DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES WITH

OFFSTREAM RESERVOIR EARTHEN EMBANKMENT SEEPAGE SYSTEMS

By Randall Bushey, PE 1

ABSTRACT

Offstream reservoir earthen embankment seepage systems are integral to the stability and
safety of a dam; protection of downstream persons, infrastructure, and the environment;
and safe operations and maintenance of the reservoir. The earthen embankment seepage
control system is typically composed of a low-permeability embankment core or a
seepage barrier such as a geomembrane, both connected to a cutoff wall, drainage
collection network, and monitoring devices.

Four offstream reservoir projects in Florida are used as examples of different seepage
systems, geomembranes, cutoff wall designs, seepage/drainage collection materials, and
constructability approaches used to meet changing site conditions not fully evident during
design investigations. Connections between seepage system components are critical to
the effectiveness of the system. The performance of the geomembrane/cutoff wall
connection is specifically dependent on-site materials, construction approach, and the
contractor’s quality control program.

This paper focuses on the parameters influencing long-term project success as determined
by the successful operations and maintenance phase of the project. These parameters
include constructability of the design; planned continued site investigations during
construction; specified thoroughness of the contractor’s quality control program and
personnel; vetting of the construction materials employed by the contractor;
comprehensive review of field decisions; and the planned ability to monitor the
effectiveness of the seepage barrier systems performance.

INTRODUCTION

Offstream reservoir earthen embankment seepage control systems are integral to the
stability and safety of a dam; protection of downstream persons, infrastructure, and the
environment, and safe operations and maintenance of the reservoir. All embankments are
subject to seepage. A safe embankment requires controlled seepage and an understanding
of acceptable reservoir-specific seepage rates based on specific site conditions, which
include the reservoir pool stage; current and historical rainfall; seasonal groundwater;
reservoir inflow and discharge history; and the maintenance of the system. The United
States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE EM 1110-2-2300) General Design and
Construction Considerations for Earth and Rock-Fill Dams engineering manual states the
following:

1Randall Bushey, PE, Civil Engineer. CH2M, 3011 SW Williston Road, Gainesville, FL 32608.
352.335.7991. Randy.Bushey@CH2M.com.

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 “Seepage through the foundation, abutments, and embankment must be controlled
and collected to ensure safe operation. The intent is to prevent excessive uplift
pressures, piping of materials, sloughing removal of material by solution, or
erosion of this material into cracks, joints, and cavities. In addition, the project
purpose may impose a limitation on allowable quantity of seepage. The design
should include seepage control measures such as foundation cutoffs, adequate
and nonbrittle impervious zones, transition zones, drainage material and
blankets, upstream impervious blankets, adequate core contact area, and relief
wells.” (USACE)

The design process includes determination of acceptable seepage rates based on soil
parameters determined from the site geotechnical investigations, site and regional
groundwater assumptions, and acceptance of the design conditions (seepage control
system, embankment design, pool loading conditions, and other parameters). The soil
parameters input to seepage models are spatial averages of typical soil types for regions
of the offstream reservoir embankment footprint (foundation) and are therefore
representative seepage rates in the range of thousands to millions of gallons per day
depending on embankment length.

Measurement of offstream reservoir seepage rates is typically an annual determination

resulting from a formula that includes imprecise measurements and spatial averages. The
average annual seepage of an offstream reservoir is a volumetric addition of the
operationally metered volumetric inflows (positive) and outflows (negative) and the
monitored rainfall (positive) and evaporation (negative), with the difference between the
positive nd negative being seepage out of the system. The natural components - rainfall
and evaporation - depend on the reservoir acreage and are typically spatial averages, The
annual average seepage rate is then calculated with the following formula:

