Planning Guide for Prospective Wineries in Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, and Nebraska:

Planning Guide for Prospective Wineries in Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, and Nebraska University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Food Processing Center

Introduction:
Introduction Information contained in this presentation is based upon the following: Survey of 13 Midwest wine
retailers Survey of 20 Midwest wineries Secondary research data

Wine Consumption Trends and Demographics:

Wine Consumption Trends and Demographics

Wine Consumption:
Wine Consumption U.S. per capita wine consumption is around 2.7 gallons 10 percent of Americans drink nearly 90
percent of the wine

Wine Consumption By Type of Consumer*:

Wine Consumption By Type of Consumer* US Adult Population 192.4 Million Core Wine Consumers (19.2 million)
account for 86% of the table wine volume consumed in the US Marginal Wine Consumers (28.9 million) account for
14% of the table wine volume consumed in the US *Data from The Wine Market Council Consumer Research Study
2002

Core and Marginal Drinkers*:

Core and Marginal Drinkers* Core 15% Drink wine daily, 48% drink wine a few times a week, and 37% drink wine
weekly Somewhat older than marginal drinkers; 51% are between the ages of 40 and 59 Live in the suburbs (42%),
while 38% live in the city 85% Caucasian/white High level of education (college graduate and post-graduate degree
Relatively high level of income (household income of $78,100) *Data from The Wine Market Council Consumer
Research Study 2002

Core and Marginal Drinkers*:

Core and Marginal Drinkers* Marginal 52% drink wine two to three times a month, 30% once a month and 18% drink
wine once every 2-3 months Somewhat younger than core drinkers; 49% are between the ages of 30 and 49 Live in
the suburbs (41%), while 33% live in the city 85% Caucasian/white High level of education (college graduate and
post-graduate degree Relatively high level of income (household income of $63,800) *Data from The Wine Market
Council Consumer Research Study 2002

Core and Marginal Drinkers Wine Preferences*:

Core and Marginal Drinkers Wine Preferences* Core Favor red wine (48% of total consumption) followed by white
wine (41 percent) and blush/rose wine (11 percent) Merlot is the most frequent choice, followed by Chardonnay,
White Zinfandel, and Cabernet Sauvignon Marginal Wine Drinkers Favor white wine (46% of total consumption)
followed by red wine (35 percent) and blush/rose wine (19 percent) White Zinfandel, is the most frequent choice,
followed by Chardonnay, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon *Data from The Wine Market Council Consumer Research
Study 2002

Wine Consumption Trends:

Wine Consumption Trends

Wine Consumption Demographics:

Wine Consumption Demographics

Wine Consumption Demographics*:

Wine Consumption Demographics* Wine consumption is currently heavily skewed toward those over 35. Most
Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Zinfandel and Sauvignon Blanc drinkers in 2001 were between 35 and 44
Younger consumers drink more, however. They also tend to pay more when they drink. Only one quarter of wine
purchasers in the U.S. are between 21 and 34. But among them, 21- to 24-year-olds are twice as likely as the
average buyer to spend $20 * “Vintners Court Younger Crowd With Sexy, Splashy Marketing”, Wall Street Journal,
April 24, 2003

Midwest Wine Consumption Comparison with Other States:

Midwest Wine Consumption Comparison with Other States

Winery Pricing Study:

Winery Pricing Study Data on 440 Wines Collected Six Midwestern States: Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, South
Dakota, and Colorado

Survey of Wine Retailers:

Survey of Wine Retailers

Wine Retailer Survey:

Wine Retailer Survey 13 retailers interviewed (both wine/liquor specialty stores and supermarkets) Four Midwestern
States: Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, and Missouri Retailers were screened to only interview those who carry wine
produced in their state Vast majority report that locally produced wine made up less than 5% of their sales Retailers
sold locally produced wine in order to support local wineries; Most did not require a minimum sales volume to stock

Wine Retailer Survey Consumer Perceptions:

Wine Retailer Survey Consumer Perceptions The level of consumer interest in local wines was less than that of more
established wine offerings but most retailers commented the interest was measurable. Of all the different types of
wines mentioned by retailers, sweet had by far the most potential according to the retailers (73%). Dry came in at
(13%) followed by dessert and fruit with (7% each). White sweet wines have more sales potential that dry red wines.
Are locally produced wines priced accordingly? Yes, 92% of retailers felt the price of these wines was appropriate.

Wine Retailer Survey Promotional Strategies:

Wine Retailer Survey Promotional Strategies Retailers suggested four ways of promoting local wines at retail level.
These included: In-house tasting sessions (53%) Point of sale/signage (27%) Advertising in local media (13%)
Inviting customers to visit the vineyard (7%)

Wine Retailer Survey Promotional Strategies:

Wine Retailer Survey Promotional Strategies Should locally grown wine be cross-merchandised with other locally
produced products? 61% of retailers surveyed believe cross merchandising would be an effective way to promote
local wines, and 31% believe it might be. Small retail outlets are more likely to cross-merchandise. Local wine is
cross-merchandised with local gourmet food items and salsas.

Wine Retailer Survey Obstacles to Selling Local Wine:

Wine Retailer Survey Obstacles to Selling Local Wine Retailers identified four obstacles which local wineries must
overcome in order to be successful. These include: Inferior quality compared to the more established wines (46%)
Strong competition from more popular wines (23%) Difficulty getting consumers to recognize their product (16%) An
inferior image (15%)

Wine Retailer Survey Opportunities For Selling Local Wine:

Wine Retailer Survey Opportunities For Selling Local Wine Retailers are interested in adding more locally produced
wines Forty-two percent of retailers said they are likely to add more local wines to their retail outlets An additional
25% of retailers said they would like to add more local wines but that will be more selective of the local wines they
choose Twenty-Five percent of retailers said they were less likely to add more local wines

Survey of Wineries:
Survey of Wineries

Introduction:
Introduction Survey of 20 Wineries in the Midwest United States 10 phone surveys 10 personal interviews Wineries in
Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska & Wisconsin 5 wineries in each state Winery production ranged from 200 gallons to 20,000
gallons wineries

Grape Production Issues:

Grape Production Issues Issue #1 Pest Control Issue #2 Herbicide Drift Issue #3 Weather Issue #4 Capital Costs

Pest Control:
Pest Control Grasshoppers Big issue in Midwest, especially during dry conditions Some respondents estimated that
grasshoppers alone decreased their production by at least 10-15%. Rabbits & Deer Cause year round damage to
vines Rabbits are a particular problem for young vineyards Strip bark and consume young tender vines. Weeds Can
easily Choke out vines Reduces availability of nutrients, water & sunlight

Pest Control Solutions:

Pest Control Solutions Grasshoppers Spraying, but must be careful during pollination and harvest Rabbits & Deer
Fences, traps & commercial deterrents Weeds Best to pull them Very little room to use herbicides. Will kill weeds &
vines

Herbicide Drift:
Herbicide Drift (2,4D) Biggest issue in Midwest can drift a significant distance (over 1 mile) Many vines are especially
susceptible to 2,4D 2,4D is a popular farming herbicide because of its breadth of use Causes leaf blistering and die
off Solution Many wineries reach agreements with neighboring farmers Work with state wine producer groups to
identify resistant varietals

Weather:
Weather Issues with rainfall Too much rain can drown out vines Rain during pollination reduces fertilization rates
Pollinating insects are less active Rain can wash pollen off Rain during harvest, increases water in grapes Drought
Must consider your average yearly rainfall Many wineries incorporate drip irrigation systems to insure adequate
moisture & fertilization

Weather:
Weather Over-Wintering issues In Minnesota and Wisconsin many vines are buried Many areas in Midwest get too
cold in winter and can kill off vines

Capital Costs:
Capital Costs Typically takes $2,000 to $4,000 per ACRE of grapes Costs due to trellising, irrigation/watering, weed
control related expenses (labor & materials) Grape Growing is very labor intensive Labor typically accounts for 50%
of total expenses Some vineyards donate wage equivalents to non-profit groups in exchange for harvesting Ex.
Several wineries “hire” their local high school football teams to pick grapes.

