SFPE 11th Conference on Performance-Based Codes

and Fire Safety Design Methods

Hilton Warsaw, Poland

Shopping Centre Design Case Study

– Representing Australia

Dr Weng Poh and Andy Fung

Umow Lai
10 Yarra Street, South Yarra,
Victoria, Australia, 3141
Tel: +61 3 9249 0288, email: weng.poh@umowlai.com.au

ABSTRACT:

This paper presents a performance-based design for a hypothetical case study of a 4-storey
shopping centre that contains malls, specialty shops, major stores, food-court, cinemas,
atrium and interconnecting floor voids.

The design strategy was developed utilising:

• The framework set out in the International Fire Engineering Guideline 2005.
• The research findings and recommendations of the Fire Code Reform Centre Project 6
for shopping centres.

The design strategy to achieve the fire safety objectives for the case study includes the
following key elements and measures:
• A sound fire safety management of the building to control fire start and occupant
evacuation.
• An effective sprinkler system to control the fire growth in the building.
• A reliable natural smoke venting system at the roof to allow smoke to vent from
shopping centre through the interconnecting floor voids. Mall is therefore designed as
a safe place.
• Use of normally used circulation paths, external open stairs and escalators for egress
purposes.
• Staged evacuation of the mall to minimise business disruption.
• Shutters to the entries of the majors and cinema complex designed to prevent smoke
spread.

In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed design against each of the fire safety
objectives, fire and evacuation modelling of the shopping centre were conducted. The
modelling and analysis results are presented.

In this paper, it is demonstrated that each of the design brief objectives including, occupant
safety, fire brigade safety, minimising fire and smoke spread; and minimising business
disruption is achieved.

1
1 INTRODUCTION

This paper presents a performance-based fire safety design of a hypothetical case study. The
design brief for one of three case studies formulated by the SFPE International Conference
organiser and is provided to representatives of various countries participating in the
conference so that they may each formulate a performance-based design.

This paper presents a design that represents the participation from Australia.

1.1 The Case Study Design Brief

The case study is for a 4-storey shopping centre which contains malls, specialty shops, major
stores, food-court, cinemas, atrium and interconnecting floor voids.

The performance-based fire safety analysis and design is to meet the following fire and life
safety goals:
1) Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire until they reach a safe place.
2) Safeguard fire fighters whilst performing rescue operations or attacking the fire.
3) Minimise smoke and fire spread inside the building.
4) Limit the impact on business continuity.

The initial shopping centre case study building section and floor plans as identified in the
project brief are shown in the following figures.

Atrium
Floor void L3
L2
L1
L0

Figure 1 Case Study – Building Section

2
LEGEND

major store ( ≥ 2000 m )

2

L3

cinemas
2
specialty shop (< 2000 m )
food
court
mall space

floor void

kids office
play

L2

L1

entry/exit

entry/exit
L0

entry/exit

Figure 2 Case Study – Building Layout

3
2 PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN IN AUSTRALIA

2.1 Background
Performance-based fire safety design for buildings was formally introduced exactly 20 years
ago in the Building Code of Australia 1996 (BCA 96).

BCA 96 was launched subsequent to a major research program by the Fire Code Reform
Centre (FCRC) which was established in 1994 as a joint initiative between the Australian
Government, industry and research organisations. Its mission was to develop a cost-effective,
engineered approach to fire safety design and reform the building code based on similar
principles. It contained 6 projects as follows:
• Project 1: Restructure the BCA Fire Provisions
• Project 2: Fire Performance Requirements for Lining Materials
• Project 3: Fire Resistance and Non-Combustibility Requirements
• Project 4: Alternative Fire Safety System Design Solutions for the BCA
• Project 5A: Fire Engineering Guidelines
• Project 5B: Fire Safety Design Code
• Project 6: Fire Safety in Low-Rise Shopping Centres
These 6 projects played a significant part in forming the BCA as it currently stands today.
Much of the performance-based design approach currently used in Australia is the outcome
of the FCRC Projects.

