sustainability

Article
A Control Scheme for Variable-Speed
Micro-Hydropower Plants
Youping Fan *, Dai Zhang * and Jingjiao Li
School of Electrical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China; jjli@whu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: ypfan@whu.edu.cn (Y.F.); daizhang@whu.edu.cn (D.Z.); Tel.: +86-027-8856-4559 (D.Z.)




Received: 24 October 2018; Accepted: 18 November 2018; Published: 21 November 2018


Abstract: The aim of this work was to design and build a control system to control the performance
of the Pelton wheel and synchronous generator system at different upstream water flow and electrical
load conditions. The turbine output power is determined by the upstream water flow and spear valve,
whilst the generator output power is determined by the turbine output power and the electrical load.
A spear valve is used to control the generator output power at different water and load conditions.
An autotuning proportion integration (PI) arithmetic-based controller was built using a relay feedback
tuning method. An on–off relay was used in the program in order to oscillate the system. The optimal
PI gains can be estimated via the Ziegler–Nichols method. A fully open test was used to test the tuned
PI gains. The performance of the original gains and the new tuned gains were discussed. A controller
was used to maintain the frequency or voltage of the output power by automatic regulation of the
turbine valve. The program could search for the maximum generation efficiency by entering the
output current value of the generator into the program manually.

Keywords: Pelton wheel; synchronous generator; autotuning; LabVIEW

1. Introduction
With the increasing rate of hydropower installation all over the world, there are many potential
energy sources with low water heads that can be used by small-scale hydropower (SHP) plants to
generate electricity for domestic use [1]. However, the overdevelopment of SHP may result in potential
threats such as streamflow reductions [2]. These threats can be reduced through appropriately locating
SHP plants in an environmentally friendly manner [3]. Furthermore, the operation mode of SHP plants
can be used for variable renewable energy integration [4]. The ecological impacts of SHP still need to
be thoroughly investigated; for instance, the impact on small river ecology [5].
During the last few years, rainfall patterns have changed erratically the world over [6]. Earth will
enter a three-to-five-year drought period starting in 2018, which will occur inland at higher latitudes
and in coastal areas at lower latitudes [7]. Due to these changes in rainfall patterns, the supply of
water to a hydropower plant may vary with time. With the low investment and high return of small
hydropower plants, many small hydropower stations have been attracted to invest in the construction
of small hydropower stations [8]. Some basic design aspects of the micro-hydropower plant have been
proposed in the literature [9–11]. A large number of the small hydropower stations have achieved
grid-connected operation, which also puts forward new standards for the safe and effective operation
of small hydropower stations [12].
The aim of this paper was to select a suitable water turbine and electrical generator combination
to supply electricity to a grid of fixed voltage. The generator, driven by the turbine, operates at
variable speed, and hence with varying voltage and frequency. The variable outputs were to be
regulated by the power electronics. For a permanent magnet synchronous generator, an algorithm

Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333; doi:10.3390/su10114333 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 2 of 19

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

is proposed to increase the system efficiency via optimizing the rotation rate [13]. A novel electronic
power conditioning
proposed system
to increase is built efficiency
the system for increasing the efficacythe
via optimizing of rotation
SHP [14]. An[13].
rate induction
A novel generator
electroniccan
be power conditioning
used instead system is built
of a synchronous for increasing
generator the plant
in a SHP efficacy
forofitsSHP
size[14].
and Ancostinduction
benefits generator
[15]. In this
can be
paper, theused instead
aim was of a synchronous
to design and build agenerator in a SHP
control system plant for
to control theitsperformance
size and costofbenefits
the Pelton[15].wheel
In
andthis paper, the aim
synchronous was to design
generator system andat build a control
different system
upstream to control
water flow the
andperformance of the
electrical load Pelton
conditions.
wheel and
A feedback synchronous
control structuregenerator system at
was implemented to different
control theupstream
system. The wateraimflow
wasand electrical
to have load
two different
conditions. A feedback control structure was implemented to control the system. The
results from controlling the turbine. The first was to apply different loads to the electrical generator aim was to have
two different
(simulating resultslevels
different fromofcontrolling
electricitythe turbine.
usage) whileThe first was
keeping thetosystem
apply atdifferent loadsfrequency.
a constant to the
The second was to apply different upstream flows (simulating different water level conditions) at
electrical generator (simulating different levels of electricity usage) while keeping the system a
while
constant frequency. The second was to apply different upstream flows (simulating different water
keeping the system at the maximum efficiency possible (varying frequency).
level conditions) while keeping the system at the maximum efficiency possible (varying frequency).
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Overview of the Control Section
2.1. Overview of the Control Section
This section of the variable-speed hydropower scheme describes the design of a control system
This section of the variable-speed hydropower scheme describes the design of a control system
using LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench). A schematic diagram of the
using LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench). A schematic diagram of
power generator is shown in Figure 1. A water tank (32 m head) within the University of Leicester was
the power generator is shown in Figure 1. A water tank (32 m head) within the University of Leicester
used to produce water flow in order to drive a turbine. The generator could extract electrical power
was used to produce water flow in order to drive a turbine. The generator could extract electrical
while the turbine was rotating. A resistance load was connected to the end of the generator in order to
power while the turbine was rotating. A resistance load was connected to the end of the generator in
receive the electrical power.
order to receive the electrical power.
TheThemotion
motioncontroller
controller was
was a stepper motor.
a stepper motor.The The stepper
stepper motor
motor could
could be used
be used to change
to change the
thecharacteristics
characteristics of the turbine via a valve. At different water conditions, the
of the turbine via a valve. At different water conditions, the control of the valvecontrol of the
valve position
position couldcould
be used be to
used to adjust
adjust the turbine
the turbine characteristics
characteristics for maximum
for maximum efficiency
efficiency and and the
the required
required power output. The position of the valve was controlled by the NI-USB
power output. The position of the valve was controlled by the NI-USB 6221 card (National 6221 card (National
Instruments-Universal
Instruments-UniversalSerial SerialBus
Bus 6221). The card
6221). The card was
was used
usedtotoacquire
acquiredata
datafrom
fromthe
thesensors
sensors
andand
generate
generatesignals
signalstotocontrol
controlthethestepper
steppermotor
motor via
via a stepper motordriver.
stepper motor driver.AApersonal
personalcomputer
computer waswas
used to to
used control the
control card
the cardusing
usingLabVIEW.
LabVIEW.

Figure
Figure1. 1.Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram ofof the
the power
power generator
generator configuration. NIUSB
configuration. NI USB6221:
6221:National
National
Instruments-Universal Serial Bus 6221.
Instruments-Universal Serial Bus 6221.
 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 3 of 19

2.2. LabVIEW and Data Acquisition

2.2. LabVIEW
LabVIEW anduses
DataaAcquisition
graphical programming language. The graphical user interface (GUI) can
accelerate programming,
LabVIEW uses a graphical as theprogramming
programminglanguage.
process involves drawing
The graphical a flowchart.
user LabVIEW
interface (GUI) can
programming
accelerate can generally
programming, be programming
as the twice as fast process
compared to C and
involves C++ [16].
drawing Moreover,
a flowchart. a high-
LabVIEW
performance can
programming control and monitoring
generally system
be twice as fast can be
compared built
to C andusing thisMoreover,
C++ [16]. programming language. The
a high-performance
LabVIEW software is designed for measurement, data analysis, and
control and monitoring system can be built using this programming language. The LabVIEWmotion control. A number
softwareof
isbuilt-in
designedunderlying codes designed
for measurement, by National
data analysis, and motion Instruments can be of
control. A number called from
built-in the toolset
underlying of
codes
LabVIEW for signal processing [16].
designed by National Instruments can be called from the toolset of LabVIEW for signal processing [16].
AANI-USB
NI-USB62216221multifunction
multifunctiondatadataacquisition
acquisition(DAQ)
(DAQ)board,
board,as asshown
shownininTable
Table1,1,can
canbe
beused
usedtoto
acquireand/or
acquire and/orgenerate
generateanalog/digital
analog/digitalsignals.
signals.The
Theinput
inputsignals
signalsareare translated
translated from
from analog
analog signals
signals to
to digital signals for computer processing. Afterwards, the processed signals can
digital signals for computer processing. Afterwards, the processed signals can be translated to analogbe translated to
analogsignals
control controlusing
signals
theusing
data the data acquisition
acquisition card. Thecard. The LabVIEW
LabVIEW software software canto
can be used bedesign
used to design
the core
the core control gain K of the control system, as shown
control gain K of the control system, as shown in Figure 2. in Figure 2.