Seepage volume = pumped inflow – gravity and/or pumped discharge – evaporation +

rainfall

Every reservoir is unique, and the seepage response to variable loading conditions,
climatic conditions, and reservoir age is captured to place the reservoir in envelopes of
operation for determination of safe operating seepage rates. Reservoir management
requires tools to monitor ongoing reservoir seepage conditions between annual seepage
reviews. These tools are typically toe drain systems and embankment piezometers. Onsite
weather stations (wind, evaporation, rainfall, and temperature/humidity) are also intrinsic
to seepage evaluation. These tools are limited in their ability to determine embankment
seepage conditions because usually they are spaced around the embankment and
represent only a small fraction of the entire embankment condition, e.g., each toe drain
represents an averaged flow rate for a percentage of the embankment lineal footage, and
the piezometer nests capture seepage rates in the form of surficial aquifer responses at
specific locations on the reservoir embankment, which may represent 10% of the total
embankment. This limitation was captured in design standards published by the US
Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation):

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 Predicting seepage behavior is difficult due to the many variables involved in
evaluating and modeling permeability and the often complex nature of foundation
conditions. Seepage analyses are generally viewed as capable of predicting the
general order of magnitude of results and approximating seepage behavior. As
such, experience and judgment are essential in all phases of the evaluation of
seepage behavior. (Reclamation, 2011)

Although seepage monitoring tools are imprecise, when combined with periodic visual
observations and long-term trend analysis (experience and judgement), they are effective
predictions of embankment safety. Visual observations are required components of any
reservoir seepage monitoring and safety program. Daily, weekly, monthly, and annual
site observations and inspections should be a prescribed reservoir operational tool,
depending on the reservoir’s size and hazard classification (FEMA 333 dam safety
classifications have been standardized). Daily and weekly observations by operations and
maintenance personnel (who are provided annual dam safety training); monthly
inspections by the reservoir engineering team; and annual inspections by specialists in
dam design, construction, and operation are essential for understanding the character of
the reservoir during various pool stages, weather conditions, seasonal groundwater
influences, and operational scenarios.

The combination of visual observations augmenting site-specific instrumentation was

best stated by Dr. Ralph Peck, who often stated the following:

“… that a human eye attached to an intelligent brain is the single most important
instrument at a project site” (USACE EM 1110-2-1908).

Despite advances in the design of dams and seepage control methods, significant failures
still occur. Uncontrolled seepage (piping) is the primary contributing factor in the failure
of several modern dams, such as the Teton Dam in 1976 and Quail Creek Dike in 1989.
Failure brings new understanding of seepage and seepage control, resulting in
mathematical and empirical advances in dam engineering.

Uncontrolled and unmonitored seepage caused the only major offstream reservoir
embankment breach in Florida, the FPL Martin County Cooling Reservoir in 1979. An
inadequate seepage collection system, minimal monitoring instrumentation, and
elimination of visual observations all contributed to the inability to detect and prevent the
breach. These seepage monitoring and dam safety components were addressed in the
renovation of the embankment and reservoir monitoring systems.

SEEPAGE DESIGNS

The basic design of earthen embankment seepage control systems is well supported in
USACE, Reclamation, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), and numerous
state and regional dam design manuals. Many factors influence variability in earthen
embankment seepage control designs:

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• Site-specific geology, climate, topography, groundwater regime, and environmental
settings.
• Reservoir owner’s operational intent, funding considerations, source of the reservoir
water (river, lake, other reservoirs, watershed runoff, etc.) used to fill the reservoir,
intended use of the reservoir water (e.g., potable water treatment, irrigation,
industrial, commercial, and aquifer recharge), and the owner’s experience with
operating and maintaining an offstream reservoir
• Permitting application process; federal, state, and local permitting conditions;
restrictions placed by the permitting agency, and environmental and property
stakeholders
• Experience of the design engineer(s), design team’s communication during the design
process, and the contractor’s experience in construction of earthen embankments
(within the state and local conditions)

Seepage control systems should undergo continual improvements through the reservoir’s
design, construction, and operational phases as the knowledge of site conditions,
reservoir constructability, and the reservoir embankment’s environmental, hydrologic,
and geotechnical characteristics become better understood.