2.2 This Case Study

For the case study in this paper, the current BCA together with the methodology and findings
of the FCRC are utilised, in particular Projects 5A and 6, to demonstrate the performance
based design approach in Australia. 3 major sets of documents are referenced.

Document Relevance
BCA 2016 This is the latest building code in Australia which continues the performance
design approach introduced in BCA 96.
In this case study, the Objectives and Performance Requirements of the BCA,
together with the Design Brief objectives, will form part the basis of the
building design. The prescriptive design for the case study is also discussed.

FCRC 5A (IFEG) The International Fire Engineering Guideline (IFEG) 2005 is the main
guidance document for fire engineering design in Australia. It is a revision of
the original Fire Engineering Guideline developed in the FCRC Project 5A. In
this case study, the fire safety sub-systems outlined in IFEG are used as the
framework to develop the design strategy.

FCRC 6 FCRC Project 6 (FCRC Project 6) relates to fire safety design of shopping
centres specifically and is directly related to the case being studied.
In this case study, the research findings and recommendations of FCRC
Project 6 are used in the design of the shopping centre.

4
3 FIRE SAFETY OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN APPROACH

3.1 Fire Safety Objectives

In Australia, buildings must be designed and constructed in accordance with BCA which
contains a uniform set of technical provisions for the design and construction of buildings.
For the purpose of this case study, BCA 2016 [1] is referenced.

The objectives for design for fire safety set out in the BCA may be summarised in the figure
below.

Figure 3 BCA Fire Safety Objectives

A comparison of the Design Brief and BCA objectives are given below.

Design Brief Objective BCA Objective Comparison

1. Safeguard occupants
2. Safeguard fire fighters
safety
3. Minimise smoke and
fire spread inside
building
4. Limit impact on
business continuity
1. Safeguard occupants
2. Facilitate fire fighting
3. Avoid fire spread
between buildings
4. Avoid damage to
adjacent buildings
Objective is the same
BCA objective is less demanding and
would result in a less onerous design
outcome
Protection against content or building
damage (other than adjacent buildings)
and business continuity are not a BCA
objective. The BCA objectives are less
demanding and would result in a less
onerous design outcome

An overall comparison shows that the Design Brief Objectives are more demanding than the
BCA Objectives and would result in a more onerous design outcome.

In this paper, Design Brief Objectives are used as the basis for evaluation of the performance
of the case study. Given that there is no adjacent building located in the vicinity of the
shopping centre, BCA Objective 3 and 4 need not be considered. Hence, it can be regarded
that BCA Objectives are achieved when the Design Brief Objectives are satisfied.

5
3.2 Solution Approaches
The BCA sets out Performance Requirements that building solutions must comply with. The
compliance of Performance Requirements may be achieved by means of a Performance
Solution or a Deemed-to-Satisfy (DtS) Solution as shown in the figure below.

Figure 4 BCA Compliance

In this paper, for the sake of simplicity, the Performance Requirements of the BCA will not
be further discussed; rather, they are considered to be fully encompassed by the design
objectives. The proposed solution is considered acceptable if it is demonstrated to satisfy the
fire safety objectives discussed in the previous section.

Thus, the evaluation of the proposed design will be presented later in this paper against the
design objectives, as opposed to against the Performance Requirements, as those typically
carried out in the performance-based designs of buildings in Australia.

3.2.1 Performance Solution

Performance solution for the case study is the subject of this paper. It will be further
discuss later in this paper.

3.2.2 BCA DtS Solution

It is noted that the shopping centre for this case study cannot be readily designed to
fully comply with the BCA DtS requirements. This is particularly so for the floor
voids which would be subjected to the BCA requirements for atrium construction.
This would require the floor voids to be omitted or significantly modified.

Nevertheless, some of the general BCA DtS requirements for the building are outlined
below. Specific aspects in relation to BCA Prescribed Solutions in relation to this case
study are also discussed.

This building is considered to be a mixed-class building containing retail (Class 6)

and cinemas (Class 9b), having a rise of storeys of 4, containing atria and is a large
isolated building. It is required to be of Type A construction, which is the most fire
resistive of the three types (A, B and C) nominated in the BCA.