Table1.1.NI-USB
Table NI-USB6221
6221performance.
performance.

Control
Control Voltage
Voltage Range
Range Performance
Performance Value
Value
Analog input 0–10 V accuracy 3230 µV
Analog input 0–10 V accuracy 3230 µV
Analog
Analog outputoutput 0–10
0–10 VV drive current
drive current 5 mA5 mA
Digital input input
Digital 0–5 V V
0–5 max clock rate
max clock rate 1 MHz
1 MHz
Digital outputoutput
Digital 0–5
0–5V V drive current
drive current 24 mA
24 mA

Figure2.2.LabVIEW
Figure LabVIEW datadata
acquisition control
acquisition configuration.
control A: analog;
configuration. A: D: digital;D:
analog; NI:digital;
nationalNI:
instrument;
national
DAQ: data acquisition;
instrument; DAQ: dataK: acquisition;
core control K:
gain; G: control
core system gain;
gain; d:
G:disturbance;
system gain; Gd :d:disturbance
disturbance;gain;
Gd:
r:disturbance
desired process value; y : measured process variable; u: control variable; n: noisy; y: process variable.
m process value; ym: measured process variable; u: control variable; n: noisy;
gain; r: desired
y: process variable.
2.3. Method of Autotuning Proportion Integration (PI) Control
2.3. Method
2.3.1. of Autotuning
Autotuning Proportion Integration (PI) Control
the PI Control

2.3.1.AAutotuning
PI control isthe
a feedback control used to increase the control of performance. Stability is a crucial
PI Control
consideration in the control design. A feedback control is necessary when the system includes [17]:
A PI control is a feedback control used to increase the control of performance. Stability is a crucial
•consideration
Uncertain in the control
signal becausedesign. A feedback
of unknown control is necessary when the system includes [17]:
disturbance;
• Uncertain
Uncertainmodels;
signal because of unknown disturbance;
• An unstablemodels;
Uncertain plant.
 An unstable plant.
In the variable-speed hydropower project, the upstream water flow is hard to predict exactly,
and the generator is difficult to model accurately. Therefore, a proportion integration differentiation
(PID) control can be used to increase the control performance. A normal PID can be expressed as:
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 4 of 19

In the variable-speed hydropower project, the upstream water flow is hard to predict exactly, and
the generator is difficult to model accurately. Therefore, a proportion integration differentiation (PID)
control can be used to increase the control performance. A normal PID can be expressed as:
Z t
1 de(t)
u(t) = K p [e(t) + e(t)dt + Td ] (1)
Ti 0 dt

For a discrete-time control system, u(k) is the discrete-time control signal:

k
u ( k ) = K p e ( k ) + Ki ∑ e ( j ) + K d [ e ( k ) − e ( k − 1) (2)
j =0

where u(mA) is the control signal, K p is the proportional gain, Ki is the integral gain, Kd is the
derivative gain, Ti (min) is the integral time, Td (min) is the derivative time, and e is the control error.
Autotuning is a process of setting optimal PID gains and applying them to the controller
automatically. The proportional parameter P is used to increase the control response speed; the integral
gain is used to adjust the oscillations. The increase of integral gain can be used to reduce the steady-state
error, but can increase the overshoot. The derivative parameter D can be used to control sudden
changes, but can increase the measurement noise. The derivative time is normally set to zero, since the
D gain often decreases the performance of a controller [18].

2.3.2. Ziegler-Nichols Method

The Ziegler–Nichols method is an algorithm used to work out optimal PID parameters.
This method involves setting the I and D parameters to zero first and increasing the proportional gain
until the control response is oscillating [18]. The critical proportional gain and oscillation time are Kc
and Tc (min), respectively. Lastly, the new PID gain can be adjusted as shown in Table 2 [19].

Table 2. The Ziegler-Nichols method.

Control Performance P I D
Fast 0.50 Kc - -
P Normal 0.20 Kc - -
Slow 0.13 Kc - -
Fast 0.40 Kc 0.8 Tc -
PI Normal 0.18 Kc 0.8 Tc -
Slow 0.13 Kc 0.8 Tc -
Fast 0.60 Kc 0.5 Tc 0.12 Tc
PID Normal 0.25 Kc 0.5 Tc 0.12 Tc
Slow 0.15 Kc 0.5 Tc 0.12 Tc
P: proportional parameter; PI: proportion integration; PID: proportion integration differentiation; I: integration
parameter; D: derivative parameter.

2.3.3. Relay Feedback Tuning

The relay autotuning technique is an algorithm to determine ultimate PID gains automatically.
Åström and Hägglund reported this technique [20]. This method is based on the Ziegler-Nichols
frequency domain design formula. It is hard to automatize the Ziegler-Nichols experiments; therefore,
an on–off relay is used in the feedback loop in order to calculate ultimate gains using the relay
experiments as shown in Figure 3.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 5 of 19
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20

Figure 3.3. Autotuning

Figure Autotuning technique
technique block
block diagram.
diagram. e: e: error;
error; c:
c: controller
controller end;
end; t:t: relay
relay end;
end; r:r: desired
desired
process value;yymm: measured process variable; u: control variable; y: process variable.
process value;

The
The system
systemcancanbebe
operated
operatedas an
as autotuning
an autotuning or a normal PID controller
or a normal while thewhile
PID controller switch connects
the switch
to t or c, respectively. A relay control can lead to large phase delay at high frequencies.
connects to t or c, respectively. A relay control can lead to large phase delay at high frequencies. A phase lag of
A
over 180 ◦ at sufficient frequencies can lead to oscillation with a period t [12]. Therefore, a critical PID
phase lag of over 180° at sufficient frequencies can lead to oscillation with a period tc [12]. Therefore,
c
can be obtained from the feedback loop with the relay. In the autotuning mode, the period of the error
a critical PID can be obtained from the feedback loop with the relay. In the autotuning mode, the
e is equal to the oscillation period tc . The Fourier series can be used to work out the frequency domain
period of theThe
waveforms. error e is equal
amplitude ofto
thethe oscillation
first harmonic of the trelay
period c . The Fourier
output canseries can be used
be expressed as: to work out
the frequency domain waveforms. The amplitude of the first harmonic of the relay output can be
N
expressed as: a0
f (x) = + ∑ [ an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx ) (3)
2 nN=1
a0
For N → ∞ ,
f (x) = + [an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx)] . (3)
2 n=1 ∞ n +1
2 (−1)
For N → ∞ ,
f (x) =
π ∑ n
sin(nx ) (4)
n =1