Winemaking Issues:
Winemaking Issues Issue # 1 Handling Low pH Levels, High acid grapes Issue # 2 Pest control (Birds, Rot, Rabbits,
etc.) Issue # 3 Maintaining/Improving Quality and Consistency across wineries Issue # 4 Lack of experienced
winemakers Issue # 5 Capital Costs

Low pH Levels:
Low pH Levels Almost all respondents indicated importance of knowing how to deal with highly acidic grapes
Conditions in Midwest create highly acidic grapes High acidity affects fermentation process, kills off yeast

Maintaining/Improving Quality and Consistency across wineries:

Maintaining/Improving Quality and Consistency across wineries Winemaking requires a highly sanitized environment
Area must be scrubbed regularly Equipment must be cleaned constantly during production Remember you are
making a food product Very easy to contaminate wine

Maintaining/Improving Quality and Consistency across wineries:

Maintaining/Improving Quality and Consistency across wineries Solution Constant Cleaning and attention to
winemaking environment Technology Inexperience can be overcome by technology Technology is expensive
Typically normal equipment costs are about $5 per gallon of wine. The next slide illustrates an innovative assurance
program in Canada

Assuring Wine Quality Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA):

Assuring Wine Quality Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) Rigorous quality assurance program for Ontario, Canada’s
premium wines VQA Ontario establishes, monitors and enforces a system of quality standards and verification of
product origin for Ontario wines. Participation in the VQA appellation system is voluntary but only those wines
approved by VQA Ontario may bear labels with regulated terms and descriptions. Goal to bolster public perceptions
about the vintner’s wines. VQA Ontario also plays an educational role and works with the grape and wine industry,
governments and the public to promote the value and benefits of VQA-approved products. For more information:
http://www.vqaontario.com

Lack of experienced wine makers:

Lack of experienced wine makers Few professional winemakers in the Midwest Normally hired from wineries in
California & New York Full-time winemakers typically earn $30,000 to $40,000/ year Some wineries in Nebraska &
Missouri share their winemakers with several neighboring wineries

Choosing a Winemaker:
Choosing a Winemaker Two options Hire a Winemaker (Full-time v. Part-time) Do it yourself Questions to ask
yourself Can you afford one? If not, go to a winemaking school (check with your local wine/grape grower
organization) How much wine do you plan on making? Is it worth hiring a wine maker for the amount of wine your
making? Are there other wineries in your area that are looking into hiring a winemaker? Possibility to share
winemakers

Capital Costs:
Capital Costs Capital costs to keep in mind Equipment costs can be high Typically $5 per gallon produced Sanitation
costs Grapes cost average of $0.50 per pound or $1,000 per ton Staffing a retail space Facilities and Administrative
Costs Do not Forget to factor in your time!!!

Top 3 Competitions for New Wineries:

Top 3 Competitions for New Wineries Indiana State Fair Indy International Wine Competition Jerry D. Mead’s New
World International Wine Competition Florida State Fair Wine Competition

Top Honors/Awards of Competitions:

Top Honors/Awards of Competitions Given to Gold Medal Winners: Best of Class Best of Varietal Best of Price Class
Best of Show

Other Awards:
Other Awards Want to accumulate as many of these as possible (Criteria varies across competitions) Gold Medal
presented to a wine exhibiting perfect character (for its varietal or type), balance and structure, and containing
exceptional qualities and complexities. Silver Medal awarded to a wine showing superb balance and character for its
varietal or type. This wine is considered to be extremely well crafted.

Other Awards:
Other Awards Bronze awarded to a wine that has very good character, quality and style for its variety or type. This is
wine that has been well made. “Best of the East” Competition Awarded by Vineyard & Winery Management, Inc. at
annual Wineries Unlimited Trade Show

Slide47:
Wine According to respondents: Semi-Sweet and Sweet wines are more popular than drier wines Whites & Blushes
are more popular than reds Mead and fruit wine are another popular product Takes 3-4 months to make a batch
Allows winery to increase volume without reducing wine production Mead can be produced while wine is aging Wine:
1 batch yearly – 3 months time between harvest & barreling/bottling Mead: 3 batches yearly – 3 months time between
start & bottling Successful Products

Slide48:
Juice Does well in some areas, seems to do better in more heavily populated areas Young families with children
Respondents noted that you should not expect significant revenue from juice. Wine related products Corkscrews
Wine Preservation products Vacuums, seals, sprays, etc. Successful Products

Slide49:
Locally Produced Products Cheeses and Sausages Locally Baked Bread Locally Smoked Fish or Meats Cross-sell
them as: Individual Items Gift Baskets On-site Picnic Basket Successful Products

Slide50:
Non-Wine Related Products Shirts Hats Baking Mixes Cards Important Note: Several respondents noted that local
customers were less likely to buy wine related products than tourists The next two slides summarize findings from a
Michigan State study linking tourism to local wine sales Unsuccessful Products

Key Findings From a Michigan State Study*:

Key Findings From a Michigan State Study* There is a strong relationship between tourism and wine consumption.
Wineries should investigate and take advantage of opportunities for cooperative marketing & packaging with lodging
establishments, local convention & visitor bureaus. Persons that have visited wineries generally have higher
household incomes than other travelers. There is an exploitable association between agricultural tourism & winery
tourism. Wineries should cooperatively market with other agricultural tourism attractions and agricultural product and
food festivals. Wine drinkers have a higher propensity to travel and use the Internet than non-wine drinkers. * “A
Marketing and Economic Analysis of Michigan’s Wine Industry and Winery Tourism”, Michigan State University eatal,
2002

Key Findings From a Michigan State Study*:

Key Findings From a Michigan State Study* It is crucial that staff be trained in customer service and point-of-
purchase marketing. Wineries should maintain relationships with winery tourists after they return home through
various methods including email newsletters and promotions, thank you notes and cards to persons who purchase
wine on their trips, information on where they can buy the wineries’ wines, and a web-site that keeps persons
informed about changes in the winery, new products and special events in which the winery will participate. Wineries
must track their customers and develop customer databases. * “A Marketing and Economic Analysis of Michigan’s
Wine Industry and Winery Tourism”, Michigan State University eatal, 2002

Suggestions for Improving On-Site Sales:

Suggestions for Improving On-Site Sales Rule of Thumb The longer people stay the more they spend Suggestions
Offer Wine Tasting expect costs to be 7% of sales Provide Sitting Areas Tables, Gazebos, etc. Offer Restaurant/On-
site Food Service Provide On-Site Entertainment Provides additional reason for visit

Suggestions for Improving On-Site Sales:

Suggestions for Improving On-Site Sales Lower Prices Many wineries indicated an increase in volume after they
decreased prices when the novelty of their winery wore off. Newsletters Allows winery to maintain contact with buyers
and helps build repeat buyers and customer relationships Allows for direct marketing

Suggestions for Improving On-Site Sales:

Wine Trail Nebraska Wine and Grape Grower Association Awarded State Grant to Develop Nebraskan Wine Trail
Missouri also has established trails Serves to cross-promote all wineries in your region and increase tourism/visitor
draw Can visit more than just one winery For ideas Look up and/or visit California, New York and Texas wine regions
Suggestions for Improving On-Site Sales

Examples of Successful On-Site Sales Promotion:

Examples of Successful On-Site Sales Promotion Festivals Cuthills Winery, Pierce Nebraska Wine & Wings Festival
Blues Festival Winery sells up to one-third of its production James Arthur Vineyards, Raymond Nebraska
Renaissance Festival Over 5,000 visitors on Saturday May 24, 2003

Examples of Unsuccessful On-Site Sales Promotion:

Examples of Unsuccessful On-Site Sales Promotion Radio High cost, limited return Dinners Examples: Murder
Mystery, Wine Maker’s Dinner, etc. Low population area Only seems to be good for once a year Good 1st time
attendance, then poor attendance High population area Does well year round monthly occasions seemed to be the
best timing.

Suggestion for Improving Off-Site Sales:

Suggestion for Improving Off-Site Sales Direct Marketing Use Names and Addresses Provided in Guest/Visitor Sign-
in Books Mail Newsletters Announce new varietals, events, etc. Use the Internet Web sales account for up to 20% of
sales

Suggestion for Improving Off-Site Sales:

Suggestion for Improving Off-Site Sales Tap Local Markets Approach local food and alcohol businesses Several
wineries have their product in local grocery stores Had to repeatedly meet with grocery representatives Most have to
distribute and stock their wines themselves

Suggestion for Improving Off-Site Sales:

Suggestion for Improving Off-Site Sales Tap Local Markets Attend Local Fairs/Festivals Example Nebraska Wine and
Grape Grower’s Association bought booth at Nebraska State Fair Several wineries manned the booth and cross-
promoted all Nebraska Wineries Offered Wine Tasting Sold Product

Location, Location, Location:

Location, Location, Location Choosing a Location is Very Important Ideal Location Has Grape Vines Visible Adequate
Access & Parking Paved Road Better than Dirt Road Look at traffic level How many cars drive by in a day? (Check
with Department of Roads) How easy is it to find your winery? Is your establishment Disability Friendly?