The key requirements and BCA parameters pertaining to this case study are
summarised in the following table.

6
 Fire Safety Systems
Fire Resistance
Compartmentation
Egress
Fire Fighting
Smoke management
Atrium
Total floor area > 8,000 m2
Large isolated building
FRL of 180/180/180 for
retail use (class 6)
Governing Building
Parameters
Building Class = 6 (retail)
and 9b (cinemas)
Rise in storeys = 4
Total floor area = 76,276 m2
Large isolated building
Building classes requiring
different FRLs
Population (3m2/person
ground level, 5m2/person
upper levels)
• L0 = 27,014 m2= 9,005
persons
• L1 = 21,072 m2= 4,214
persons
• L2 = 16,040 m2= 3,208
persons
• L3 = 11,025 m2= 2,205
persons
• Cinema Theatres (1,125m2)
= 960 persons
• Total = 19,592 persons
Containing enclosed mall
Atrium connecting 4 levels
Stairways connecting 4
levels
Enclosed mall
Length of mall > 60 m
Major store >1000 m2
Floor levels connected by
atrium = 4
Floor levels connected by
atrium = 4
Smoke exhaust
required for atrium
Smoke exhaust required
mall and major store
Figure 5 General BCA DtS Requirements
7
BCA DtS Requirements
Type of construction = A
Min FRL = 180/180/180 (class 6)
Min FRL = 120/120/120 (class 9b)
Perimeter vehicular access
Fire separation of classes
Min fire isolated exits per floor = 2
Min total exit width
• L0 = 61 m
• L1 = 29 m
• L2 = 22.5 m
• L3 (including cinema) = 22 m
Max travel distance:
• to point of choice = 20 m
• to an exit = 40 m
• between exits = 60 m
• to exit via open stairway = 80 m
Exit signs and emergency lighting
Sprinklers
Hydrants
Hosereels
Portable fire extinguishers
Sound System and Intercom System for
emergency purposes (SSIS)
Smoke detection system
Mall smoke exhaust, baffle at 60 m intervals
Major store smoke exhaust
Atrium smoke exhaust
Stairway pressurisation
Backup power supply
Atrium well = min 6 m diameter
Bounding construction
Protection of atrium roof
FRL of 120/120/120 for
Cinemas (class 9b)
L3
L2
L1
L0
Various atrium provisions apply
due to interconnection of 4 levels
4 AUSTRALIAN RESEARCH ON FIRE SAFETY OF SHOPPING CENTRES

4.1 Fire Code Reform Centre Project 6

In 1994-1996, a two-year intensive research (FCRC Project 6) was conducted to study all
significant aspects relating to fire safety in shopping centres. The purpose of the project was
to review the requirements in the BCA which apply to low-rise sprinklered shopping centres
and to propose a more rational set of fire-safety requirements to improve the cost
effectiveness of these buildings (both in terms of construction costs and maintenance in
operation) whilst maintaining the current high levels of fire safety.

FCRC Project 6 involved various parts, including:

• review of BCA fire safety requirements for
shopping centres [4]
• survey of shopping centres [5]
• case studies of retail fire incidents [7]
• review of retail fire statistics [8]
• identification of key issues [6]
• fire testing [9]
• study of behaviour of building occupants
• study of reliability of smoke control systems [10]

Some key findings of the projects are outlined below.

4.2 Shopping Centre Survey

In ref [5], a comprehensive study of a major shopping centre in Australia was carried out over
a continuous two month period. Information was also collected through visits to eleven
shopping centres. The centre subjected to the comprehensive study had a gross retail area of
58,000 m2 having a department store with a rise in storeys of 4 at one end of a two storey
mall and was considered to be representative of a large modern shopping centre. The other
centres had rise in storeys of up to 5, and with one exception, had floor areas which were
similar or greater than that associated with the centre used for the detailed study.

For each centre visited, interviews were conducted with operational staff to understand their
approach to a variety of matters and to obtain a general overview of practices and
construction.