2 ∞2d(−1)n+1 4d
= =π × 2 = sin(nx)
f (x)Aout π
(5)
(4)
π n=1 n
where d is the relay amplitude and Aout (mA) is the amplitude of the first harmonic of the relay output.
2dbe expressed
Therefore, the critical gain of the process can 4d as:
Aout = ×2 = (5)
π 4d π
kc = (6)
where d is the relay amplitude and A (mA) πP outis out
the amplitude of the first harmonic of the relay
output.d is the relay amplitude and Pout (W) is the output of the process.
where
Therefore,
This the critical gives
relay experiment gain of the
the process
critical can be expressed
proportional gain Kc as:
and oscillation time Tc (min). A new
PID can be calculated using the Ziegler-Nichols method.
4d
kc = (6)
3. Experimental Preparation π Pout
3.1.
where d is the
LabVIEW Program
relay amplitude and Pout (W) is the output of the process.
The
Thisentire program was
relay experiment designed
gives using
the critical 2013. KSeveral
LabVIEW gain
proportional c and oscillation time Tc (min). A
of the toolkits designed by
National
new PID Instruments are required
can be calculated inZiegler-Nichols
using the order to use their sub-VIs (virtual instruments). The program
method.
may not run without the following requirements:
3. Experimental Preparation
• LabVIEW 2013: Any other version of LabVIEW may support the program; however, new buttons
in the 2013
3.1. LabVIEW version were used in the front panel. The old versions may indicate a different
Program
user interface.
• The entire program
NI-DAQmx 9.5.5: Thewas designed
DAQmx is theusing
basic LabVIEW 2013.designed
drive software Several ofbythe toolkits
National designed by
Instruments in
National Instruments are required in order to
order to achieve PC-based data acquisition. use their sub-VIs (virtual instruments). The program
may not run without the following requirements:
 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20

 LabVIEW 2013: Any other version of LabVIEW may support the program; however, new buttons
in the 2013 version were used in the front panel. The old versions may indicate a different user
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 6 of 19
interface.
 NI-DAQmx 9.5.5: The DAQmx is the basic drive software designed by National Instruments in
• order to
DAQ assist: achieve
This PC-based
sub-VI data acquisition.
is required for communication between the DAQ hardware and the

LabVIEW DAQ assist: This sub-VI is required for communication between the DAQ hardware and the
software.
• National LabVIEW
Instrument software.
LabVIEW PID and Fuzzy Logic Toolkit: This toolkit is required to integrate
 National Instrument LabVIEW PID
PI and autotuning control algorithms intoand
theFuzzy Logicprograms.
LabVIEW Toolkit: This toolkit is required to integrate
PI and autotuning control algorithms into the LabVIEW programs.
The overall LabVIEW
The overall program
LabVIEW follows
program the flow
follows the chart shown
flow chart in Figure
shown 4. 4.
in Figure

Overall
Figure 4.Figure feedback
4. Overall controlcontrol
feedback flow chart. PID: proportion
flow chart. integration
PID: proportion differentiation;
integration NI: NI:
differentiation; national
national
instruments; PI: proportion
instruments; integration.
PI: proportion integration.

3.1.1. Front Panel

Figure 5 shows a screenshot of the front panel of the hydropower control system VI. All the
elements were labeled to enable easy operation by the user. There were three main blocks and two
 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20

Sustainability
3.1.1. Front 10, 4333
2018,Panel 7 of 19

Figure 5 shows a screenshot of the front panel of the hydropower control system VI. All the
elements were labeled
waveform indicators in to
theenable
front easy operation
panel. The left byblock
the user.
wasThere
used were three main
to design the PIblocks and two
controller. The
waveform
buttons can be indicators in the
used to start thefront panel. The
automatic PID left block(Automatic),
control was used tostart
design
the the PI controller.
autotuning The
algorithms
buttons can
(Autotune), setbethe
used to start
initial PIDtheparameters
automatic PID
(Setcontrol
Initial(Automatic),
Gain), and start the autotuning
reinitialize the PIDalgorithms
parameters
(Reinitialize). The bottom block was used to design the autotuning experiment PID
(Autotune), set the initial PID parameters (Set Initial Gain), and reinitialize the parameters
parameters. The
(Reinitialize). The bottom block was used to design the autotuning experiment parameters. The
results of experimental PID gains were shown in the indicator (tuned PID gains) and can be applied
results of experimental PID gains were shown in the indicator (tuned PID gains) and can be applied
to the controller when the Accept Gain? button is pressed. The right block was used to indicate the
to the controller when the Accept Gain? button is pressed. The right block was used to indicate the
power output and set the target voltage or RPM (revolutions per minute) in order to maintain the
power output and set the target voltage or RPM (revolutions per minute) in order to maintain the
output voltage or RPM. The turbine valve position (desired and actual) versus time was plotted in
output voltage or RPM. The turbine valve position (desired and actual) versus time was plotted in
the valve position indicator. Meanwhile, the frequency of the output pulse signal was recorded in the
the valve position indicator. Meanwhile, the frequency of the output pulse signal was recorded in the
manipulated
manipulated variable indicator.
variable indicator.

Figure
Figure 5. 5.Front
Frontpanel
panelofofthe
thehydropower
hydropower control
control system
systemvirtual
virtualinstrument
instrument(VI).
(VI).

3.1.2. Block
3.1.2. Diagrams
Block Diagrams
The
Theblock
blockdiagram
diagramincludes
includesthree
threew wloops
loops operating
operating in in parallel.
parallel.TheThethree
threeloops
loopswere
were used
used to to
process
process data,
data, generate
generate pulses,and
pulses, andprovide
provideautotuning
autotuning control.
control.
The
The data
data processingloop,
processing loop, as
as shown
shown in inFigure
Figure6,6,waswasused to to
used acquire data
acquire andand
data display results.
display A
results.
DAQ assistant was used to acquire the data from the sensors. Local variables
A DAQ assistant was used to acquire the data from the sensors. Local variables created for the datacreated for the data
were
were required
required to to
bebe delivered
delivered betweenthe
between thedifferent
differentloops.
loops.
The turbine valve position was indicated using the
The turbine valve position was indicated using the voltage
voltagemeasured
measuredfrom fromthe
thepotentiometer.
potentiometer.
The 0–5 volt signal measured from the potentiometer was multiplied
The 0–5 volt signal measured from the potentiometer was multiplied by 2 in order by 2 in order to represent 0–10
to represent
turns of the valve. The actual and the desired (autotuning control loop) valve positions
0–10 turns of the valve. The actual and the desired (autotuning control loop) valve positions were were bundled
together and indicated in one waveform graph. As a result, the differences between the actual and
bundled together and indicated in one waveform graph. As a result, the differences between the actual
desired valve positions can be shown on the front panel.
and desired valve positions can be shown on the front panel.
The turbine output power was indicated using an experienced formula. Different upstream
The turbine output power was indicated using an experienced formula. Different upstream flows
flows controlled by an upstream valve were used to simulate different water level conditions. The
controlled by an upstream valve were used to simulate different water level conditions. The turbine
turbine output power was tested every half turn, from one half-turn open (0.5 turns) to fully open (10
output power
turns). waspolynomial
A third tested every washalf turn,
used forfrom
curveone half-turn
fitting openthe
to ensure (0.5calculated
turns) to fully
outputopen (10 turns).
power was
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 8 of 19

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

A third polynomial was used for curve fitting to ensure the calculated output power was accurate to
accurate
±5%. Fromtothe
±5%. From theformula,
established established
the formula, the turbine
turbine output poweroutput
can bepower can befrom
calculated calculated from
the valve the
position:
valve position:
2 2 3
Pout==68.8091
Pout 68.8091 + 376.8094t t−−44.7374t
+ 376.8094 44.7374t+ +1.5609t
1.5609t 3 (7) (7)

where PoutPout
where (W)(W)is the
is power output
the power fromfrom
output the turbine and tand
the turbine t (turns)
(turns) is the valve
is theposition of the upstream
valve position of the
flow, ranging from 0.5 to 10.
upstream flow, ranging from 0.5 to 10.