Earthen embankment seepage control systems in Florida typically include the following:

• Horizontal drains
• Cutoff walls (compacted backfill trenches, slurry walls, trench remixing deep (TRD)
walls, concrete walls)
• Geomembranes
• Downstream seepage blankets and toe drain collection and discharge systems
• Downstream seepage berms
• Relief wells

SITE INVESTIGATIONS

Site investigations focus on standard geotechnical considerations, such as soil borings,

soil permeability, and confining characteristics of the aquifers within the geologic column
under the embankment footprint. Site conditions include the location of the reservoir with
respect to groundwater aquifers (surficial, intermediate, and lower), climatic conditions
(evaporation, rainfall, storm activity, and wind), sinkhole activity or historic sinkholes,
and environmental site conditions (creeks, wetlands, and threatened and endangered
species habitats). These parameters are used in designing the embankment footprint and
then performing site-specific stability modeling and regional seepage modeling. Seepage
modeling provides the initial allowable seepage rates from the reservoir, which will be
better defined as the reservoir goes through fill and withdrawal cycles and the
embankment is “exercised.”

DESIGN/PROCUREMENT/CONSTRUCTION

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The adaptive design of reservoir embankments is initiated with the first
political/administrative decisions (contracting a design team, engineering firm(s),
construction management at risk, design-build teams). The process includes the following
documents, variables, and activities:

• Plans, specifications, basis of design report (BODR), contract, site investigations

• Potential failure mode analysis, 30%, and 60% design
• Varied experience of contractors
• Continued site investigations during construction
• Unknown site conditions discovered during earth-moving operations

OFFSTREAM RESERVOIR EXAMPLES

Offstream reservoirs are unique because they typically do not include upstream
watersheds, but instead are filled and drained by gravity or pumping depending on the
water source location in relationship to the reservoir, and the downstream receiving water
users. The four reservoir projects used as examples of seepage design and construction
include potable water supply, stormwater treatment systems, and reuse water storage. The
seepage designs are unique for each embankment based on the site conditions and
upstream erosion protection systems.

Regional Water Supply Reservoir

The Tampa Bay Water C W Bill Young Regional Reservoir is an offstream potable water
storage reservoir with pumped inflow and gravity and pumped outflow. Reservoir filling
is accomplished by pumping water from three surface water sources: two rivers and a
channelized diversion canal designed for peak river flow storage and non-peak pumping
to the reservoir. The filling and discharge system includes over 20 miles of 84-inch
pipeline that enters the reservoir through a water control tower used for both inflow and
discharge operations. The reservoir has a 1,000-acre footprint, with the natural ground
sloping from south to the north, leaving an average 35-foot-high embankment in the
south and 65-foot-high embankment in the north (Figure 1). The reservoir’s storage
capacity is over 45,000 acre-feet at maximum pool elevation, 136.5 feet (NGVD1929).
The pool is cycled annually on typical years, filling in the wet season (July through
November) and discharging in the dry season (March through June).

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 Figure 1. Tampa Bay Water CW Bill Young Regional Reservoir Renovation
The seepage system design incorporates an upstream PVC geomembrane connected to a
bentonite cutoff wall. The seepage collection system includes a downstream sand blanket
at an embankment toe extending 75 feet into the downstream side of the embankment,
(Figures 2 and 3). Seepage is collected in toe drain manholes and transferred offsite
through pipes discharging into stormwater management ponds and ditches flowing to two
creeks: Long Flat Creek on the west, and Doe Branch on the east.

Figure 2. Downstream Sand Blanket and Collection Toe Drain System

Figure 3. Discharge Collection through Manholes and Discharge Pipe

In 2010 the reservoir’s upstream face had to be renovated because the upstream flat-plate
soil cement erosion protection system failed. CH2M (Design Criteria Professional)
assisted Tampa Bay Water in selection of the Design-Build (DB) team of Kiewit/Gannett
Fleming to provide the renovation design and construction. The renovation design
included re-sloping of the upstream embankment from a 3:1 (horizontal to vertical –
H:V) to a 2.5:1 slope, replacement of the geomembrane, and reconnection to the
bentonite cutoff wall. All of these redesigned renovations modified the original seepage
barrier.

Design considerations addressed the quality of the existing system, the installation of the
new geomembrane, tie-in to the existing seepage cutoff wall, and protection of the
geomembrane during installation of the #57 stone drainage layer and soil cement stair
steps (Figure 4).