4.3 Case Studies

In ref [7], 97 accounts of fires in retail and shopping centre buildings, as reported in the
literature, were analysed. It revealed a number of apparent trends and the following tentative
observations can be made:
• The majority of fires appear to have been started by electrical faults or arson.
• In the majority of situations fires only developed to a significant size if the fire was
initiated in unpopulated areas (eg. storage areas or ceiling spaces) or when the
building was unoccupied.
• A major mechanism of fire spread to other parts of the building appears to have been
through the ceiling space.
• Partial sprinklering is a dangerous practice which can lead to the centre being
effectively destroyed.

8
4.4 Fire Statistics
In ref [8], the statistical data on USA retail fires attended by the fire brigade were analysed.
These data, contained in the NFIRS database, includes 10 years (1983 to 1993 excluding
1986) of data and represents 77,996 retail fires. A further study was carried out on data
available from Australia. A comparison of the data indicates that similar trends are
demonstrated between the USA and Australian data.

The statistical data shows that fire in retail premises does not present a significant risk to life.
There were 86 deaths in 77,996 retail fires over 10 years in the USA.

4.5 Fire Tests

In ref [9], eleven full-scale fire tests were conducted to investigate the effects of fires in
specialty shops and major stores in a shopping centre.

Figure 6 Full-Scale Fire Tests to Simulate Shopping Centre Fire

As a result of these tests, 3 types of fire were identified according to their size:
C1—fires which are kept small without the presence of sprinklers.
C2—fires controlled by the presence of sprinklers.
C3—fires which are significantly more severe than C1 and C2.

The heat release rate obtained from an unsprinklered fire test (Test 4) for a specialty shop is
shown in the figure below.
60

50
Heat Release Rate (MW)

40
Specialty shop fire

30
Test 4

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min)
Figure 7 Heat release rate obtained from an unsprinklered fire test

9
For the purpose of this case study, fire sizes are assumed as follows:
• C2 fire in retail enclosure (specialty shop or major store) = fast t2 fire plateaus at 2.0
MW
• C2 fire in mall area (atrium void) = fast t2 fire plateaus at 5 MW
• C3 fire is considered to be the unsprinklered fire in a specialty as shown in the figure
above (maximum heat release rate of 46.5 MW)

4.6 Behavioural Study

A review of emergency incidents in shopping centres and a series of interviews with
shopping centre staff and management were undertaken. On the basis of this work the
following observations are made:
• alarm is unlikely, by itself, to initiate evacuation
• the presence of dense smoke in part of the building is a much more effective cue and
will be sufficient for people to move away from that area
• the decision to evacuate or move away from the fire-affected area will be positively
reinforced by the presence of wardens and staff
• the presence of a crowd of people moving in a particular direction (towards an exit)
will also have a reinforcing effect on those who have not started to move
• if the fire is sufficiently large, other levels of the mall begin to experience dense
smoke, then evacuation of these smoke-affected parts will be initiated
• the natural tendency of staff is to guide people towards the major entrances (exits) that
are commonly used by occupants. There is a fear of using unfamiliar exits and these
will only be used if there is no alternative

4.7 Final report

A final report [11] was published as an FCRC document, summarises the research and
systematically evaluates fire-safety aspects of shopping centre buildings making
recommendations for the design of such buildings.

Since that time, further evaluation and testing have been conducted and the design principles
and procedures given in the above publications have been extended and published in [12].

The findings and recommendations from FCRC 6 and [12] are utilised in this paper to
formulate the performance-based solution for the case study. This is discussed in the next
section of this paper.

10
5 PROPOSED PERFORMANCE SOLUTION

5.1 Design Strategy

The IFEG defines fire safety of buildings to comprise six sub-systems (SS) as follows:
• SS-A - Fire Initiation and Development and Control
• SS-B - Smoke Development and Spread and Control
• SS-C - Fire Spread and Impact and Control
• SS-D - Fire Detection, Warning and Suppression
• SS-E - Occupant Evacuation and Control
• SS-F - Fire Services Intervention

For this case study, the IFEG sub-systems are used as the framework for developing the
design strategy to fulfil the Design Brief and BCA fire safety objectives for the building. This
is summarised in the following table.