Figure6.6.Data
Figure Data processing loop of
processing loop ofthe
theblock
blockdiagram.
diagram.

AA Fourier
Fouriertransform
transformwas wasused
used to
to acquire
acquire the frequency
frequencyof ofthe
thesignal.
signal.The Thevoltage
voltage signals
signals were
were
translated
translated from the time domain the frequency domain. A low pass filter (0–200 Hz) was used used
from the time domain to the frequency domain. A low pass filter (0–200 Hz) was to
to remove
remove high-frequency
high-frequencynoise. noise.Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, thethe effective
effective value
value of of
thethe signal
signal could
could bebe calculated
calculated
according
according toto thefrequency.
the frequency.
The revolutions
The revolutions per perminute
minute ofof the
the generator
generator werewereacquired
acquiredusingusingthe thefrequency
frequency of of
thethe
power.
power.
Since the speed of the synchronous (permanent magnet) generator is directly
Since the speed of the synchronous (permanent magnet) generator is directly related to speed through related to speed through
thethe numberofofpole
number pole pairs
pairs of
ofthe
thegenerator,
generator, thethe
RPMRPMis equal to thetofrequency
is equal the frequencymultiplied by 60/9.by
multiplied Since
60/9.
the frequencies of the three phases are equal, the RPM of the generator can
Since the frequencies of the three phases are equal, the RPM of the generator can be acquired from be acquired from only one
phase.
only There are
one phase. Theretwoareways
twotowaysmeasure the frequency:
to measure The first
the frequency: The method is to directly
first method measure
is to directly one
measure
phase frequency from a voltage/current sensor. The second method is to measure the frequency of a
one phase frequency from a voltage/current sensor. The second method is to measure the frequency of
power sensor. As the current would be multiplied by the voltage signal using a multiplying circuit,
a power sensor. As the current would be multiplied by the voltage signal using a multiplying circuit,
one phase frequency can be acquired from the multiplied signal. The frequency of the power sensor
one phase frequency can be acquired from the multiplied signal. The frequency of the power sensor is
is double that of the voltage/current sensor, as shown by Equation (4). The voltage and current have
double that of the voltage/current sensor, as shown by Equation (4). The voltage and current have the
the same frequency. The total power output is the sum of the three phases.
same frequency. The total power output is the sum of the three phases.
PR = Ri 2 = RI m2 cos 2 (ω t) = RI 2 [1 + cos(2ω t)] (8)
PR = Ri2 = RIm 2
cos(ωt) = RI 2 [1 + cos(2ωt)] (8)
where PR (W) is the power consumption, i (A) is the load current, I m (A) is the maximum of the
where R (W) isω
load Pcurrent, the(Hz)power
is the load current iangular
consumption, (A) is the and IIm (A)
load current,
frequency, (A)isisthe
theeffective
maximum of the
valve load
of the
current, ω (Hz) is the load current angular frequency, and I (A) is the effective valve of the load current.
load current.
TheThepulse
pulsegeneration
generationloop,
loop, as
as shown
shown in Figure
Figure 7, 7, was
wasused
usedtotogenerate
generatea acontinuous
continuous pulse
pulse to to
drive
drivethethe
stepper
steppermotor.
motor.TheThefrequency
frequencyis is aa local variable
variableusingusingthethePIDPIDcontroller
controller result.
result. AA generator
generator
of of
a acontinuous
continuous digital
digital pulse,
pulse,train.vi, was
train.vi, was used to communicate
used to communicate between the LabVIEW
between and the and
the LabVIEW DAQthe
DAQboard.
board.
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 9 of 19
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Figure 7. Pulse generation loop of the block diagram.

Figure 7. Pulse generation loop of the block diagram.

The autotuning control loop, as shown in Figure 8, was used to set optimal PID gains
Figure 7.
automatically. A PID.vi was used7.toPulse
Figure generation
generation
calculate loop
loopofofthe
the optimal the
PIDblock diagram.
block
gainsdiagram.
using the autotuning algorithms.
The autotuning control loop, as shown in Figure 8, was used to set optimal PID gains
The delay of the
automatically. loop
A PID.viis the sampling
wasloop,
used time
toshown
calculate of the PID algorithms. Hence, the program can acquire
The
Theautotuning
autotuningcontrol
control as
loop, in the
as shown optimal
Figure
in 8, was
Figure PID8, gains
used
was using
to set
used the
optimalautotuning
to set PID gainsalgorithms.
optimal automatically.
PID gains
signals continuously.
A The delay
wasofused
automatically.
PID.vi the loop
A PID.viiswas
the used
to calculate sampling time
to calculate
the optimal ofthe
PID theoptimal
gainsPID algorithms.
using PID
thegains Hence,
using the
autotuning theautotuning
programThe
algorithms. can acquire
algorithms.
delay of the
signals
loop continuously.
Theisdelay of the loop
the sampling timeis of
thethe
sampling time of the
PID algorithms. PID algorithms.
Hence, the program Hence, the program
can acquire signalscan acquire
continuously.
signals continuously.

Figure 8. Autotuning control loop of the block diagram.

Figure 8. Autotuning
Figure 8. controlloop
Autotuning control loopofofthe
theblock
blockdiagram.
diagram.
Figure 8. Autotuning control loop of the block diagram.
Two
Two “if”
Two“if” loops
“if”loops were
loopswere used
wereused to
used to achieve
to achieve maintainedfrequency
achieve maintained
maintained frequencyand
frequency andvoltage
and voltage
voltage functions,
functions,
functions, as shown
as as shown
shown in
in in
Figure
Figure
Figure 9.
Two Boolean
9.9.Boolean
Boolean
“if” loopsbuttons
buttons
buttons were
werewere
were used
used used to
to activate
to activate
to achieveactivate “if”
“if”
maintained loops
“if”loops
loops in order
ininorder
order
frequency to
toto
and control
control
control the
the frequency
frequency
thefunctions,
voltage frequency or voltage.
or voltage.
asorshown
voltage.in
Both
Both
Both the
the
Figure the frequency
frequency
9. frequency and
and voltage
voltage
and voltage
Boolean buttons control
control
control
were used used
used an
an
used an“if”
to activate extra
extra
extra PID
PID controller
controller
PIDincontroller
loops to
to work
work
to work
order to control theout out
out the
the setpoint
setpoint
the setpoint
frequency of the
of
of the
or voltage. the
valve.
valve.
valve. The
Both The The
the control
control
frequency system
controlsystem
system was
was
and voltagecomplex
wascomplex
complex
controlin in
usedthis
inthis
thisan situation.
situation.
situation.
extra PID The
The
The integral and
integraltoand
integral
controller derivative
derivative
derivative
work gains
gains
gains were
out the setpoint were
were setset
set
of the to
toto
zero
zero zero ininorder
in order
valve. The order totoavoid
to avoid
control avoid uncontrolled
uncontrolled
uncontrolled
system was complex uncertainties.
uncertainties.
uncertainties.
in this situation. The integral and derivative gains were set
to zero in order to avoid uncontrolled uncertainties.

Figure 9. Frequency or voltage maintenance control block diagram.