Location, Location, Location:

Has Natural Beauty Les Bourgeois Winery and Vineyard, Missouri Winery has restaurant & is located on a bluff that
overlooks Missouri River (see next slide) Close to a tourist attraction or population center Allows tourists to get away
and relax Population center needed to provide a base market for you to develop loyal, regular customers and provide
revenues between tourist season(s) Many respondents suggested finding an old structure (barn, shed, etc.) and
fixing it up Noted that visitors responded positively to a historical appeal (i.e. they enjoyed a story) “This structure was
once owned by … “ Location, Location, Location
Slide63:
Known for its spectacular bluff top view of the Missouri River Valley, Les Bourgeois Winery and Vineyards is one of
Mid-Missouri's premier cultural and recreational attractions. A family owned and operated winery, Les Bourgeois
offers visitors a taste of some of the Show-Me State's finest award-winning wines, exquisite bistro cuisine and
beautiful scenery Source: www.missouriwine.com

Best Practices:
Best Practices Based on the respondents: Regarding your location and products Pick your location carefully Must
have something “special” Beautiful landscape Close to a tourist draw (National/State Park, City, etc.) Find something
that you are “good” at Mead, Particular Grape Varietal, Customer Service What makes you different from other
wineries? What would a visitor find appealing about your winery?

Best Practices:
Best Practices Based on the respondents: Decide how much wine you want to make Majority of respondents
suggested starting small and growing your business Lower start-up costs Mistakes and experimentation are less
expensive Take time to assess supply & demand in your area Smaller volume allows you to focus on quality Quality
of the wine is very important

Best Practices:
Best Practices Based on the respondents: Production: Spend the money to put in irrigation Expensive, but can pay
for itself during a drought Helps to maximize yields Keep weeds down! Can significantly reduce yields Spend time
researching your climate, soil makeup and varietals Will save you money in the long run

Best Practices:
Best Practices Based on the respondents: Winemaking: Keep your production and equipment clean Educate yourself
Go to winemaking school even if you have a winemaker Try a lot of wine, there are many different styles and varietals
Buy the best equipment that you can afford

Best Practices:
Best Practices Based on the respondents: Regarding Customer Service: Hire good people Provide great customer
service Provide tours of your facility Many tourists regard a winery tour as a must and expect the guide to be
knowledgeable Educate your customers Make sure they learn something about your winery

Best Practices:
Best Practices Based on the respondents: Promotions: Know your market and tailor events to them Who is your
customer? Be specific! What do they want? Make sure that you make money on your promotions Did you bring in
more revenue than you spent? Spend the time organizing your events Planning is everything

Best Practices:
Best Practices Based on the respondents: Promotions: Use the Internet Increases your market and can have a
significant effect on your revenues Talk with your local retailers and restaurants Allows you to diversify your revenue
streams Increases the awareness of your winery Develop cross-promotional relationships with related industries
Tourist oriented Bed & Breakfasts Local value-added producers

Midwest Regulatory Environment:

Midwest Regulatory Environment Most respondents indicated that their states had done well to develop an
environment where the wine industry could grow However, some noted that volume restrictions and lack of a check-
off program were hindering their state’s development

Helpful State Regulation:

Helpful State Regulation Tax Subsidy Most states have subsidies that allow a winery to pay less state alcohol tax if
they use a certain percentage of product from in-state suppliers Helps ensure/encourage local production of grapes
and fruits

Helpful State Regulation:

Helpful State Regulation State Funding Opportunities Provides opportunity for wineries and other wine & grape
associations to access additional funding for promotional activities Typically come in the form of Value-Added grants
or Initiatives Encourages cooperation between producers within the state

Suggestions for Improvement:

Suggestions for Improvement Provide more funding for enology & viticulture training workshops Many respondents
indicated that current prices for these workshops are high and are a barrier to attendance Spending more monies on
educating “row-crop” farmers about Herbicide Drift Especially 2,4D

Suggestions for Improvement:

Suggestions for Improvement Assist with matching cultivar selection to state’s “Terroir” Terroir (Tear-Wah) French
term with no direct English Translation Refers to how the climate, soil, landscape and other environmental factors
come together and give the wine character/ identity Sometimes referred to as the “soul/essence” of the wine

“Ideal” Regulatory Environment:

“Ideal” Regulatory Environment State promotes its wine industry Locally through assistance with industry promotional
brochures/marketing Nationally through tourism literature Encourages industry development State alcohol tax breaks
Good for wineries, grape growers and state fruit growers

“Ideal” Regulatory Environment:

“Ideal” Regulatory Environment Provide funding for agritourism research Provide competitive grants to provide
monies for the marketing research of the states wine regions Provide additional funding for Viticulture/Enology
research To reduce workshop prices Increase spending on varietal feasibility research

“Ideal” Regulatory Environment:

“Ideal” Regulatory Environment Initiate regular discussions about value-added industries Provides opportunity for
state officials to learn first hand about the environment that producers and wineries perceive Spend as much time and
money promoting wine industry as they do other agricultural industries

Iowa Regulatory Contacts:

Iowa Regulatory Contacts State of Iowa, Alcoholic Beverages Division http://www.iowaabd.com/ Phone: (866) 469-
2223

Missouri Regulatory Contacts:

Missouri Regulatory Contacts Jim Anderson, Program Coordinator Missouri Grape & Wine Program 1616 Missouri
Blvd. P.O. Box 630 Jefferson City, MO 65102 Phone: (573) 751-6807 Fax: (573) 751-2868

Nebraska Regulatory Contacts:

Nebraska Regulatory Contacts Nebraska Liquor Control Commission 301 Centennial Mall South 5th Floor P.O. Box
95046 Lincoln Nebraska 68509-5046 Phone: (402) 471-2571 Fax: (402) 471-2814

Wisconsin Regulatory Contacts:

Wisconsin Regulatory Contacts Wisconsin Department of Revenue, Alcohol & Tobacco Enforcement Address: P.O.
Box 8933 Madison, WI 53708-8933 Phone: (608) 266-2776 Fax: (608) 261-6240 Email: ates@dor.state.wi.us Web:
http://www.dor.state.wi.us

Iowa Production Contacts:

Iowa Production Contacts Dr. Paul Domoto, Professor, Dept. of Horticulture Address: 245 Horticulture Hall, Iowa
State University Ames, IA 50011 http://viticulture.hort.iastate.edu/info/info.html Phone: (515) 294-0035

Missouri Production Contacts:

Missouri Production Contacts Dr. Murli Dharmadhikari, Director or Tavis Harris, Enology Technician Mid-America
Viticulture and Enology Center/ Southwest Missouri State University Fruit Experiment Station 9740 Red Spring Road
Mountain Grove, MO 65711 Phone: (417) 926-4105

Nebraska Production Contacts:

Nebraska Production Contacts Dr. Paul Read, Professor of Horticulture 377J Plant Science Hall Department of
Agronomy and Horticulture University of Nebraska-Lincoln P.O. Box 830724 Lincoln, NE 68583-0724
Phone:402/472-5136 Fax:402/472-8650

Wisconsin Production Contacts:

Wisconsin Production Contacts Teryl R. Roper, Professor of Horticulture Address: Room 479 Department of
Horticulture 1575 Linden Drive Madison, WI 53706 Phone: (608) 262-9751

Iowa Wine Making Contacts:

Iowa Wine Making Contacts Dr. Lester Wilson, Professor, Dept. of Food Science and Human Nutrition Address: Iowa
State University Ames, IA 50011 http://viticulture.hort.iastate.edu/info/info.html Phone: (515) 294-3889 or (515) 294-
9425

Missouri Wine Making Contacts:

Missouri Wine Making Contacts Dr. Murli Dharmadhikari, Director or Tavis Harris, Enology Technician Mid-America
Viticulture and Enology Center/ Southwest Missouri State University Fruit Experiment Station 9740 Red Spring Road
Mountain Grove, MO 65711 Phone: (417) 926-4105

Nebraska Wine Making Contacts:

Nebraska Wine Making Contacts Dr. Paul Read, Professor of Horticulture Address: 377J Plant Science Hall
Department of Agronomy and Horticulture University of Nebraska-Lincoln P.O. Box 830724 Lincoln, NE 68583-0724
Phone:(402) 472-5136 Fax:(402) 472-8650

Wisconsin Wine Making Contacts:

Wisconsin Wine Making Contacts Wisconsin Winery Association Address: 7600 Terrace Avenue, Suite 203
Middleton, WI 53562 Phone: (608) 831-1155 or (866)947-9643 Email: Info@WisWine.com Website:
www.wiswine.com

PORT WINE
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE PROCESSING LINES CVUT Mechanical Engineer Nuno Silva Porto Portugal

HISTORY OF PORT WINE :

HISTORY OF PORT WINE PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer - The first vineyards in
Douro were planted in the thirteenth century during the reign of Dom Diniz. - By the end of the 17th century, relations
between Britain and France had deteriorated so badly that the British government decided to impose heavy import
duties on French wines, and the discovery was made that the wines from the Douro valley were to the taste of the
British.