Sub- Design Strategy Applicable Objective

system Design Brief BCA
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
SS-A • To minimise the number of fire starts. • • • • • • • •
• To extinguish any fire before it becomes threatening. • • • • • • • •

SS-B • To maintain egress paths tenable for occupants to • •

move to place of safety
• To limit smoke spread to minimise business • •
disruption

SS-C • To maintain structural stability for occupants • • •

evacuation and brigade fire fighting
• To limit spread to minimise business disruption • •
(Design Brief objective) •
• To prevent fire spread between buildings

SS-D • To provide early fire detection and occupant • • •

warning.
• To enable early fire suppression or control. • • • •

SS-E • To provide means for safe egress of occupants put at • •

risk by a fire

SS-F • To provide early brigade notification •

• To provide sufficient means of fire fighting for fire
brigade
• To safeguard fire fighters • •

11
5.2 Design Principles
Design principles were developed utilising the research findings of FCRC 6 and are
summarised in the table below.

Sub- Design Principles

system

SS-A • Specific management plans and procedures are to be put in place by the shopping
centre management to control the use and activities within the building.
• Sufficient fire extinguishers are to be provided for occupants to fight small fires within
the retail areas.

SS-B • In the event of a sprinkler controlled fire (C2) anywhere in the centre:
o all main egress paths in the centre are to remain tenable indefinitely.
o smoke spread is limited.
• In the event of sprinkler controlled fire (C2) in a major store or the cinema complex:
o the smoke produced is to be limited from spreading into the adjoining mall.
• In the event of an unsprinkler controlled fire (C3) in the centre:
o all main egress paths are to remain tenable for the expected duration of evacuation
using the paths.

SS-C • Spread of fire from the area or enclosure of fire origin is to be prevented.
• Collapse of multi-level building structure is to be prevented.

SS-D • Sufficient means of detection and warning the occupants are to be provided
throughout the building.
• The sprinkler system is to be reliable and commensurate with the hazard.

SS-E • The design population density is at least 10m2/person.

• The mall area is to be a safe place for occupants to move away from the fire and to
provide the primary means of escape.
• All major access paths in the mall are to be utilised as egress paths.
• All enclosures and areas within the centre are to be designed to avoid entrapment and
have sufficient egress paths to move to a safe place, open space, or roadway, prior to
the achievement of untenable conditions.
• An evacuation plan is to be developed and implemented by the building management.
• Evacuation of the centre is to be controlled by building management through a warden
system.

SS-F • Sufficient means of notification of a fire is to be provided.

• Sufficient fire brigade access to the building and the relevant part of the building is to
be provided.
• Sufficient communication within the building is to be provided.
• Sufficient hydrants are to be provided and suitably located to facilitate brigade fire
fighting.

12
5.3 Design details
Design details and the corresponding rationale are given in Appendix A and some key details
are shown below.

Egress

LEGEND

Stairway

L3

cinemas
Doorway food
court
Escalator

kids office
play Entry to cinema
complex and all
major stores to have
shutter automatically
descend to 2 m to
Mall space on each prevent smoke
level is designed as spread and allow

