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x1 Vref E Vo
³
E§V uVcc Vo ·¸
x2 x1 Vref ¨ o
C ¨© RL L ¸
¹ (1)
x3
³ x1dt
Fig. 2. State trajectory
where C, L is and RL are the capacitance, the
inductance and the load resistance, respectively. Vi and In order to obtain such a behavior the following
EVO are the input and the sensed output voltage. For the conditions should be satisfied:
definition of duty cycle, the control signal is 0 < u < 1. A. Hitting condition:
The system is described by the state-space model:
regardless of the initial condition, the state of the
x t A xt B u t D (2) system will always move toward the sliding surface;
B. Existence condition:
with
after the sliding surface is approached or crossed first,
the state trajectory will remain in close proximity to it.
ª 0 1 0º ª 0 º
« 1 1 » « EVi » C. Stability condition:
A « 0» B « »
« LC RLC » « LC » the state trajectory will eventually converge to the
«¬ 1 0 0»¼ ¬ 0 ¼ origin.
(3)
ª 0 º
«Vref Vref » It can be demonstrated [10, 11] that the hitting and the
D « Vref » existence conditions can be both achieved if :
« CL CRL »
«¬ 0 »¼ S S 0 (7)
and can be related to the discrete-time plant: Dote and Hoft [12] first proposed an equivalent form
xk 1 A' xk B' u k Dk (4)
of the continuous reaching condition in the discrete-time
domain:
where T is the sampling period and:
>S k 1 S k @ S k 0 (8)
A' = T ( I +A ), B' = T B, D' = T D (5)
This equation sets a necessary condition for Sliding
The basic idea of SM control [7, 10] is designing a Mode, but an additional condition is required [13] in
control law such that in response to any perturbation the order to guarantee an asymptotic convergence to the
state of the system moves toward the equilibrium x = 0 sliding plane S = 0:
following a predetermined sliding surface as a reference
path: S k 1 S k (9)
1103
sliding mode after large perturbations.
1
u 1 sign ( S ) (10) Using (4) and (6), the incremental change of S(k) can
2 be expressed as:
³
based SM controller is obtained. As a matter of fact, it is dx1
c1x1 c2 c3 x1 dt 0 (15)
well known that the discrete control input X, directly dt
linked to the gate signal, can be theoretically replaced by
a smooth function of the discrete control pulses known as which can be rearranged into:
the equivalent control signal Xeq [7]. It can be
d 2 x1 c dx c
demonstrated [1, 10] that, as the sampling frequency 1 1 3 x1 0 (16)
tends to infinity, the resulting state trajectory tends to be dt 2 c2 dt c2
exactly equivalent to an ideal SM operation. This can be easily rewritten according to the standard
form of the equation of a second-order system:
In order to design a discrete-time controller, based on
the duty-ratio control, we found convenient to use a d 2 x1 dx1
switching function different from (10), derived from the 2 ]Zn Zn2 x1 0 (17)
reaching law approach originally proposed in [20]. dt 2 dt
It can be easily seen that the (8) and (9) conditions are where ] is the damping ratio and Zn the undamped
always satisfied if : natural frequency. By substitution in the (17) we obtain
S k 1 S k qT S k (11) the desired design equations:
c1
1- qT > 0 (12) 2 ]Zn
c2
where T is the sampling period, and q is a parameter (18)
c3
such that 1- qT > 0 [20]. Eqq. (11) and (12) clearly show Z2n
that the parameter q sets the speed of recovery of the c2
1
Thus, the ] and Zn parameters can be easily chosen
If this is the case, strictly speaking the controller should be
addressed as quasi-sliding-mode (QSM) controller. Nevertheless, as all
according to well-understood design rules to achieve the
practical power converters are frequency-limited it is common practice desired overshoot and convergency rate. For example, a
to simply address them by the general term "SM controllers".
1104
critically damped response is obtained when ] = 0.7. If
this is the case, it is well known that the bandwidth of the
controller's response coincides with Zn and the settling
time after a step input is close to 5/Zn. [1].
15
10 10 10
10
5 5 5
0
y
0
y
0
y
-5 -5
-5
-5
-10 -10
-10 -10
0.8
0.8 0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.4
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2
0.0
y
0.0 0.0
y
0.0
y
-0.2 -0.2
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.6
-0.8 -0.6
-0.8
-1.0 -0.8
-0.8 -1.0
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
t 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
t t
t
Figure 4. Output waveforms obtained for different values of the controller bandwidth, fBW , while keeping fLC = 4200 Hz and f0 = 400 Hz, fPWM = 200
KHz. Upper curves: output waveforms. Lower curves: error
1105
as a too-low fBW can limit the tracking accuracy than the switching frequency can be used, enabling
around zero crossings. On the other hand, the upper to use a multisampling approach [21]. On the contrary,
limit to fBW depends on the resonance frequency of the when an high switching frequency is required in order
LC tank, f LC 1 2S LC . As clearly shown in fig. 4, to reduce the converter size but millisecond transients
are allowed and/or the speed of controller is a limiting
a good trade-off can be found as:
factor, it is possible to sample the output voltage at a
fLC /2 = fBW = 10 f0 (20) frequency lower than the switching frequency and to
use the same duty-cycle for several consecutive PWM
The switching frequency fPWM has to be chosen on periods [6].
the basis of a trade off between the requirement to As already stated, the system dynamics with respect
reduce the size of reactive components (pushing for to large perturbations are ruled by the q parameter in
high fPWM ) and the need to reduce the switching losses (11). The switch-on transients shown in Fig. 5 for
(pushing for low fPWM). A lower limit was found as: different q's clearly show this property. The figure puts
2 in evidence that appreciable impairments of the
4 f LC waveforms occur when qT larger than 0.5 are used. On
f PWM ! (21)
f0 the other hand, this choice allows to reduce transients
duration.
This criterion was experimentally verified for The transient response of the system was also
different choices of fLC and f0. evaluated by means of a strongly non-linear load,
The sampling frequency of the discrete-time control imposing at every period fast current transients with
system is typically set fSa = fPWM . On the other hand, amplitude of 6 dB and slew rate about 0.4 A/Ps. In the
when the transient response is an issue and the power waveforms shown in Fig. 5 it is possible to observe that
switch is not fast enough, a sampling frequency larger
Figure 6. Response to load variations from 1 A to 4 A as a function of the q parameter (red = voltage, pink = current, bottom = zoom at the load
peak).
1106
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