Slide3:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer Port can legally still only be produced in the Douro
region within boundaries firmly delineated by the Portuguese government. It remains to this day the center of much of
the world's production. Three main factors account for the difference between one port and another: - The quality of
the grapes and the soil in which they are cultivated - The blend of wines selected for each style of port - Whether the
port is matured in the bottle or in a wooden cask

Slide4:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer Forming a deep cleft in the rock, the river Douro flows
at an altitude of between 60 and 140 metres above sea level. The terrain either side of the Douro is irregular in the
extreme with deeply incised tributaries draining the mountais, which rise in places to over 1000 metres on the edge of
the region. - Half of the region’s vineyards are planted on slopes SOILS AND CLIMATE

Slide5:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer SOILS AND CLIMATE

Slide6:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer - The Douro’s soils are naturally rich in Potassium and
magnesium but tend to lack calcium and boron, causing a condition known locally as moromba. This was originally
thought to be a virus, but is now successfully treated by applying borax to the soil. -The proportion of organic material
in the Douro’s soils is low and regular application of both organic and inorganic fertilisers is necessary to correct the
imbalance of nutrients. SOILS AND CLIMATE

Slide7:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer The feature that all the vineyards have in common is
the initial deep ploughing or ripping of the earth to create a course top soil roughly 1-1.3 metres in depth. These steps
like terraces are called socalcos or patamares. VINEYARDS AND QUINTAS

Slide8:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer The vineyard classification is the basis for the
authorisation which regulates the amount of Port that may be produced in any one year. Taking in account the
previous year’s sales and stocks of Porto held by the shippers, the Instituto do Vinho do Porto (Port Wine Institute)
determines the total amount of grape that must be fortified to make Porto. The vineyard plot within the Douro is
graded according twelve different physical variables. On the basis of the vineyard classification a licence would be
issued permitting the grower to produce a certain amount of Port per thousand vines. VINEYARDS AND QUINTAS

Slide9:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer PROCESS: Vindima Transportation of the grapes
Crush of the grapes Fermentation prematurely arrested by the addition of aguardente (spirit) Maturation Clarification
and filtration MAKING PORT

Slide10:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer The building block of the Douro is the quinta. All the
quintas have the adega (vinery), armazem (storage). - In the past, the grapes were carried out entirely by hand.
Grapes were traditionally cut into large, coarse woven baskets with capacity up to 75 Kg at a time. Nowadays they
are loaded on to trailers and towed to the adega by tractor. The majority of grapes are now transported to the winery
in 1000 Kg steel bins known as dornas. MAKING PORT

Slide11:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer - Baumé (a measure of the concentration of grape
sugars), pH and total acidity are crucial readings but tasting grapes or juice are important for the determination of the
optimum ripeness. All grapes destined for the production of Port must legally be above 11 degrees baumé. - The key
to the production of a quality red Port is in the vigorous extraction of colour and flavour compounds found in the skins
of the grapes. -The fermentation is prematurely arrested by the addition of grape spirit known as aguardente.
MAKING PORT

Slide12:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer The place where is extracted the colour and flavour
from the Port grapes is the lagar. This is a square stone tank made from granite or cement, usually no more than a
metre in depth with a capacity varying between 15 and 25 pipes (8000-14000 litres). - Over the course of a day’s
picking, the lagar is filled to within 15 to 20 centimetres of the brim. - the treaders link arms and march slowly back
and forth; the soles of their feet crushing the grapes gently against the stone floor of the lagar. MAKING PORT-
Tradition

Slide13:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MAKING PORT-Tradition Depending on the
temperature at which of the grapes reach the vinery, fermentation will begin quite soon after treading, possibly during
the night. The action of human legs and feet helps to warm the must. Ideally the grapes will arrive at the adega
registering temperature around 20ºC, rising to 28-30ºC at the height of fermentation.

Slide14:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MAKING PORT-Technology The process called
Autovinification powered by a natural build-up of carbon dioxide in the system is the more vigorous and the most
used. - After the bins has been weighed it is tipped into a reception hopper from where a large screw (‘without end’)
conveys the grapes to a crusher-destemmer, which removes at least a proportion of the stalks from both red and
white grapes. - Before the crushed grapes reach the fermentation tank or autovinifier, the must is dosed with sulphur
dioxide at levels of between 40 and 150 mg per Kg. Most wine-maker will adjust the acidity of the must at this stage
to around pH 3.6-3.7 by adding the appropriate amount of tartaric acid.

Slide15:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MAKING PORT-Technology

Slide16:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MAKING PORT-Technology The preoccupation with
the ways of crush the grapes in the lagares have led to a number of attempts to simulate the gentle action of the
human foot with pistons. A temperature controlled stainless steel vat equipped with programmable pistons is installed
in some quintas.

Slide17:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MAKING PORT-Technology The basic functionality of
the autovinification system: - The vat is filled of full capacity; - As the fermentation begins carbon dioxide is given off
and the pressure builds up inside the tank. This forces the fermenting must up an escape valve which spills into an
open holding tank on top of the vat; - Once a certain pressure has built up inside the autovinifier, the carbon escapes
though a calibrated hydraulic valve. No longer supported by the pressure inside the vat, the fermenting must falls
back down the central autovinification unit by force of gravity. At the same time the hydraulic valve resets itself ready
for the pressure to build up and the cycle to begin again.

Slide18:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MAKING PORT-Technology All Port is fortified to a
strength of between 19 and 22 per cent of volume. In a process called as encuba, the wine is typically run off when
approximately 4 or 5 per cent of natural alcohol has been produced from the fermentation and mixed with grape spirit
or aguardente in a proportion of 20 percent. The blending of aguardente is generally carried out by pumping a
measured quantity of spirit into wooden, cement or stainless steel holding tank simultaneously with the free run juice.

Slide19:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MATURATION - All Port wines spend their first winter
in the Douro. The young wines are analysed and adjusted where necessary. This provides the opportunity of the first
selection and classification. - In the past days, the Port wine was transported to Porto by a boat called barco rabelo.

Slide20:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MATURATION - The wine matures in a loja, a shop or
cellar store. Most of the wines ages in wooden vats and casks holding as much as 100 000 litres to casks of around
600 litres. They function as vessels for ageing where the permeability of the wood permits a gradual, controlled
oxidation of the contents. -Wines destined for a bottling after two or tree years (Vintage) are partly aged in wooden
vat and partly kept in stainless steel to preserve the primary character of the fruit. -Wines set aside to become old
Tawnies are transferred to smaller lodge pipes to enhance the oxidative character of the wine.

Slide21:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer MATURATION

Slide22:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer RACKING - It involves the removal of clear wine from
the sediment or less that have settled at the bottom of the cask or vat. Left in the wine, the less will generate off-
flavours. - Ports are typically racked three times in the first year, twice in the second and annually thereafter. In the
case of old wines, pipes or casks are decanted progressively, starting from the top row.

Slide23:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer CLARIFICATION AND FILTRATION Racking alone is
sufficient to eliminate heavier insoluble particles from a young Port but is does not remove unstable material found in
solution that could precipitate after the wine has been bottled. Most wines are therefore clarified using fining agents
like gelatine, betonite, egg white and casein.

