TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

CONVECTION
- Mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion. It is
classified depending on how the fluid motion is initiated either as:
a. Natural (free) Convection -When the flow of gas or liquid comes from differences in
density and temperature, it is called free convection.
b. Forced Convection -When the flow of gas or liquid is circulated by pumps or fans it is
called forced convection.
- Convection depends on speed. Motion increases heat transfer by convection in all fluids.
- Convection depends on surface area. If the surface contacting the fluid is increased, the
rate of heat transfer also increases. Almost all devices made for convection have fins for
this purpose.
Convection Equation: q= h A (Ts -T∞)
Important parameters to be considered when choosing the proper correlation to be used in the
determination of heat transfer coefficient:
a. Geometry under consideration. (over a flat plate, over a cylinder, through a tube, through a
channel)
b. Classification of heat transfer process (forced convection, free convection, external flow,
internal flow, entrance region, fully developed region, boiling, condensation, micro-gravity)
c. Type of heat transfer coefficient (local nusselt number or average nusselt number)

FORCED CONVECTION
A forced convection flow field happens when the fluid is forced to flow by pressure
differences, a pump, a fan, and so on.
* Forced convection coefficient can be derived from Nusselt number which is a function of
Reynolds number and Prandtl number. Different correlations are used depending on specific
conditions/ limitations from which these correlations were derived.
Since forced convection is based on reynolds number, it is therefore important to establish
knowledge regarding fluid flow.
FLUID FLOW/ FLUID DYNAMICS
Classification of Fluid Flow
o Viscous- inviscid
o Internal flow- External flow
o Open- closed channel
o Compressible- Incompressible
o Laminar- Turbulent
o Natural- Forced
o Steady- Unsteady
o One-,two-,three-dimensional

Types of Fluid Flow

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o Uniform flow - occurs when the convective acceleration is zero. The velocity vector is
identical at every point in the flow field.
o Non-uniform flow – is space dependent. A frictionless fluid would flow nonuniformly in a
pipe elbow.
o Laminar flow – fluid particles move very smoothly parallel to each other.
o Turbulent flow – characterized by random

Reynolds Number
- Reynolds number depends upon different factors such as pipe roughness, vibrations,
upstream fluctuations and disturbances (valves, elbows, etc.)
- It can be calculated as
Re= Inertial forces/ Viscous Forces
- The criteria upon which this dimensionless number is analyzed, whether as laminar,
transition or turbulent, depends on the geometry where the fluid flows.
o For flow inside pipes or tubes, the critical Reynolds number
ReD < 2100 Þ laminar
Dvρ
ℜ D= 2300 ≤ ReD ≤ 4000 Þ transitional
μ
ReD > 4000 Þ turbulent

Where D = characteristic length of the geometry v = mean flow velocity

μ = viscosity ρ = density
** Characteristic Length is based on the HYDRAULIC DIAMETER, Dh

4 (cross−section area) 4 A c
D h= =
wetted perimeter P

o For flow over flat plates

ReL < 5x 105 Þ laminar
Re > 5x 105 Þ turbulent
Nusselt Number
- For flow inside or outside tubes : Nu D = hD/k
- For flow over flat plates : NuL= hL/k
Prandtl Number
- Prandtl number is based on the boundary layer theory wherein for
o Pr<<1 heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals
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o Pr>>1 heat diffuses very slowly in oils relative to momentum

molecular diffusiviy of momentum v Cp μ

Pr= = =
molecular diffusivity of heat α k

* Thermal Boundary Layer

- Thermal boundary layer refers to the flow region over the surface in which the
temperature varies in the direction normal to the surface.
- Also, velocity profile influences the temperature profile.

When a fluid at one temperature flows along a surface which is at another temperature, a
thermal boundary layer develops. The thermal boundary layer thickness is defined as the
distance required for the temperature T to reach 99% of its free-stream value T∞. And assuming,
1. steady, incompressible flow
2. Constant fluid properties evaluated at film temperature: T f = ( Ts +T∞ ) / 2
3. Negligible body forces, viscous heating, and conduction in the flow direction

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Blasius’ numerical solution with the corresponding values of u and v and that the boundary layer
edge, u/Vx = 0.99, corresponds to η ≈ 5.0;
δ 5.0 5.0
≈ ≈
x √ v ∞ √ ℜx
vx

Where δ =thickness of the thermal boundary layer

* The transition from laminar to turbulent flow commonly occurs at 300, 000< Re < 600,000

Heat Transfer Coefficient Correlations

* The following correlations were taken from different reference books. Take note that each
correlation can only be used if all limitations on its use are met.