Figure 9. Frequency or voltage maintenance control block diagram.
Figure 9. Frequency or voltage maintenance control block diagram.
3.2.Experimental
3.2. ExperimentalApparatus
Apparatus
3.2. Experimental Apparatus
3.2. Experimental Apparatus
AAschematic
schematicdiagram
diagramofofthe
thepower
powergenerator
generator isis shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 10.
10. AA stepper
stepper motor
motor was
wasused
used to
to AAschematic
control the
schematic diagram
valve of the
diagram of
of the
turbine
the power
in generator
order
power to control
generator isthe
is shown
power
shown ininFigure
Figure
input into10.
10. A
the
A stepper motor
generator.
stepper motor was
was used
used
control the valve of the turbine in order to control the power input into the generator.
toto
control
controlthe
thevalve
valveof
ofthe
theturbine
turbine inin order to control
order to controlthethepower
powerinput
inputinto
into the
the generator.
generator.
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 10 of 19
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Photograph(a) (b)
of the experimental setup for power generator: (a) assembled stepper motor
and turbine valve; (b) assembled whole system.
Figure 10. Photograph of the experimental
experimental setup for power
power generator:
generator: (a) assembled stepper motor
and turbine valve; (b) assembled whole
whole system.
system.
3.2.1. Stepper Motor
3.2.1. Stepper Motor
3.2.1.The
Stepper
choiceMotor
of the stepper motor was based on the requirements of the mechanical mates. The
torque The choice of the
requirement stepper
of stepper
the motor
stepper motorwaswas
based
1.4 on the requirements of the mechanical mates.
The choice of the motor was based onNmthe in order to drive
requirements themechanical
of the valve. Meanwhile,
mates. The a
The torque
double-shaft requirement
stepper of
motorof the stepper motor
was required, was 1.4 Nm in order to drive the valve. Meanwhile,
torque requirement the stepper motor since a potentiometer
was 1.4 Nm in orderwas required
to drive the to be installed
valve. at thea
Meanwhile,
a double-shaft
back. Hence, anstepper
OMEGA motor was required,
double-shaft since
stepper a potentiometer
motor (OMHT23-400) waswas
required
used to be installed
control the at the
valve.
double-shaft stepper motor was required, since a potentiometer was required to be installed at the
back.
The Hence,
rated an OMEGA
torque was 1.86 double-shaft
Nm. The step stepper
angle motor
was 1.8°, (OMHT23-400)
and therefore wasstep
200 used to control
signals were the valve.
required
back. Hence, an OMEGA double-shaft stepper motor (OMHT23-400) was used to control the valve.
Theone
for ratedrevolution.
torque wasA1.86 Nm. The
bipolar step angle was 1.8◦ , was
and therefore 200 stepmotor
signalshasweretwo
required
pairs for
The rated torque was 1.86 Nm. stepper
The stepmotor driver
angle was 1.8°, andrequired
thereforeas200
thestep signals were required of
one revolution. A bipolar stepper motor driver was required as the motor has two pairs of windings.
windings.
for one revolution. A bipolar stepper motor driver was required as the motor has two pairs of
windings.
3.2.2. Stepper Motor
Motor Driver
Driver
3.2.2. Stepper
An
3.2.2.An A4988Motor
Stepper
A4988 bipolar
bipolar stepper
stepper motor
Driver motordriver
driverwaswasused
usedtotodrive
drivethe
thestepper
steppermotor,
motor,asasshown
shown in in
Figure 11.
Figure
It can
11. ItAndeliver
canA4988 up
deliver to 2 A per coil
up tostepper
2 A per with sufficient
coil driver additional
with sufficient cooling.
additional The A4988 board can be permanently
bipolar motor was used to drive thecooling. The A4988
stepper motor, boardincan
as shown be
Figure
damaged when
permanently the input
damaged whenvoltage
the exceeds
input 35 V.exceeds
voltage A 100 µF 35 capacitor
V. A 100 was
µF connected
capacitor was across motoracross
connected drive
11. It can deliver up to 2 A per coil with sufficient additional cooling. The A4988 board can be
voltagedrive
motor (VMOT) and(VMOT) ground (GND) in order to protect against possible spikes from the power supply.
permanentlyvoltage
damaged when and ground
the input (GND)
voltage in order
exceeds to A
35 V. protect
100 µFagainst possible
capacitor spikes
was connected from the
across
A power
power supply
supply. A was
power connected
supply across
was the
connected VMOT
across and
the GND
VMOT to provide
and GND power
to to
provide drive
powerthe stepper
to drive
motor drive voltage (VMOT) and ground (GND) in order to protect against possible spikes from the
motor.
the The device
stepper motor. drive voltage
The device (VDD) and ground (GND) were connected to connected
the power to supply of the
power supply. A power supplydrive
was voltage
connected (VDD) and
across theground
VMOT(GND)
and GND were to provide power thetopower
drive
NI-DAQofboard
supply the to acquire
NI-DAQ logical
board to circuit
acquire power.
logical The step power.
circuit (STEP) and
The direction
step (DIR)
(STEP) and were connected
direction (DIR)to
the stepper motor. The device drive voltage (VDD) and ground (GND) were connected to the power
the
were NI-DAQ
connected board to receive
to the NI-DAQ pulse trains and direction commands, respectively. The outputs of the
supply of the NI-DAQ board toboard
acquireto receive
logical pulse
circuittrains
power.and direction
The commands,
step (STEP) respectively.
and direction (DIR)
board
The (1A, 2A,
outputs of 1B,
the and
board 2B)(1A,
were used
2A, 1B, to
anddrive
2B) the
werestepper
used motor.
to drive The
the microstep
stepper (MS) pins
motor. The were used
microstep
were connected to the NI-DAQ board to receive pulse trains and direction commands, respectively.
to setpins
(MS) microstep
were resolution,
used as
to set(1A, shown inresolution,
microstep Table 3. “Half Step” means
as shown Tabletwo pulse signals were required in
The outputs of the board 2A, 1B, and 2B) were used toindrive 3. stepper
the “Half Step”
motor.means
The two pulse
microstep
order
signals to drive
were each
required step angle.
in set
order to driveresolution,
each step angle.
(MS) pins were used to microstep as shown in Table 3. “Half Step” means two pulse
signals were required in order to drive each step angle.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.
Figure A4988bipolar
11. A4988 (a)stepper
bipolar stepper motor
motor driver:
driver: (a) (a) schematic
schematic diagram
diagram (b)with
with wiring
wiring connections;
connections; (b)
(b) photograph of the assembly with a cooling fan. VDD: device drive voltage; GND:
photograph of the assembly with a cooling fan. VDD: device drive voltage; GND: ground; MS:ground; MS:
Figure 11. A4988 bipolar stepper motor driver: (a) schematic diagram with wiring connections; (b)
microstep; DIR:
microstep; DIR: direction;
direction; VMOT: motor drive voltage.
photograph of the assembly with a cooling fan. VDD: device drive voltage; GND: ground; MS:
microstep; DIR: direction; VMOT: motor drive voltage.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 11 of 19
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20

3. A4988
Table 3.
Table A4988 microstep
microstep resolution.
resolution.

MS1 MS1
MS2 MS2 MS3
MS3 Microstep Resolution
Microstep Resolution
Low Low
Low Low Low
Low Full Step
Full Step1/1 1/1
High High
Low Low Low
Low Half Step
Half Step1/2 1/2
Low Low
High High Low
Low QuarterQuarter
Step Step1/4 1/4
High High
High High Low Eighth Eighth
Low Step Step 1/8 1/8
High High
High High High Sixteenth
High Sixteenth
Step Step
1/16 1/16

3.2.3. Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a variable resistor with three ends, as shown in Figure 12. The potentiometer
can be used to produce variable potentials from the analog input pin end. The other two ends were
connected to two different
connected potentials, and
different potentials, and therefore
therefore the
the slid
slid end potential can be varied between these
two potentials.
A ten-turn potentiometer was used to indicate the valve position via the variable potentials. The
variable potentials were between 0 V and +5 V, since the two ends were connected to the ground and
+5 V source, respectively.
+5 respectively. AA change
change of
of one
one turn
turn anticlockwise
anticlockwise of the potentiometer can lead to 0.5-V
increases of the slid potential.

(a) (b)
Figure 12. (a) Circuit
12. Potentiometer. (a) Circuit schematic
schematic diagram with three ends:
ends: ground (GND), voltage
source (+5 V) and analog input pin; (b) photograph of the assembly.
assembly.