Slide24:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer QUALITY CONTROL The Port Wine Institute has a
well-equipped laboratory and offers its services to smaller shippers. The Institute also has its rigorous quality control
producers but a number of smaller shippers without their own laboratories are still sitting on a potential bacterial time
bomb.

Slide25:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer BASIC CLASSIFICATION - Ruby port, is matured for
around three years in the cask and then bottled ready for drinking. - Reserve/Vintage character ports are made from
higher quality vintage style wines and are matured in the wood for between four and five years. They are smoother
than Ruby port. - Late Bottled Vintage, similar to vintage character port, is a blend of higher quality wines, but the
grapes must all come from the specified year. By law it has to spend four to six years in wood before it is bottled;

Slide26:
PORT WINE PROCESSING LINE CVUT Mechanical Engineer BASIC CLASSIFICATION Vintage Port is the wine of
a single year, which is bottled between 22 and 31 months after the harvest and then matures in the bottle for a
minimum of ten years. - White port is made only from white grapes. It can be either dry or sweet and is at its best
when served chilled.

Viticulture :
Viticulture

Spur Pruning :
Spur Pruning There are two fruiting canes (this years growth) originating from each spur (a cane shortened, usually to
two nodes, although it may be between one and four nodes, in the previous years pruning). The cane furthest away
from the cordon is completely removed, the one nearest is shortened to two nodes to produce next years spur, which
will generate the two new fruiting canes. There are a number of spurs along the cordon, providing sufficient quantity
of fruit.

Cane pruning :
Cane pruning Here the vine has a two year old cane which generates many more fruiting canes during the growing
season, and a spur giving origin to two canes. At pruning the two year old cane, and consequently much of this years
growth, are completely removed. Of the two canes originating from the spur, the one closest to the cordon is pruned
to leave a replacement two node spur, whereas the cane further away is left intact, although shortened. This is next
years two year old cane.

Gobelet :
Gobelet This ancient method of vine training involves no wires or other system of support, and results in a goblet
shaped growth Best suited to warm, dry climates, without fertile soil Found in southern parts of Burgundy, the Rhône
Valley, Provence and Languedoc

Guyot :
Guyot Named after Dr. Jules Guyot, a 19th century French scientist, this system is essentially cane pruning In Single
Guyot, each vine has one cane preserved each year, for the generation of next years many fruiting canes, and one
spur, which is for the generation of the replacement cane. In Double Guyot, which is a system widely used in
Bordeaux, each vine has two canes and two spurs, the canes being trained in opposite directions along wires

Cordon training :
Cordon training The vines have a short trunk, about 0.5m, similar to the gobelet style The cordon, which is never
pruned away, bears a number of spurs (how many often depends on appellation laws in France) which are subject to
spur pruning

Vertical Trellis :
Vertical Trellis Also known as vertical shoot positioning or simply VSP The canes are supported by securing them to
a number of trellis wires running the length of the row of vines. The canes may be trimmed off at the top, and
consequently the row takes on a hedge-like appearance. It may be spur or cane pruned

Viticultural Hazards :
Viticultural Hazards

Botrytis Cinerea :
Botrytis Cinerea A fungus that gives rise to two different kinds of infections on grapes; Grey Rot and Noble Rot Grey
Rot is the result of consistently wet or humid conditions Noble Rot occurs when drier conditions follow wetter

Powdery Mildew :
Powdery Mildew Fungal disease High atmospheric humidity is a major cause This mildew can be treated with sulfur
or fungicides, especially Strobilurines AKA Oidium

Downy Mildew :
Downy Mildew Fungal disease Spring storms and heavy rain are significant causes, followed by warmth and humidity
The ‘oil spot’ is and initial indicator Plasmopara viticola

Phomopsis :
Phomopsis AKA Dead Arm; Excoriosis Canes display pale patches, fissures and lesions after winter pruning Rain
and cool spring temperatures can also be a factor
Rotbrenner :
Rotbrenner Fungal disease which colors the leaves brown and yellow Mainly effects steep vineyards (Mosel)

Esca :
Esca A chronic infection found mainly on older vineyards Vines in a plot show leaf degeneration and stunted growth,
and eventually die off the following year This pathogen complex disease does not yet have a cure

Eutypa Dieback :
Eutypa Dieback Fungal virus affecting grapevines as well as fruit vines Vines die off, similar to Esca Cankers and
small leaves are symtoms Esca infections can lead to Eutypa Dieback

Feared Vineyard Pests :

Feared Vineyard Pests Grape Berry Moths Vine Leafhoppers Willow Beauty Caterpillars Black Vine Weevil
Nematodes Phylloxera

Nematodes :
Nematodes Microscopic worms that attack the roots of a vine Treatment is near impossible; prevention is the only
real cure Grafted vines are usually used to combat this problem

Phylloxera :
Phylloxera A louse that damages the roots of vines They disrupt the nutrition of the vines, leading to gradual death
Phylloxera is combated by grafting onto resistant rootstocks: Vitis berlandieri, Vitis riparia and Vitis rupestris Hybrid
rootstock AxR1, commonly used in California, is also prone to phylloxera, just at a later period of life Obviously one of
the major crisis of wine producers in modern wine producing era

Phylloxera Lifecycle :
Phylloxera Lifecycle

wine,  alcoholic beverage made by the fermentation of the juice of the grape. So ancient that its origin is
unknown, wine is mentioned in early Egyptian inscriptions and in the literature of many lands. The term
wine  is also applied to alcoholic beverages made from plants other than the grape, e.g., elderberry
wine, dandelion wine.

Characteristics

Wines are distinguished by color, flavor, bouquet or aroma, and alcoholic content. Wine is also divided
into three main types: still or natural, fortified, and sparkling. Wines are red, white, or rosé (depending
on the grape used and the amount of time the skins have been left to ferment in the juice). For red
wines the entire crushed grape is utilized; for white wines, the juice only. In traditional rosé wines, the
skins are removed after fermentation has begun, thus producing a light pink color; mass-produced rosé
wines may be made by adding a small amount of red wine to white wines. Wines are also classified as
dry or sweet, according to whether the grape sugar is allowed to ferment completely into alcohol (dry),
or whether some residual sugar has been left (sweet).

In a natural wine all the alcohol present has been produced by fermentation. Fortified wines, such as
sherry, port, Madeira, and Malaga, are wines to which brandy or other spirits have been added. These
wines contain a higher alcohol content (from 16% to 35%) than the still wines (from 7% to 15%).
Sparkling wines, of which champagne is the finest example, are produced by the process of secondary
fermentation in the bottle.
Highly publicized studies of the French, particularly in Lyons, claim that a moderate consumption of red
wine might help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Such findings were judged worthy of further
investigation by the American Medical Association.

Production

In natural-wine making the grapes are gathered when fully ripe (sometimes, as for Sauternes, when
overripe). Mechanical extraction of the juice, called must, has almost entirely replaced treading, the
traditional method. For red wines the must is fermented with the skins and pips, from which the newly
formed alcohol extracts coloring matter and tannin. Fermentation starts when wine yeasts
( Saccharomyces ellipsoideus ), existing on the skins of ripe grapes, come in contact with the must. It
may take from a few days to several weeks, according to the temperature and the amount of yeast
present or introduced. When the new wine has become still and fairly clear, it is run off into large casks,
where it undergoes a complicated series of chemical processes including oxidation, precipitation of
proteids, and formation of esters that create a characteristic bouquet. The wine is periodically fined
(clarified), then racked into smaller casks. After some months, or for certain wines several years, the
wine is ripe for bottling.

The very rare, superfine natural wines made in good vintage years from perfect grapes of the better
varieties and possessing the unaccountable quality that vintners call breed are produced in the
Bordeaux, Burgundy, and Rhône regions of France, in the Rhine valley of Germany, in California's Napa
and Sonoma valleys and other parts of the United States, and in other regions of the world. The fine
sherry of Spain and port of Portugal are superior fortified wines. Champagne is the best-known fine
sparkling wine, but superior sparkling wines are also produced elsewhere in the world.

French Wine

France is the most influential wine-producing area in the world and has developed superfine natural still
wines and the finest sparkling wine—champagne. The Bordeaux region furnishes red wine known as
claret (or simply Bordeaux) and white wine, both dry except for Sauternes. The best-known Bordeaux
wines are those of Médoc (red), classified and known by the vineyard names, as Château Lafite-
Rothschild, Château Margaux, and Château Latour; Graves (red or white); Sauternes (white), sweet,
made from overripe grapes and including the noted Château d'Yquem; and St.-Emilion and Pomerol.