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 Figure 4. Upstream Renovation Design
The existing geomembrane connection to the seepage cutoff wall was accomplished with
a soil bentonite mix cap over the top of the geomembrane sitting on the existing bentonite
mix wall (Figure 5). The variability of soils within the reservoir upstream embankment
soil wedge (removed in the modification of the slope to 2.5:1) caused variation in the
permeability of the bentonite mixture, and therefore a quality control checkpoint in the
reconnection of the new geomembrane to the existing cutoff wall.

Figure 5. Renovation of Geomembrane Cutoff Wall Connection

Design. The renovation design had to consider the existing condition of the reservoir
components being renovated, with the main source being the record drawings and the
Basis of Design Report (BODR). Because the record drawings represent distinct locations
(sections of the embankment evenly spaced around the reservoir) and the BODR
identifies the basis of decisions made during the design process, there can be considerable
variation in the actual characteristics of the soils, embankment slope and compaction, and
actual location of the seepage components (e.g., seepage cutoff wall). These potential
conditions should be incorporated into the design process, especially into the earthwork
specifications, probing requirements for location of key features (seepage cutoff wall),
and soil-bentonite mixture laboratory specifications and quality control of the mixtures in
the field.

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Construction. Construction production is a contractor priority that must be balanced with
a strong quality control program and staff. Most owner construction specifications are
weak on quality control requirements and specification of the contractor’s quality control
plan and staffing. Quality control (QC) can be an integral part of a continuous production
improvement plan if managed from independent decision structures within the
contractor’s organizational structure and operation plan (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Quality Control Organization and Production Organization

Recognizing the potential location variability of key components in the design phase and
incorporating testing/probing specifications for location of these features (e.g., seepage
cutoff wall) in the construction phase can reduce opportunities for changed site
conditions.

Regional Reuse Water Supply Reservoir

Operational in mid-2015, the Boyette Road Reuse Reservoir in Pasco County, Florida
(about 30 miles north of Tampa), is the largest offstream pumped reuse water storage
reservoir in the United States (Figure 7). Built in an abandoned earth fill borrow mine
(80 acres), the reservoir has a 500-million-gallon capacity at maximum pool elevation,
and is the central storage and pump facility for the countywide reuse water system. The
abandoned borrow mine location resulted in a reservoir design with two-thirds of the
storage below grade and one-third above grade (Figure 8). The upstream embankment
extends into the borrow mine to bench 8 feet above the average reservoir bottom.

The reservoir upstream embankment face is lined with a 60-mil HDPE-textured

geomembrane connected to a bentonite-cement TRD cutoff wall at the level of the bench.
An innovative Fabriform wind ballast supports the geomembrane liner.

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 Figure 7. Boyette Road Reuse Reservoir

Figure 8. Boyette Reservoir Cross Section, North to South

CH2M’s reservoir design includes an emergency spillway, inflow piping, and an

extensive monitoring system that includes embankment and downstream piezometers, toe
drain level sensors, pool elevation, and weather station all tied to a supervisory control
and data acquisition (SCADA) system providing real-time data to support reservoir
operations and dam safety.

The Trench Re-Mixing Deep (TRD) seepage cutoff wall was constructed from the
upstream bench (Figure 9). The TRD cutoff wall is a mixture of native soils, bentonite,
and cement with a specified minimum 7-day design strength of 50 psi, and a permeability
of 10 -4 cm/sec. The TRD cutoff wall was constructed with a continuous mixing machine
that resembles a “chainsaw” blade held vertically within which is injected the bentonite
cement and polymer mixture that is insitu mixed with the native soils. The variability of
native soils around the 8,000-linear foot embankment and bench footprint required
laboratory testing of the soil-bentonite-cement mixture to verify that the cutoff wall met
the permeability and strength requirements within design specifications. Soil sampling
was conducted around the bench and four soil types were selected for design mix bench
testing. Additionally, a demonstration cutoff wall section was included in the
specifications to field verify the laboratory results and the specialty contractor’s means
and methods for cutoff wall installation. The insitu cutoff wall characteristics failed to
meet the strength and permeability specifications during the demonstration section. A

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field decision was made (the parameters were met at the end of the demonstration
section) to continue the cutoff wall installation and mix improvement. The field
decision also required reworking of the 200-foot test section by mixing through the
section at the end of the cutoff wall installation.

