V.

Behavioral Science Theory

This theory emphasized the use of scientific procedures to study the psychological,

sociological, and anthropological aspects of human behavior in organizations. These

behavioral theories were concerned with what leaders did and act than who the leader is.

The action of the leaders and not their mental qualities or traits makes them leaders.

Several theorists studied the behavior of leaders as it affects management and how

humans relate to each other in organizations.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

Abraham Harold Maslow was born in Brooklyn, New York five years after Skinner on 1

April. Maslow studied at the University of Wisconsin during the 1930s. It was here he

was introduced to the idea of self-actualization and created his pyramid theory around it.

According to Maslow (1954) a Psychological interpretation of science begins with the

acute realization that science is a human creation, rather than an autonomous, non-

human or per se thing with intrinsic rules of its own.

 Maslow’s ‘hierarchy of needs’ is the fundamental premise that the behavioral

approach to management is built on. The hierarchy of needs is divided into five,

interdependent categories of satisfaction. The base of the pyramid is called

physiological needs. In this category the basic needs for survival are given primacy.

These needs include the need for air, water, food and reproduction of the species. The

second category is safety and security needs; safe circumstances, stable life and

protection. The third set of needs is for love and belonging. This may include the need

for friends, affectionate relationships and a sense of community. Above all these needs

is the final level. This set of needs relates to the need to be esteemed; to have both

self- esteem and the esteem of others. The fifth category of satisfaction, which occupies

the peak of the pyramid, Maslow termed ‘self-actualization.’ This category is not so

much about a need to be fulfilled but rather being in the state of having all needs fulfilled

and being able to concentrate on being ‘complete.’ This is a difficult concept that
Maslow expanded on through what he termed ‘biographical analyses, or defining the

characteristics of a ‘self-actualized’ person.

The characteristics of a self-actualized person included: being reality-centered,

being problem-centered, having a different perception of means and ends, enjoying

solitude, deep personal relationships and autonomy, resisting social pressure, having a

unhostile sense of humor, being spontaneous and creative and generally accepting and

respectful. All these positive attributes were sometimes offset with anxiety and feelings

of guilt.The varying hierarchy of needs is readily transferable to the study of

management as it is beholden to the idea of behavior being motivated by various

stimuli.

Application of Behavioral Science to the practice of management

Behavioral science, since its inception in the mid-20th century, has remained

consistent in its application and relevance to management. Management styles based

on both Maslow’s needs hierarchy and McGregor’s Theory X or Y can be seen being

played out in work places, large and small, around the globe.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs influences the satisfaction of people in their working

lives as much as outside work. To be content with the lower order needs ensures

attention on the higher order needs. For example, an employee being paid an

insufficient amount to allow them to appropriately house and clothe their family will

mean that employee concentrating on safety and security needs to the detriment of their
work outcomes. Conversely, an employee that is respected by their colleagues may

have their esteem needs met and can subsequently concentrate on higher needs.

Frederick Herzberg (1923)

Frederick Herzberg was a well-respected American who has contributed greatly

to the way in which managers think about motivation at work. He first published his

theory in 1959 in a book entitled ‘The Motivation to Work’ and put forward a two factor

content theory which is often referred to as a two need system. It is a content theory

which explains the factors of an individual’s motivation by identifying their needs and

desires, what satisfies their needs and desires and by establishing the aims that they

pursue to satisfy these desires.

Herzberg’s original research was undertaken in the offices of engineers and

accountants rather than on the factory floor and involved interviewing over two hundred

employees. His aim was to determine work situations where the subjects were highly

motivated and satisfied rather than where the opposite was true and his research was

later paired with many studies involving a broader sampling of professional people.

In his findings Herzberg split his factors of motivation into two categories called

Hygiene factors and Motivation factors. The Hygiene factors can de-motivate or cause

dissatisfaction if they are not present, but do not very often create satisfaction when

they are present; however, Motivation factors do motivate or create satisfaction and are

rarely the cause of dissatisfaction. The two types of factors may be listed as follows in

order of importance:
Hygiene Factors (leading to dissatisfaction):

• Supervision

• Relationship with Boss

• Physical Working Conditions

• Salary

• Relationship with Peers

Motivators (leading to satisfaction):

• Achievement

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Advancement

The dissatisfiers are hygiene factors in the sense that they are maintenance

factors required to avoid dissatisfaction and stop workers from being unhappy, but do

not create satisfaction in themselves. They can be avoided by using ‘hygienic’ methods

to prevent them.

It is clear from the lists that the factors in each are not actually opposing the

satisfiers and are not the opposite of the dissatisfiers. The opposite of satisfaction isn’t

dissatisfaction but is ‘no satisfaction’. Both lists contain factors that lead to motivation,

but to a differing extent because they fulfill different needs. The Hygiene factors have

an end which once fulfilled then cease to be motivating factors while the Motivation

factors are much more open-ended and this is why they continue to motivate.
 To summarize, these two distinct categories of 'needs' (as identified by

Maslow) represent, on one side, the need to steer clear of and prevent unpleasantness

and discomfort. At the other end of the motivational scale, they represent the need for

personal improvement and development. Lacking the motivation factors such a

positively encouraging employees, rewarding them, or increasing their responsibilities

-employees will shift their focus to non-job related 'hygiene' factors.

Sources:

http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/hierarchyneeds.htm

http://accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_05_herzberg.html

http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_herzberg_two_factor_theory.html