Burgundy wines, red and white, are somewhat lighter in body than the Bordeaux. Connoisseurs prize the
Burgundies of the Côte d'Or, especially the white Montrachet, and red Clos Vougeot and Romanée. The
Chablis area produces fine, white Burgundy. Good wines are made in the Loire valley (Vouvray), the
Rhône valley (Hermitage and Châteauneuf-du-Pape), Alsace, and the Jura Mts. A great quantity of wine
is produced in S France, some of it made into vermouth, distilled into brandy, or used for blending, and
some of it of superior quality.

Bibliography
See A. Lichine, Alexis Lichine's Guide to the Wines and Vineyards of France  (4th ed. 1989); N. Faith, The
Winemasters of Bordeaux  (rev. ed. 1999).

German Wine

Fine German wines are generally light, dry, white wines made from the Riesling grape and characterized
by a fresh, flowery bouquet. Hock, derived from the town of Hochheim, is an English term sometimes
applied to all Rhine wines. The best white Rhines traditionally are from the Rheingau. They include
Johannisberger, Rüdesheimer, and Steinberger. Rheinhessen wines are milder and lighter in taste. The
third Rhine district, Pfalz (the Palatinate), also produces distinguished wines. Liebfraumilch, although
well known, is typically an undistinguished semisweet Rhine wine. Rhine wines were formerly matured
for many years in huge casks like the classic Heidelberg Tun, but are now aged in small casks for not
more than three years. One of the most northerly viticultural areas in the world, situated along the
Moselle (Mosel) River and its tributaries the Saar and the Ruwer, furnishes extremely light, delicate
wines. Moselle wines are drawn off into green bottles, Rhine wines into brown. Other good wines are
made in Baden, and in Franconia in Bavaria, noted for Stein wine.

Italian Wine

Italy is the largest and one of the oldest wine-producing countries in the world. Italian wines are
frequently named for the grape rather than for the region of origin; hence a wine excellent in one
locality may be inferior in another. The best known is Chianti, red or white, and properly a Tuscan wine;
Tuscany also produces the esteemed red blends known as Super-Tuscans. From Piedmont come the red
Barolo, Barbera, and Barbaresco wines; from Campania come the well-known Lacrima Cristi, and
Falerno, descendant of Horace's Falernian; from Veneto comes Valpolicella, dark red with a rich texture.
Sicily makes Marsala, a sweet, amber-colored, usually fortified wine, but both that island and Sardinia
are increasing important for quality wines.

American Wine

Although in the past American vintners largely were satisfied with quantity production and imitations—
largely in name only—of foreign wines, since the mid-1960s the quality domestic wine industry has
grown, and many excellent and some superb wines have been made in the United States. Wine is
produced in many states; California is the nation's richest wine-producing state, followed by New York
and the Pacific Northwest states. In California and the Northwest, grapes of the Old World species, Vitis
vinifera,  are grown, and some of the varieties produced from these grapes have come to rival the finest
French wines. Some of the best wines come from the Napa Valley area north of San Francisco.
Distinguished wines from that region include cabernet sauvignon, chardonnay, and zinfandel. Eastern
wines, most of them from New York state—especially the Finger Lakes region—were long made mainly
from native grapes such as Concords, Catawbas, and the southern scuppernong, but many are now
produced from the Old World species and hybrids.

See P. Lukacs, American Vintage: The Rise of American Wine  (2000).

Other Countries

Until recently, sherry was the major Spanish wine sold. Today, Rioja, a leading table wine, is Spain's most
widely exported wine, and Ribera del Duero, Priorato, Navarre, and other regions also produce fine
wines. Portugal, best known for port and Madeira, also produces some excellent table wines. Greek
wines, mainly whites and rosés, are sometimes treated with pine resin (retsina). Australian wines have
sold well since the mid-1980s, when first-class examples of chardonnay and cabernet sauvignon became
available abroad; New Zealand is especially noted for its sauvignon blanc. The best wines from South
America come from Chile, which produces both fortified and table wines; Argentina is another
significant producer. French planting has made Algeria one of the largest wine-producing countries, but
the wines are not notable. Other wine-producing countries include Austria, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria,
and South Africa.

Bibliography

See E. Peynaud, Knowing and Making Wine  (1984); H. Johnson, Vintage  (1989) and Modern
Encyclopedia of Wine  (4th ed. 1998); S. Spurrier and M. Dovaz, Wine Course  (1990); J. Robinson,
Oxford Companion to Wine  (1994); R. Phillips, A Short History of Wine  (2001).

The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright © 2004.

Licensed from Columbia University Press

wine

Alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of grapes. Wine may also be made from various
fruits and plant parts. Though known by the ancients, wine was not drunk in its matured form until the
development of the bottle and cork in the late 17th century. In wine manufacture, grapes are crushed
and strained, and the juice (called must) is sealed in vats along with yeast ( Saccharomyees ellipsoideus )
and often sulfur dioxide, which suppresses wild yeasts and organisms. Fermentation continues for
several weeks, and then the wine is drawn off (“racked”) into wooden barrels or other containers for a
second fermentation (“aging”). It is clarified and bottled before undergoing final maturation. Wines may
be classified according to colour as red, rosé (pink), or white; colour depends on whether the skins of
red grapes are allowed to ferment with the juice. Wine taste is described as sweet or dry, sweet wines
being high in sugar content and dry wines containing little or no sugar. Sparkling wines, such as
champagne, contain suspended carbon dioxide, the result of bottling the wine before fermentation is
complete. Fortified wines, such as port and sherry, contain added brandy. The leading wine-producing
countries are France, Italy, Spain, the U.S., Argentina, Germany, Australia, South Africa, Portugal, and
Romania.

Learn more about wine with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

sake
Japanese alcoholic beverage made from fermented rice. It dates to at least the 3rd century AD . Sake is
light in colour and noncarbonated, with a sweet flavour; its alcohol content is about 18 percnt  by
volume. Often mistakenly called a wine, sake is closer in its method of manufacture to beer. Steamed
rice is combined with a mold that converts the rice starch to fermentable sugars; the mix is kneaded into
a paste, twice fermented (with fresh rice and water added), filtered, and bottled. In Japan, where it is
the national beverage and the traditional drink of the Shinto gods, sake is warmed in a small
earthenware or porcelain vessel before being blessed and served in small porcelain cups.

Learn more about sake with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

Wine

Wine  is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of grape juice. The natural chemical balance
of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other
nutrients. Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast which consume
the sugars found in the grapes and convert them into alcohol. Various varieties of grapes and strains of
yeasts are used depending on the types of wine produced.

Although other fruits such as apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant "wines" are
normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, apple wine or elderberry
wine) and are generically known as fruit wine or country wine (not to be confused with the French term
vin du pays). Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake), are made from starch-based materials
and resemble beer and spirit more than wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases,
the use of the term "wine" is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process.
The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by
law in many jurisdictions.

Wine has a rich history dating back to around 6000 BC and is thought to have originated in areas now
within the borders of Israel, Georgia and Iran. Wine probably appeared in Europe at about 4500 BC in
what is now Bulgaria and Greece, and was very common in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Wine has
also played an important role in religion throughout history. The Greek god Dionysos and the
Roman equivalent Bacchus represented wine, and the drink is also used in Christian and
Jewish ceremonies such as the Eucharist and Kiddush.

The word "wine" derives from the Proto-Germanic *winam , an early borrowing from the Latin vinum ,
"wine" or "(grape) vine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Ancient Greek
οῖνος  - oînos , Aeolic Greek ϝοίνος  - woinos ). Similar words for wine or grapes are found in the Semitic
languages (cf. Arabic ‫ ﻭﻳﻦ‬wayn ) and in Georgian ( ğvino ); some consider the term to be a wanderwort,
or "wandering word".

History
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest production of wine, made by fermenting grapes, took
place in sites in Israel, Georgia and Iran, from as early as 6000 BC. These locations are all within the
natural area of the European grapevine Vitis vinifera.