3.2.4. Micro Switches

3.2.4. Micro Switches
Two
Two micro
microswitches
switcheswere used
were to build
used an emergency
to build system,system,
an emergency shown inshown
Figure in
13. Figure
The emergency
13. The
system can stop the stepper motor immediately if the frame moves out of the safety range. The
emergency system can stop the stepper motor immediately if the frame moves out of the safety range. safety
range was range
The safety largerwas
thanlarger
that of thethat
than software, since the since
of the software, hardware emergency
the hardware system should
emergency systembe only
should
activated after failure of the software protection.
be only activated after failure of the software protection.
The micro switches were single-pole double-throw switches. The input terminals were
connected to the ground and +5 V sources. The output terminals were connected to the ENABLE
pin of the stepper motor driver. The driver was enabled when the pin was set to low. Hence, the
driver would stop generating a pulse signal when either of the switches was closed. Meanwhile, the
holding torque of the stepper motor was used to stop the inertia.

(a) (b)
Figure 13. Photograph of the experimental setup of the power generator. (a) Circuit schematic diagram;
(b) photograph of the assembly.

The micro switches were single-pole double-throw switches. The input terminals were connected
to the ground and +5 V sources. The output terminals were connected to the EN ABLE pin of the
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 12 of 19
(a) (b)
Figure
stepper motor13. driver.
Photograph of the experimental
The driver was enabled setup
whenof thethe
pinpower
was setgenerator. (a) Circuit
to low. Hence, theschematic
driver would
stop diagram;
generating (b) aphotograph
pulse signal of the assembly.
when either of the switches was closed. Meanwhile, the holding torque
of the stepper motor was used to stop the inertia.
3.2.5. NI-DAQ Board
3.2.5. NI-DAQ Board
A NI-DAQ board was used generate/acquire signals, as shown in Figure 14. It had 8 channels of
A NI-DAQ
differential boardinput
analogue was used generate/acquire
(16 single-ended), 2 of signals,
analogue as output,
shown in andFigure
2 time14.toIt live
had input/output
8 channels of
differential
(TTL analogue
i/o) ports input
of 8 lines (16 All
each. single-ended),
the wires were2 of organized
analogue output,
using an and 2 time to live
intergraded input/output
terminal in order
(TTL
to i/o)unexpected
avoid ports of 8 lines
shorteach. All theThe
circuiting. wires wereAO
AI and organized
stand for using an input
analog intergraded
and analogterminal in order
output, whilstto
avoid
the unexpected
P and PFI standshort circuiting.
for port The AI and
and front-panel AOrespectively.
line, stand for analog input and
The analog analog
inputs were output,
used towhilst the
acquire
P and PFI
analog standsignals
voltage for port andthe
from front-panel line,ports
sensors. The respectively.
were used Theto analog inputs were
switch between lowusedlogicto acquire
and high
analog
logic involtage
order to signals
controlfromthethe sensors.
motor The ports
direction and were
driverused to switch
state. between low
The front-panel linelogic
wasand high
used to
logic in order
generate to control
digital the motor
pulse trains from direction and driver
the hardware state.
counter. TheThe front-panel
hardware line was
counter can used to generate
produce digital
digitaltrains
pulse pulse oftrains from the
superior hardware
accuracy counter.
at high The hardware
frequency. counter
The pulse trainscanwere
produceused digital pulse trains
to provide step
of superior accuracy at high
amounts to drive a stepper motor. frequency. The pulse trains were used to provide step amounts to drive a
stepper motor.

(a) (b)
Figure 14.
Figure 14. NINIUSB-6221
USB-6221multifunction
multifunctiondata
dataacquisition.
acquisition.(a) (a) Pinouts/front
Pinouts/front panel
panel connections;
connections; (b)
(b) photograph of the assembled connections. AI: analog input; AO: analog output; P: port;
photograph of the assembled connections. AI: analog input; AO: analog output; P: port; PFI: front-PFI:
front-panel
panel line. line.

4. Results and Discussion

4. Results and Discussion
4.1. PI Gain-Tuning Experiment
4.1. PI Gain-Tuning Experiment
PI gain-tuning experiments were applied before any PI controls were introduced. The experiment
PI gain-tuning experiments were applied before any PI controls were introduced. The
was used to work out the optimal PI gains for controlling the valve. As there is a lot of backlash in
experiment was used to work out the optimal PI gains for controlling the valve. As there is a lot of
this system, the tuning experiment was conducted under maximum upstream flow in order to obtain
backlash in this system, the tuning experiment was conducted under maximum upstream flow in
conservative gains. The PI tuning experiment used an on-off relay to oscillate the control system.
order to obtain conservative gains. The PI tuning experiment used an on-off relay to oscillate the
From the turbine characterization, the maximum efficiency only occurred between the valve positions
control system. From the turbine characterization, the maximum efficiency only occurred between
4–8 (6–8 for large upstream flow). The PI tuning experiment was oscillating the system around the
the valve positions 4–8 (6–8 for large upstream flow). The PI tuning experiment was oscillating the
position 6.5, since these valve positions would be used frequently. The program started the autotuning
system around the position 6.5, since these valve positions would be used frequently. The program
after the Autotune button was pressed. The valve was oscillated between positions 6 and 8 with an
started the autotuning after the Autotune button was pressed. The valve was oscillated between
amplitude of 2. The actual position line shows that the valve position varied with time. The desired
positions 6 and 8 with an amplitude of 2. The actual position line shows that the valve position varied
position line does not show anything in the autotuning mode. The oscillation time was recorded by
the program, and an optimal PI gain was calculated using the relay feedback algorithm.
The PI gains were applied to the controller after the tuning experiment. The tuned PI gains were
indicated at the bottom of the front panel. The user can review the new gains before applying them
into the system in order to avoid unrealistic gains. The new gains can be applied after the Accept Gain?
button is pressed, as shown in Figure 15. The proportional gain was increased from 3500 to 9918.5,
whilst the integral time was increased from 0.0250 to 0.0305 min. After the new gains had been applied
 with time. The desired position line does not show anything in the autotuning mode. The oscillation
time was recorded by the program, and an optimal PI gain was calculated using the relay feedback
algorithm.
The PI gains were applied to the controller after the tuning experiment. The tuned PI gains were
indicated at the bottom of the front panel. The user can review the new gains before applying them
Sustainability
into the 2018, 10, 4333
system 13 of 19
in order to avoid unrealistic gains. The new gains can be applied after the Accept
Gain? button is pressed, as shown in Figure 15. The proportional gain was increased from 3500 to
9918.5, whilst the integral time was increased from 0.0250 to 0.0305 min. After the new gains had been
to the system, the Autotune button was released in order to operate the system in the PI control mode,
applied to the system, the Autotune button was released in order to operate the system in the PI
as shown in Figure 16. The new gains can be set as initial gains when the Set Initial Gain? button
control mode, as shown in Figure 16. The new gains can be set as initial gains when the Set Initial
is pressed. The control system can be operated using the initial gains when the Reinitialize button
Gain? button is pressed. The control system can be operated using the initial gains when the
is pressed.
Reinitialize button is pressed.

Figure15.
Figure 15. PID relay
relay autotuning.
autotuning.

