

Vacuum Service Design Guidelines

1. Design of inlet feed system to reduce entrainment

Design Of Feed Inlet System to Reduce Entrainment

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), or the use of computers to solve fluid

substantial improvements into the performance of specific fluid machinery

The streamlines show the similar expected phenomena.

The streamlines show even more detail of the maldistribution.

This is a representation of the vapor distribution at the vapor horn.

Ethyl Benzene/Styrene Distillation

The purpose of an ethyl benzene

Ethyl Benzene/Styrene Splitter Service Design Guidelines

Table of Number of Theoretical Stages Verses Reflux Ratio

NTS versus Reflux-Ratio

NTS Versus Reflux-Ratio

CASE Top Pressure NTS Reboiler Condenser Reflux-

1 150 71 38.43 39.47 8.1726

2 400 79 42.45 42.94 8.1726

1. Minimum polymer formation because of reduced pressure drop leading

5. Energy saving by increasing the number of theoretical stages when the

Ethanolamine Distillation General Overview

Palm Oil Refining

CH3 – (CH2)14 – COOH

Glycerol (C2H8O3), 1,2,3 – propanetriol, commonly known as glycerin, is the

As glycerin is a thermally very sensitive product, low column bottoms

Due to the presence of water in Glycerol Fractionation, the wet-ability of the

Capillarity Action in Wire Gauze Packing

There are many advantages to Vacuum Distillation including;

1. The alpha values of binary pairs are generally improved leading to

2. The temperature requirement for distillation is reduced at lower

1. Andrew W. Sloley, Gary R. Martin, “Subdue Solids in Towers”, Chemical

2. Kolmetz K, Zygula T, “Resolving Process Distillation Equipment Problems",

3. Kister, H. Z. “Distillation Design”, McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York,

4. Marc Wehrli, Sebastian Hirschberg, Rolf Schweizer, “INFLUENCE OF VAPOR FEED

7. R M Price Lecture Notes , http://www.cbu.edu/~rprice/lectures/distill.html

9. Mauro Damiani , Peter Faessler, “Design considerations of distillation columns in

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