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were used together with rice to
produce mixed fermented beverages in China as early as 7000 BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of
Jiahu, Henan were found to contain traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly
found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, could not be ruled out.
If these beverages, which seem to be the precursors of rice wine, included grapes rather than other
fruits, these grapes were of any of the several dozen indigenous wild species of grape in China, rather
than from Vitis vinifera , which were introduced into China some 6000 years later.

The oldest known evidence of wine production in Europe is dated to 4500 BC and comes from
archaeological sites in Greece. The same sites also contain the world’s earliest evidence of crushed
grapes. In Ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing
the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as from the King's
personal estate with the sixth listed as from the estate of the royal house of Aten. Traces of wine have
also been found in central Asian Xinjiang, dating from the second and first millennia BC.

In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church was a staunch supporter of wine since it was necessary
for the celebration of Mass. In places such as Germany, beer was banned and considered pagan and
barbaric, while wine consumption was viewed as civilized and a sign of conversion to Christianity.
Monks in France made wine for years, storing it underground in caves to age.

In the Islamic world, wine was forbidden during the Islamic Golden Age. After Geber and other Muslim
chemists pioneered the distillation of wine, however, it was legalized for cosmetic and medical uses. In
fact, the 10th-century Persian philosopher and scientist Al Biruni described recipes where herbs,
minerals and even gemstones are mixed with wine for medicinal purposes. Wine became so revered and
its effect so feared that elaborate theories were developed about which gemstones would best
counteract its negative side effects.

Grape varieties

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera, such as Pinot
Noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. When one of these varieties is used as the
predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75% or 85%), the result is a varietal, as
opposed to a blended , wine. Blended wines are not considered inferior to varietal wines; in fact, some
of the world's most valued and expensive wines, from regions like Bordeaux and the Rhone Valley, are
blended from different grape varieties of the same vintage.

Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of
two species. Vitis labrusca (of which the Concord grape is a cultivar), Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris, Vitis
rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes usually grown for consumption as fruit or
for the production of grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into wine.
Hybridization is not to be confused with the practice of grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are
planted with European V. vinifera  vines that have been grafted onto North American species rootstock.
This is common practice because North American grape species are resistant to phylloxera, a root louse
that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, Europe's vineyards were devastated by the bug,
leading to massive vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing
country of the world except for the Canary Islands, Chile and Argentina, which are the only ones that
have not yet been exposed to the insect.

In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used,
elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the
local yeast cultures. The range of possibilities here can result in great differences between wines,
influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and
production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir .
However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper
wines, where consistency is more important. Such producers will try to minimize differences in sources
of grapes by using production techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow
filtration, thin film evaporation, and spinning cones.

Classification

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines
tend to be classified by region (e.g. Bordeaux and Chianti), while non-European wines are most often
classified by grape (e.g. Pinot Noir and Merlot). More and more, however, market recognition of
particular regions is leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of
non-European recognized locales include: Napa Valley in California, Barossa Valley in Australia,
Willamette Valley in Oregon, Central Valley in Chile and Marlborough in New Zealand.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by
trademark or copyright law rather than by specific wine laws. For example, Meritage (sounds like
"heritage") is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include
Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. Commercial use of the term "Meritage" is allowed only via
licensing agreements with an organization called the "Meritage Association".

Europe classification

France has an appellation system based on the concept of terroir, with classifications which range from
Vin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom, through Vin de Pays and Vin Délimité de Qualité
Supérieure (VDQS) up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC). Portugal has something similar and, in
fact, pioneered this technique back in 1756 with a royal charter which created the "Demarcated Douro
Region" and regulated wine production and trade. Germany did likewise in 2002, although their system
has not yet achieved the authority of those of the other countries'. Spain and Italy have classifications
which are based on a dual system of region of origin and quality of product.

Outside of Europe
New World wine—wines from outside of the traditional wine growing regions of Europe—tend to be
classified by grape rather than by terroir  or region of origin, although there have been non-official
attempts to classify them by quality.

Vintages

A "vintage wine" is one made from grapes that were all or mostly grown in a single specified year, and
labeled as such. (Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion of wine that is not from the
labeled vintage.) Variations in a wine's character from year to year can include subtle differences in
color, palate, nose, body and development. High-quality red table wines can improve in flavor with age if
properly stored. Consequently, it is not uncommon for wine enthusiasts and traders to save bottles of an
especially good vintage wine for future consumption.

In the United States, for a wine to be vintage dated and labeled with a country of origin or American
Viticultural Area (AVA) (such as " Sonoma Valley"), it must contain at least 95% of its volume from
grapes harvested in that year. If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage
requirement is lowered to 85%.

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate
can have a big impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same
vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually
characteristic of the vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages, from
reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some
vintage wines, like Brunellos, are only made in better-than-average years.

Non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage for consistency, a process which allows
wine makers to keep a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years. One recent study
suggests that for normal drinkers, vintage year may not be as significant to perceived wine quality as
currently thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.

Tasting

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines may be classified by their effect
on the drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar or identical to those
in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in
the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a
small amount of residual sugar. Inexperienced wine drinkers often tend to mistake the taste of ripe fruit
for sweetness when, in fact, the wine in question is very dry.

Individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules such as esters and
terpenes that grape juice and wine can contain. Tasters often can distinguish between flavors
characteristic of a specific grape (e.g., Chianti and sour cherry) and flavors that result from other factors
in wine making, either intentional or not. The most typical intentional flavor elements in wine are those
that are imparted by aging in oak casks; chocolate, vanilla, or coffee almost always come from the oak
and not the grape itself.

Banana flavors ( isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as
sweaty, barnyard, band-aid ( 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol), and rotten egg ( hydrogen sulfide).
Some varietals can also have a mineral flavor, because some salts are soluble in water (like limestone),
and are absorbed by the wine.

Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds in the wine that are released into the air. Vaporization of
these compounds can be sped up by twirling the wine glass or serving the wine at room temperature.
For red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais, many people prefer them
chilled.

Collecting

At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are the most expensive of all food, and outstanding
vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Such wines are considered
by some to be Veblen goods—that is, goods for which demand increases instead of decreases as its
price rises. The most common wines purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux, cult
wines from California, and Vintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:

A proven track record of holding well over time

A drinking window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and approachability) that is many years long

A consensus amongst experts as to the quality of the wines

Investment in fine wine has attracted fraudsters who prey on their victims' ignorance of this sector of
the wine market. Wine fraudsters often work by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or
lower-status wines from famous wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound investment
unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing.
Counterfeiting of labels and bottles is another scam that is frequently encountered in auctions of famous
wines such as 1982 Pétrus.

Production

Wine production by country 2006

Production
Country
Rank
(with link to wine article)
( tonnes)

1 France 5,349,333

2 Italy 4,711,665
3 Spain 3,643,666

4 United States 2,232,000

5 Argentina 1,539,600

6 Australia 1,410,483

7 China 1,400,000

8 South Africa 1,012,980

9 Chile 977,087

10 Germany 891,600

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees north or south of the equator. The
world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the
45th parallel, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel.

Exporting countries

Top ten wine exporting countries in 2005

Rank Country 1000 tonnes

1 Italy 1,552.10

2 France 1,367.86

3 Spain 1,364.75

4 Australia 695.51

5 Chile 422.42

6 South Africa 349.28

7 United States 345.92

8 Germany 284.50

9 Moldova 254.18

10 Portugal 251.47
 7,929.85

2005 Export market shares

Market share
Rank Country (% of value in
US$)

1 France 34.01%

2 Italy 18.03%

3 Australia 10.24%

4 Spain 9.18%

5 Chile 4.13%

6 Germany 3.25%

7 Portugal 3.17%

8 United States 3.00%

9 South Africa 2.90%

10 New Zealand 1.61%

Uses

Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of
European and Mediterranean-style cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated
and complex. Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a beverage, but as a flavor agent,
primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Red, white
and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are known as light wines  because they are only 10–14%
alcohol-content by volume. Apéritif and dessert wines contain 14–20% alcohol, and are sometimes
fortified to make them richer and sweeter.

Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple hours before
serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately. Decanting—the act of pouring a wine into a
special container just for breathing—is a controversial subject in wine. In addition to aeration, decanting
with a filter allows one to remove bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more
common in older bottles but younger wines usually benefit more from aeration.
During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavors and makes them taste
smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade , or lose their
character and flavor intensity, with extended aeration. Despite these general rules, breathing does not
necessarily benefit all wines. Wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it
should be aerated, if at all.