The performance of the new gains was tested using a manual control. The valve was turned to
position 0 as the initial position. The desired initial position was position 9. The program started to
record the valve position after the LabVIEW start button was pressed. The desired position was set to
position 0 after the actual position reached a steady state. The rise time can be read from the waveform
as shown in Figure 17. The scale of the time axis was 2.5 s. The new PI gains can perform with a
faster response than the original PI gains. As the maximum pulse frequency was limited by the motor
operating characteristics, both these two PI gains control systems had little position overshoot. The
actual valve position had a 1.5-second delay, which is called dead time. The dead time can be caused
by the slow response of the stepper motor and the delay of the position sensor. The potentiometer
had negligible delay since the resistor cannot produce delay. Hence, the delay of the system response
came from the slow response of the stepper motor. The torque of the stepper motor inversely varied in
the RPM to some extent when the input power was constant. The low start torque at high-frequency
pulses can lead to the low response of the stepper motor. The inductance in the winding also required
time to respond to the current. The new PI gains were good since the valve was operated from a fully
closed to fully opened state within ten seconds, and vice versa.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 14 of 19
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

(a) (b)
Sustainability
Figure 2018,
16.10,
Figure x FOR
16. PEERofREVIEW
Acceptance
Acceptance theofnew
the new control
control gain: gain: (a) Before
(a) Before autotuning;
autotuning; after autotuning. 15 of 20
(b)autotuning.
(b) after

The performance of the new gains was tested using a manual control. The valve was turned to
position 0 as the initial position. The desired initial position was position 9. The program started to
record the valve position after the LabVIEW start button was pressed. The desired position was set
to position 0 after the actual position reached a steady state. The rise time can be read from the
waveform as shown in Figure 17. The scale of the time axis was 2.5 s. The new PI gains can perform
with a faster response than the original PI gains. As the maximum pulse frequency was limited by
the motor operating characteristics, both these two PI gains control systems had little position
overshoot. The actual valve position had a 1.5-second delay, which is called dead time. The dead time
can be caused by the slow response of the stepper motor and the delay of the position sensor. The
potentiometer had negligible delay since the resistor cannot produce delay. Hence, the delay of the
system response came from the slow response of the stepper motor. The torque of the stepper motor
inversely varied in the RPM to some extent when the input power was constant. The low start torque
at high-frequency pulses can lead to the low response of the stepper motor. The inductance in the
winding also required time to respond to the current. The new PI gains were good since the valve
(a) closed to fully opened state within ten seconds,
was operated from a fully (b)and vice versa.
Figure17.
Figure Valveposition
17.Valve positionand
andpulse
pulsefrequency
frequencyvsvs time.
time. (a)(a) Before
Before autotuning;
autotuning; (b)(b) after
after autotuning.
autotuning.

4.2. PI Control Experiment

4.2.1. Frequency and RPM Control

The hydropower control system can maintain the RPM and frequency at different upstream
water flow and electrical load conditions. An RPM controller was used to control the frequency of
the output power. In the synchronous generator, the speed was directly related to the speed: 333 RPM
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 15 of 19

4.2. PI Control Experiment

4.2.1. Frequency and RPM Control

The hydropower control system can maintain the RPM and frequency at different upstream water
flow and electrical load conditions. An RPM controller was used to control the frequency of the output
power. In the synchronous generator, the speed was directly related to the speed: 333 RPM corresponds
to 50 Hz. Since the electrical mates did not have a AC-DC-AC (or AC-AC/AC-DC) circuit to maintain
the frequency of the output power, it was essential to maintain the frequency.
It was impossible to reach the frequency of the output power of 50 Hz while using the maximum
upstream flow. The turbine output power can be estimated using the valve position, as introduced
in Equation (7). The valve should be turned to around position 1 to obtain a 50 Hz power output.
However, the power input of the turbine was increased dramatically around position 1. It was difficult
for the valve control system to reach such an accurate point as the noise of the potentiometer is too
large in the small control range. Moreover, the turbine output power was variable at an extremely
small valve position while being connected to the generator with a resistance load.
The control system can maintain the RPM at 1100. Figure 18 shows the operation interface
screenshot before the RPM control was introduced. Here, the RPM was at 1088, which was close to
the target of 1100 RPM. After the RPM control button was pressed, the stepper motor changed the
valve from position 2.51 to 2.29, and the RPM reached the target value of 1100. However, this does
not imply that the RPM was increased when the valve position was turned to a lower position.
This can be caused by the shaking that occurs during turbine operation. Since the actual position in
the program is measured by the potentiometer, the potentiometer might not measure the position
accurately. The system was oscillating as the program received differently measured feedback at the
same valve positions. The oscillation was the steady-state error and can be reduced from the integral
gain of the controller. Fortunately, the accuracy of the voltage sensor cannot be changed by the shaking
of Sustainability
the turbine. Hence,
2018, thePEER
10, x FOR measured
REVIEW RPM value was reliable. 16 of 20

Figure
Figure 18.18.Initial
Initialstate
stateofofthe
thegraphical
graphical user
user interface
interface of
ofrevolutions
revolutionsper
perminute
minute(RPM) control.
(RPM) control.

The target RPM was changed from 1100, as shown in Figure 19, to 1000, as shown in Figure 20.
Since the program cannot obtain a valve position able to reach the target of 1000 RPM, the load was
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 16 of 19

increased from 220 to 110 Ω. Afterwards, the voltage was dropped from 121 to 108 V when the valve
position was changed
Figure from
18. Initial position
state 2.29 to user
of the graphical 3.25.interface of revolutions per minute (RPM) control.

Figure
Sustainability 2018, 10, x Figure
FOR 19.
19.
PEER Graphicaluser
Graphical
REVIEW user interface
interface of
of RPM
RPMcontrol
controlatat1100
1100RPM.
RPM. 17 of 20

Figure
Figure 20.20.Graphical
Graphicaluser
user interface
interface of
of RPM
RPMcontrol
controlatat1000
1000RPM.
RPM.

4.2.2. Voltage
4.2.2. Control
Voltage Control

TheThe control
control systemcan
system canmaintain
maintain the the voltage
voltage under
under different
differentload
loadand
andupstream
upstreamwater flowflow
water
conditions. Since the electrical mates only have a 50–60 Hz current sensor, the LabVIEW
conditions. Since the electrical mates only have a 50–60 Hz current sensor, the LabVIEW program program
cannot
cannot obtain
obtain the output
the output current
current of theofgenerator.
the generator. The efficiency
The efficiency of the of the overall
overall systemsystem can be
can be calculated
calculated by dividing the power input by the power output of the generator. The power
by dividing the power input by the power output of the generator. The power input can be estimated input can
be estimated from Equation (7), and the voltage output can be measured from the voltage sensor.
from Equation (7), and the voltage output can be measured from the voltage sensor. However,
However, the 50–60 Hz current sensor was designed for the output of an AC-DC-AC (AC-AC) circuit
the 50–60 Hz current sensor was designed for the output of an AC-DC-AC (AC-AC) circuit (also not
(also not appropriate in this context). The sensors cannot work with the frequency being varied from
0 to 150 Hz. Hence, the voltage control experiment was used to test the ability to give maximum
efficiency control performance. As the generator was connected to a load bank to receive current, the
current can be calculated from the voltage divided by the resistance. Hence, the voltage control was
similar to the efficiency control when the load was constant.
The control system could maintain the voltage when the upstream water flow was variable.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 17 of 19

appropriate in this context). The sensors cannot work with the frequency being varied from 0 to 150 Hz.
Hence, the voltage control experiment was used to test the ability to give maximum efficiency control
performance. As the generator was connected to a load bank to receive current, the current can be
calculated from the voltage divided by the resistance. Hence, the voltage control was similar to the
efficiency control when the load was constant.
The control system could maintain the voltage when the upstream water flow was variable.
Figures 21 and 22 indicate how the control system maintain the voltage at 100 V and 110 V respectively.
Figure 23 shows that the valve position varied from fully open to half open while the upstream water
flowSustainability
was fluctuating.
2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 20
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 20

Figure21.
Figure 21.Graphical
Graphical user
user interface
interface of
ofvoltage
voltagecontrol
controlatat
100 V. V.
100