Figure 9. Boyette Reservoir TRD Cutoff Installation

The cutoff wall connection to the geomembrane upstream cover was designed to be 2 feet
below the work bench elevation, and thus the cutoff wall was cut down to the proper
elevation while the wall was still “green” after the 7-day specification strength was
reached but not fully cured to reduce the potential of the wall cracking (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Boyette Reservoir Cutoff Wall Cap Preparation

The final geomembrane-cutoff wall connection (Figure 11) was a collaborative effort
with the contractor designed to be compatible with the TRD wall installation means and

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methods, and with the contractor’s sequence of operations. The actual seepage
connection installation layering is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 11. Boyette Reservoir Cutoff Wall Connection Seepage Control Detail

The upstream geomembrane erosion protection system was installed after the cutoff wall
and the connection to the TRD wall was initially sequenced after the section of
geomembrane was installed. However, this led to rehandling the geomembrane by laying
it back while the TRD wall was uncovered, resulting in more wrinkles in the
geomemembrane than acceptable. The installation was changed to be contiguous with the
geomembrane installation, which improved the smoothness of the geomembrane and the
efficiency of the overall installation means and methods.

Figure 12. Boyette Reservoir Cutoff Wall Connection Seepage Control

A 12-inch-thick flowable fill cap was the last segment of the geomembrane-cutoff wall
connection to provide erosion protection and a drivable surface for bench maintenance.

All geomembranes leak. To protect the upstream embankment, a composite drainage net
and sand/gravel collection pipe system was installed. The upstream system is connected

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to the downstream sand blanket toe drain collection and discharge system (Figures 13 and
14).

Figure 13. Boyette Reservoir Upstream Seepage Collection System

Figure 14. Boyette Reservoir Downstream Sand Blanket, Toe Drain Collection - Seepage
Collection System
Figure 15 depicts the installation of the upstream composite drainage net collection filter
trench and pipe system. The composite drainage net was extended at every fifth panel to
the crest geomembrane anchor trench to secure the system during installation of the
geomembrane. This was a field change for constructability, and eliminated the
independent upstream anchor trench for the composite drainage net.

Figure 15. Boyette Reservoir Upstream Collection Filter Trench and Composite Drainage
Net Installation

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Water Supply Reservoir

A design change was introduced at the Peace River Manasota Regional Water Supply
Authority (PRMRWSA) Reservoir after failure of the upstream erosion control flat plate
soil cement at the Tampa Bay Water Regional Reservoir, Figure 16. This change
involved adding under seepeage protection to the upstream erosion protection system at
the Peace River project. MWH was the designer of record for this offstream reservoir
now in full operation.

Figure 16. Peace River Reservoir seepage collection system

Collection system designs should consider the contractor’s means and methods
mechanical process for installation and the cover system, in this case the soil cement flat
plate. Test sections or pilot sections for the contractor to provide evidence of quality
installation should be incorporated into the specifications for the seepage collection
system. In this example the uncovering of the geonet and discharge pipe connections to
verify the operational condition of the system could be a quality check.

Flow Equalization Basin

The A-1 Flow Equalization Basin (FEB) was designed by Northstar Engineering,
constructed by Central Florida Equipment, and owned and operated by the South Florida
Water Management District (SFWMD) is a 15,000 acre low-head offstream reservoir that
supports a downstream 6,000-acre stormwater treatment area (STA 3/4) by regulating the
STA’s inflow water timing and volume to improve the natural treatment efficiency,
Figure 17. The FEB embankments were constructed with local crushed limestone that
presented quality control concerns:

• Nesting of poorly graded rock in the fill lifts

• Poor integration of contiguous fill lifts
• Inadequate compaction of backfill in existing canals due to excessive water in the
graded rock fill
• Contractor QC of the rock crushing and embankment fill placement processes

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The embankment is over 20 miles long, and with multiple work sites it presented a
QC/QA observation concern that was resolved through effective QC communication on
testing cycles and compaction means and methods.