Religious uses

The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and regions. Libations often
included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce
a mind-altering state.

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush is a blessing recited over wine or
grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat or a Jewish holiday. On Pesach ( Passover) during the Seder, it is a
Rabbinic obligation of men and women to drink four cups of wine. In the Tabernacle and in the Temple
in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service. Note that this does not mean that
wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception which contributes to the myth of the blood libel. A
blessing over wine said before indulging in the drink is: "Baruch atah Hashem elokeinu melech ha-olam,
boray p’ree hagafen" —"Praised be the Eternal, Ruler of the universe, who makes the fruit of the vine."

In Christianity, wine or grape juice is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which originates in
Gospel accounts of the Last Supper in which Jesus shared bread and wine with his disciples and
commanded his followers to "do this in remembrance of me" ( Gospel of Luke 22:19). Beliefs about the
nature of the Eucharist vary among denominations; Roman Catholics, for example, hold that the bread
and wine are changed into the real body and blood of Christ in a process called transubstantiation.

Wine was used in the Eucharist by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in 1869. Methodist
minister-turned- dentist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the
natural fermentation process of grape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance
movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the substitution spread quickly over much
of the United States. (However, in such rites the beverage is usually still called "wine" in accordance with
scriptural references.) There remains an ongoing debate between some American
Protestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as a
regular beverage.

The use of wine is forbidden under Islamic law. Iran used to have a thriving wine industry that
disappeared after the Islamic Revolution in 1979.

Health effects

The health effects of wine (and alcohol in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing study. In the
United States, a boom in red wine consumption was initiated in the 1990s by the TV show 60 Minutes,
and additional news reports on the French paradox. The French paradox refers to the comparatively
lower incidence of coronary heart disease in France despite high levels of saturated fat in the traditional
French diet. Epidemiologists suspect that this difference is due to the high consumption of wines by the
French, but the scientific evidence for this theory is currently limited.

Population studies have observed a J curve association between wine consumption and the risk of heart
disease. This means that heavy drinkers have an elevated risk, while moderate drinkers have a lower risk
than non-drinkers. Studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic beverages
may be cardioprotective, although the association is considerably stronger for wine. Also, the studies
have found increased health benefits for red wine over white wine, including cancer protection.
Researchers suspect that this may be because red wine contains more polyphenols than white wine.

A chemical in red wine called resveratrol has been shown to have both cardioprotective and
chemoprotective effects in animal studies. Low doses of resveratrol in the diet of middle-aged mice has
a widespread influence on the genetic levers of aging and may confer special protection on the heart.
Specifically, low doses of resveratrol mimic the effects of what is known as caloric restriction - diets with
20-30 percent fewer calories than a typical diet. Resveratrol is produced naturally by grape skins in
response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during fermentation. As white wine has
minimal contact with grape skins during this process, it generally contains lower levels of the chemical.
Other beneficial compounds in wine include other polyphenols, antioxidants, and flavonoids.

Red wines from south of France and from Sardinia in Italy have been found to have the highest levels of
procyanidins, which are compounds in grape seeds suspected to be responsible for red wine's heart
benefits. Red wines from these areas have between two and four times as much procyanidins as other
red wines. Procyanidins suppress the synthesis of a peptide called endothelin-1 that constricts blood
vessels.

A 2007 study found that both red and white wines are effective anti-bacterial agents against strains of
Streptococcus. Interestingly, wine has traditionally been used to treat wounds in some parts of the
world.

While evidence from both laboratory studies as well as epidemiological (observational) studies suggest a
cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have yet been completed that study the effect of alcoholic
drinks on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Moreover, excessive consumption of alcohol can
cause some diseases including cirrhosis of the liver and alcoholism. Also, the American Heart
Association cautions people "not to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your
doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation.

Based on the UK unit system for measuring alcoholic content, the average bottle of wine contains 9.4
units.

Sulphites are present in all wines and are formed as a natural product of the fermentation process.
Additionally, many wine producers add sulfur dioxide in order to help preserve wine. The level of added
sulfites varies, and some wines have been marketed with low sulfite content. Sulphites in wine are not a
problem for most people, although some, particularly those with asthma, can have adverse reactions.
Sulfur dioxide is also added to many other foods as well, such as dried apricots and orange juice.
Wine's effect on the brain has also been studied. Although some researchers have concluded that wine
made from the Cabernet Sauvignon grape reduces the risk of Alzheimer's Disease, others have found
that among diagnosed alcoholics, wine damages the hippocampus to a greater degree than other
alcoholic beverages.

According to a report in the October, 2008 issue of Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention,
moderate consumption of red wine may decrease the risk of lung cancer in men.

Packaging and storage

Most wines are sold in glass bottles and are sealed using corks. Recently, a growing number of wine
producers have been using alternative closures such as screwcaps or synthetic plastic "corks". Some
wines are packaged in heavy plastic bags within cardboard boxes, like breakfast cereal, and are called
box wines or cask wine. One advantage of box wine is that it can stay fresh for up to a month after
opening, while bottled wine will start to oxidize immediately. The wine in a box wine is typically
accessed via a tap on the side of the box. In addition to being less expensive, alternative closures
prevent cork taint, although they have been blamed for other problems such as excessive reduction.

Wine cellars (also called wine rooms  if they are aboveground) are places designed specifically for the
storage and aging of wine. In an active  wine cellar, factors such as temperature and humidity are
maintained by a climate control system. In contrast, passive  wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and
thus must be carefully located. Wine is a natural, perishable food product. Left exposed to heat, light,
vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity, all types of wine, including red, white, sparkling,
and fortified, can spoil. When properly stored, wines not only maintain their quality but can actually
improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they mature. Most experts say the optimal temperature for
aging wine is 55 °F(12.778 °C).

Profession

Cooper: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar wooden objects.

Garagiste: One who makes wine in a garage (or basement, or home, etc.)—in other words, an amateur
wine maker. Also used in a derogatory way when speaking of small scale operations of recent inception,
usually without pedigree (and typically located in Bordeaux).

Négociant: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers and sells
them under their own name. Sometimes, this term is just a synonym for wine merchant.

Oenologist: Wine scientist or wine chemist; a student of oenology. A winemaker may be trained as
oenologist, but often hires a consultant instead.

Sommelier: A person in a restaurant who specializes in wine. He or she is usually in charge of assembling
the wine list, educating the staff about wine, and assisting customers with their wine selections.

Vintner: A wine merchant or producer.

Viticulturist: A person who specializes in the science of the grapevines themselves. Can also be someone
who manages a vineyard, which includes making decisions about pruning, irrigation, and pest control.

Winemaker: A person who makes wine. May or may not be formally trained.

Film and television

Falcon Crest, USA 1981–1990: A CBS primetime soap opera about the fictional Falcon Crest winery and
the family who owned it, set in a fictional "Tuscany Valley" in California. The series was very popular and
a wine named "Falcon Crest" even went on the market.

French Kiss, 1995. Meg Ryan and Kevin Kline act in this romantic comedy. Kline's character wants to
have his own vineyard since he comes from a family of winemakers.

A Walk in the Clouds 1995. A love story set in a Mexican-American family's traditional vineyard
showcasing different moments in the production of wine.

Mondovino, USA/France 2004. A documentary film directed by American film maker Jonathan Nossiter,
exploring the impact of globalization on various wine-producing regions.

Sideways, 2004. A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne, with the tagline: "In search of
wine. In search of women. In search of themselves." Wine, particularly Pinot Noir, plays a central role.

A Good Year, 2006. Ridley Scott directs Russell Crowe in an adaptation of Peter Mayle's novel.

Oz and James's Big Wine Adventure, UK 2006–7. "Wine ponce" Oz Clarke tries to teach motor head
James May about wine. The first series saw them traveling in a classic Jaguar through the wine regions
of France, and the second series saw them drive a recreational vehicle throughout California.

Crush , USA 2007. Produced and directed by Bret Lyman, this is a documentary short that covers the
2006 grape harvest and crush in California's wine country. It also features winemaker Richard Bruno.

The Judgment of Paris , USA 2008. A film currently in production, it is based on journalist George M.
Taber's account of the Paris Wine Tasting of 1976.

Bottle Shock, USA 2008. A film currently in production, it tells the story of the birth of the Napa wine
industry.