Figure22.
Figure 22.Graphical
Graphical user
user interface
interface of
ofvoltage
voltagecontrol
controlatat
110 V. V.
110
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 18 of 19
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 20

Figure
Figure 23. Graphical
23. Graphical user
user interface of
interface of voltage
voltage control
controlunder
undervariable water
variable flow.flow.
water

5. Conclusions and and

5. Conclusions Future Work
Future Work

The aimsThe aims of the

of the control
control sectionwere
section were to design
designandandbuild a control
build system
a control to control
system the valve
to control of valve
the
the turbine and maximize the performance of the system at different upstream
of the turbine and maximize the performance of the system at different upstream water flow and water flow and
electrical load conditions. The work has been carried out to build a stepper motor control system with
electrical load conditions. The work has been carried out to build a stepper motor control system with
a driver and construct an autotuning PI system to work out the optimal PI gains automatically in
a driver and construct an autotuning PI system to work out the optimal PI gains automatically in order
order to control the frequency or voltage of the output power.
to control the
The frequency or voltagethe
following summarize ofachievements
the output power.
of this paper:
The following summarize the achievements of this paper:
1. A stepper motor system has been designed to control the valve of the turbine.
1. A2.stepper motorprogram
A LabVIEW system hashasbeen
beenbuilt
designed to control
to control themotor.
the stepper valve of the turbine.
2. A LabVIEW program has been built to control the stepper motor. in order to obtain optimal
3. An autotuning PI arithmetic-based controller has been implemented
PI gains automatically.
3. An autotuning PI arithmetic-based controller has been implemented in order to obtain optimal PI
4. The system can control a certain variable of the output power at different upstream water flow
gains automatically.
and electrical load conditions. These include:
4. The system can control a certain variable of the output power at different upstream water flow
 Maintaining the frequency by automatic regulation of the turbine valve.
and electrical load conditions. These include:
 Maintaining the voltage by automatic regulation of the turbine valve.
 Searching for the maximum efficiency point by automatic regulation of the turbine valve
• Maintaining the frequency by automatic regulation of the turbine valve.
and manually entering the output current into the program.
• Maintaining the voltage by automatic regulation of the turbine valve.
On the basis of the current work, further research that could be conducted on the foundations of
• Searching for the maximum efficiency point by automatic regulation of the turbine valve
this study may include:
and manually entering the output current into the program.
1. An online adaptive arithmetic-based controller could be applied to the control system for
On the basis of
variable PI the current
gains, work,
and then furthersystem
the control research
couldthat could be
determine theconducted ontothe
time needed foundations
obtain a new of
this study PI
maygain while the water flow condition fluctuates.
include:
2. Searching for the maximum energy integrated into the power system.
1. An online adaptive arithmetic-based controller could be applied to the control system for variable
PI gains,
Author and then the
Contributions: Y.F.control
proposedsystem could
the project anddetermine thepaper.
supervised the timeD.Z.
needed
wroteto
theobtain
LabVIEWa new PI gain
codes,
analyzed
while thethe data, and
water flowdrafted the manuscript.
condition J.L. coordinated the study and helped to draft the manuscript.
fluctuates.
2. Funding: This
Searching forresearch was supported
the maximum by the
energy Fundamental
integrated Research
into Funds for
the power the Central Universities.
system.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Paul Williams for his advice on testing the turbines.
AuthorConflicts
Contributions: Y.F.
of Interest: Theproposed the project
authors declare andofsupervised
no conflict interest. the paper. D.Z. wrote the LabVIEW codes,
analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. J.L. coordinated the study and helped to draft the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Paul Williams for his advice on testing the turbines.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 4333 19 of 19

References
1. Bilgili, M.; Bilirgen, H.; Ozbek, A.; Ekinci, F.; Demirdelen, T. The role of hydropower installations for
sustainable energy development in turkey and the world. Renew. Energy 2018, 126, 755–764. [CrossRef]
2. Hennig, T.; Harlan, T. Shades of green energy: Geographies of small hydropower in yunnan, china and the
challenges of over-development. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2018, 49, 116–128. [CrossRef]
3. Ioannidou, C.; O’Hanley, J.R. Eco-friendly location of small hydropower. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2018, 264, 907–918.
[CrossRef]
4. Jurasz, J.; Ciapała, B. Solar–hydro hybrid power station as a way to smooth power output and increase water
retention. Sol. Energy 2018, 173, 675–690. [CrossRef]
5. Yao, W.; Chen, Y.; Yu, G.; Xiao, M.; Ma, X.; Lei, F. Developing a model to assess the potential impact of tum
hydropower turbines on small river ecology. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1662. [CrossRef]
6. Weng, H.; Lau, K.M.; Xue, Y. Multi-scale summer rainfall variability over china and its long-term link to
global sea surface temperature variability. J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II 1999, 77, 845–857. [CrossRef]
7. Naumann, G.; Alfieri, L.; Wyser, K.; Mentaschi, L.; Betts, R.A.; Carrao, H.; Spinoni, J.; Vogt, J.; Feyen, L.
Global changes in drought conditions under different levels of warming. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2018, 45,
3285–3296. [CrossRef]
8. Paish, O. Small hydro power: Technology and current status. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2002, 6, 537–556.
[CrossRef]
9. Okafor, F.N.; Hofmann, W. Modelling and control of slip power recovery schemes for small hydro
power stations. In Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Africon. 7th Africon Conference in Africa (IEEE Cat.
No.04CH37590), Gaborone, Botswana, 15–17 September 2004.
10. Kaldellis, J.K.; Vlachou, D.S.; Korbakis, G. Techno-economic evaluation of small hydro power plants in
greece: A complete sensitivity analysis. Energy Policy 2005, 33, 1969–1985. [CrossRef]
11. Mohibullah, M.; Radzi, A.M.; Hakim, M.I.A. Basic design aspects of micro hydro power plant and its
potential development in Malaysia. In Proceedings of the National Power and Energy Conference, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 29–30 November 2004.
12. Cheng, C.; Liu, B.; Chau, K.W.; Li, G.; Liao, S. China’s small hydropower and its dispatching management.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 42, 43–55. [CrossRef]
13. Belhadji, L.; Bacha, S.; Roye, D. Modeling and control of variable-speed micro-hydropower plant based on
axial-flow turbine and permanent magnet synchronous generator (MHPP-PMSG). In Proceedings of the
IECON 2011—37th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Melbourne, Australia,
7–10 November 2011.
14. Márquez, J.L.; Molina, M.G.; Pacas, J.M. Dynamic modeling, simulation and control design of an advanced
micro-hydro power plant for distributed generation applications. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35, 5772–5777.
[CrossRef]
15. Bansal, R.C.; Bhatti, T.S.; Kothari, D.P. Bibliography on the application of induction generators in
nonconventional energy systems. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2003, 18, 433–439. [CrossRef]
16. Travis, J.; Kring, J. Labview for Everyone: Graphical Programming Made Easy and Fun, 3rd ed.; Prentice-Hall:
Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2007; ISBN 0131856723.
17. Skogestad, S.; Postlethwaite, I. Multivariable Feedback Control: Analysis and Design, 2nd ed.; John Wiley &
Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007; Volume 2, ISBN 0-470-01167-X.
18. Smith, C.A. Automated Continuous Process Control; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2003;
ISBN 0471459267.
19. National Instruments. LabVIEW 2012 PID and Fuzzy Logic Toolkit Help. Available online: http://zone.ni.
com/reference/en-XX/help/370401J-01/ (accessed on 24 October 2018).
20. Åström, K.J.; Hägglund, T. Automatic tuning of simple regulators with specifications on phase and amplitude
margins. Automatica 1984, 20, 645–651. [CrossRef]

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).