Heat transfer correlations for Laminar flow

 Heat transfer parallel over flat plates , (local heat transfer coefficient)
Nu = hLL = 0.332 Re1/2 Pr 1/3
k ( 1 – ( xo /x) ¾) 1/3
Where xo = distance where heating starts
 When plate is heated over its entire length of flat plates, xo = 0 (local heat transfer
coefficient)
Nu = 0.332 Re1/2 Pr 1/3
 When average value of Nu over entire length of flat plates, (average heat transfer
coefficient)
Nu = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr 1/3
(for constant heat flux, the coefficient 0.332 becomes 0.453, effecting an increase of the
coefficient over an entire length)

 For laminar flow on an isothermal flat plate with a wide range of Prandtl numbers, (local
heat transfer coefficient)

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Note: average heat transfer coefficient is twice the local heat transfer coefficient

Heat transfer correlations for Turbulent flow

 For flow over flat plate, average heat transfer coefficient. Transition of flow from laminar to
turbulent is not considered
hL
Nu  0.037 Re0L.8 Pr1/ 3 0.6 Pr 60
k
5 105 Re L 10 7

(For flow in tubes, refer to Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook)

PROBLEMS
1. A crank case of an automobile is approximately 0.6 m long, 0.2 m wide and 0.1 m deep.
Assuming that the surface temperature of the crank case is 350K, estimate the rate of
heat flow from the crank case to atmospheric air at 276K at a road speed of 30m/s.
Assume that the vibration of the engine and the chassis induce the transition from laminar
to turbulent over the entire surface. Neglect radiation and assume front and rear surface
have the same average convection coefficient as for the bottom and sides.
2. Air at a pressure of 101.3 kPa and a temperature of 288.8K is flowing over a thin, smooth
flat plate at 3.05 m/s. The plate length in the direction of flow is 0.305m and is at 333.2K.
Calculate the heat-transfer coefficient assuming laminar flow.
3. Cold air at -28.9°C and 1 atm is recirculated at a velocity of 0.61m/s over the exposed top
flat surface of a piece of frozen meat. The sides and bottom of this rectangular slab of
meat are insulated and the top surface is 254mm by 254mm square. If the surface of the
meat is at -6.7°C, predict the average heat transfer coefficient to the surface.
4. Castor oil at 38OC flows over a wide, 6 m long, heated plate at 0.06 m/s. For a surface
temperature of 93OC, determine a) the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness at the end
of the plate b) the local heat transfer coefficient h, at the end of the plate c) the total heat
rate from the surface per unit width. Assume the thermal diffusivity to be 7.22 x 10 -8 m2/s
and the thermal conductivity to be 0.213 w/m.K at the film temperature.
5. Atmospheric air at 25OC flows over both the surface of a flat plate with a velocity of 5 m/s.
the flat plate is maintained at a uniform temperature of 75 OC. Determine (a) the velocity
boundary layer thickness and the heat flux at the trailing edge (b)the total heat transfer
from the plate to air
6. Determine the heat transfer coefficient for the water in a tube of 16mm in diameter at a
velocity of 3m/s. The temperature of the tube is 24°C, and the water enters and leaves at
80°C and 36°C respectively.

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7. For heating water from 20°C to 60°C, an electrically heated tube in a constant heat flux of
10kW/m2 is proposed. The mass flow rate is to be such that Re D= 2000, the tube inside
diameter is 25mm. The flow is fully developed. Determine the length of the tube.
8. Water at 30°C with a mass flow rate of 2kg/s enters a 2.3 mm ID tube where wall is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 90°C, calculate the length of the tube required to
heat water to 70°C.
9. In a heat exchanger, water flows through a long copper tube (ID=2.2cm) with an average
velocity of 2.13 m/s. The water is heated by steam condensing at 150°C on the outside of
the tube. Water enters at 15°C and leaves at 60°C. What is the heat transfer coefficient for
the water?
10.Air at 1.0 atmospheric pressure and 77OC enters a 5.0 mm ID tube with a bulk average
velocity of 2.5 m/s. The velocity profile is developed and the thermal profile is
“developing”. The tube length is 1.0 m, and a constant heat flux is imposed by the tube
surface on the air over the entire length. An exit air bulk average temperature, Tb =
127OC, is required. Determine (a) The exit h value, h L (b) The uniform heat flux (c)The exit
tube surface temperature
11.Nitrogen gas at atmospheric pressure and a bulk inlet temperature of 27°C in a 2.5 cm ID
tube having a constant surface temperature of 100°C. The bulk average velocity is 1.2 m/s
and the tube is 1.5 m long. Determine the net heat transfer rate to the Nitrogen.