Infilling of existing canal sections perpendicular to and beneath the embankment

footprint were not always adequately compacted during infilling operations due to the
inability to achieve adequate dewatering, resulting in seepage exiting the downstream
face of the embankment. Remediating the higher seepage areas was achieved by
installing seepage berms which provided a longer flow path and improved embankment
stability.

Increased pilot demonstration areas for these specific areas of concern could have been
incorporated into the specifications, along with more robust QC orgainizational and
staffing requirements for the contractor.

Figure 17. A-1 FEB Southern Discharge and Inflow Area and Eastern Embankment

ADAPTIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR RESERVOIR AGING

CHARACTERISTICS

Seepage is a major reservoir characteristic and a good example of the need to provide
adaptive design, construction, and operational guidelines.

Along with geotechnical site investigations, seepage modeling, site materials analysis,
and embankment design, offstream reservoir embankment seepage design should
consider on equal basis the qualitative engineering parameters of reservoir aging. The
reservoir “aging” characteristics are influenced by these factors:

• Operational pool elevations

• Site weather conditions
• Groundwater seasonality
• Operational and maintenance conditions

Engineers should address these qualitative parameters through inclusion of adaptive

design, construction, and operational features within the structures, earthwork, site
conditions, and operational constraints of the reservoir system. These adaptive features
include water control structures, pumping capabilities, adaptive specifications, and
operational procedures and guidelines. Adaptive features are necessary because of the

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inability to predict weather and other influencing parameters over the life of the reservoir,
which usually has a design life of 50 years with an operational life of 100 years. All
existing reservoirs are expected to operate beyond the 100 years. The USACE identifies
that “major civil works projects can have an indefinite service life” (USACE EM 1110-2-
8159 Life Cycle Design and Performance).

Lessons learned

Design of seepage systems proceeds with limited site knowledge compared to the
knowledge gained during actual construction of the dam. The reservoir embankment
plans, specifications, and other contract documents should, therefore, account for the
varied experience of contractors, necessary continued investigations, and unknown site
characteristics that may be discovered during earth moving that were not evident during
the geotechnical predesign and design investigations.

Including a quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA) program within specifications to

require the contractor to provide independent and qualified staffing to address the
production compliance with the project plans and specifications is key to operationally
competent seepage systems.

Improving the quality of seepage systems in offstream reservoirs should include these
additional considerations:

• Planned and specified demonstration of the contractor’s means and methods for
installation of critical components of the reservoir seepage system, e.g., the sand
blanket and collection system, the seepage cutoff wall, geomembrane, connection of
the geomembrane to the cutoff wall, composite drainage net and collection systems
• Verification of the demonstration program by uncovering representative sections of
the test area, videotaping seepage pipe collection systems (after installation, during
the construction of the embankment, and prior to substantial completion), and
conducting sampling and testing of permeability and strength where required
• Improved specifications to incorporate:
– Mandatory, independent, and adequately staffed QC programs
– Testing and probing of existing conditions during construction/renovation to
verify component locations, e.g., seepage cutoff wall
– Demonstration programs with verification and summary reports

Quality seepage control systems start with the project land purchase agreement (reservoir
siting) and the design professional and contractor procurement phases, and continues
through the operations and maintenance phase of the reservoir.

Copyright © 2018 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 15

 REFERENCES

1. Reclamation (US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation). 2011. Design

Standards No. 13, Embankment Dams. Chapter 8, Seepage.
https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/designstandards-
datacollectionguides/finalds-pdfs/DS13-1.pdf.

2. USACE EM 1110-2-1908 Instrumentation of Embankment Dams and Levees

3. USACE EM 1110-2-2300 General Design and Construction Considerations for Earth

and Rock-fill Dams

4. USACE EM 1110-2-8159 Life Cycle Design and Performance

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