L2
a safe place for occupants to move
evacuation into mall area

Use of open
external
stairways as
primary egress
routes

L1
Use of internal
escalators or open
stairways for
movement
between floors

All stores and

shops at
perimeter of
building on L0
are to have
direct exits to
L0
the outside

Figure 8 Proposed Egress Provisions

13
Evacuation zoning
East atrium zone Cinema zone
Central atrium zone

West atrium zone

L3
L2
L1
L0

Figure 9 Mall Space Evacuation Zones

Natural Smoke Venting of Atrium Space

Figure 10 Natural Smoke Venting at Roof Level

14
5.4 Comparison of DtS Solution and Proposed Performance Solution
Fire Safety Systems BCA DtS Solution
Fire Resistance Type of construction = A
Min FRL = 180/180/180 (class 6)
Min FRL = 120/120/120 (class 9b)
Compartmentation Perimeter vehicular access
Fire separation of classes
Egress Min fire isolated exit per floor = 2
Min total exit width:
• L0 = 61 m
• L1 = 29 m
• L2 = 22.5 m
• L3 (including cinema) = 22 m
Max travel distance:
• to point of choice = 20 m
• to an exit = 40 m
• between exits = 60 m
• to exit via open stairway = 80 m
Exit signs and emergency lighting
Fire Fighting and Sprinklers
Suppression Hydrants
Hosereels
Portable fire extinguishers
SSIS
Smoke Management • Smoke detection system
• Major store smoke exhaust
• Mall smoke exhaust
• Mall baffle at 60 m intervals
• Atrium smoke exhaust
• Stairway pressurisation
• Backup power supply
Atrium Atrium well = min 6 m diameter
Bounding construction
Protection of atrium roof
15
Proposed Performance Solution
Type of construction = A
Max FRL = 60/60/60 (throughout)
Perimeter vehicular access
(No fire compartmentation)
Exits distributed evenly throughout
Total exit width:
• L0 = 44 m
• L1 = 14 m
• L2 = 13 m
• L3 = 9 m
Max travel distance:
• to point of choice = 65 m
• to an exit = 120 m
• between exits = 130 m
• to an exit via open escalators =
260 m
Exit signs and emergency lighting
Sprinklers
Hydrants
(no hosereels)
Portable fire extinguishers
SSIS
• Smoke detection system
• Major store smoke exhaust
• Mall natural smoke venting
• Mall (no baffles)
• Atrium natural smoke venting
• (no stairway pressurization)
• (no backup power supply)
• Smoke baffles or smoke curtain/
shutter to descend to 2m above
the floor at the entrance to the
major stores and cinema complex
(no min atrium dimension)
(no bounding construction0
(no protection of atrium roof)
6 EVALUATION AGAINST OBJECTIVE 1 – OCCUPANT SAFETY

6.1 General
In order to evaluate the building with respect to occupant safety, the Proposed Design, as
outlined in the previous section, is modelled using computer programs to simulate the
occupant movement and conditions of the building, particularly the mall spaces, during
various fire scenarios in the building.

The results of the computer analyses are used to determine two time periods for various fire
scenarios, namely:
• Available Safe Egress Time (ASET)
• Required Safety Egress Time (RSET)

Safety of the occupants is achieved if ASET is greater than RSET, i.e.

ASET > RSET

The above means that the occupants are able to move to a place of safety before the building
becomes untenable.

For the Proposed Design, the occupants in the centre are not expected to be exposed to the
fire environment for a significant period of time; and the main egress paths in the building
can be considered tenable under the following conditions [17], [18]:

Figure 11 Tenability Criteria

It is noted that, at air temperatures below 100°C, the radiation will be less than 2.5 kW/m2.

Margin of safety of the design is the difference between the ASET and RSET, i.e.:

Margin of safety = ASET - RSET

16
6.2 ASET Analyses
The conditions within the building are examined using the computer program FDS [13],
which is a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model of fire-driven fluid flow and is
specifically developed for high-level fire engineering analyses. The software solves
numerically a form of the Navier-Stokes equations appropriate for low-speed, thermally-
driven flow with an emphasis on smoke and heat transport from fires.

6.2.1 FDS models

For the purpose of the evaluation, a 3-D computer model was constructed and is shown in the
figure below. A grid size of 1m x 1m x 1m was used.

Figure 12 FDS Model

The model includes four floor levels, the floor voids connecting the floor levels, the proposed
smoke vents and make-up air openings for the mall area.

In order to monitor the conditions within the building during the fire, measurement devices
are placed along the main egress paths at a height of 2 m above the floor on each level within
the models. These include devices to measure air temperatures, CO level, radiant heat and
visibility.

6.2.2 Scenarios examined

A total of 6 base-case fire scenarios and 4 sensitivity scenarios were examined for the
proposed design.

Table 1 Fire Scenarios Examined (base cases)

Fire Scenario Floor Level Fire location Fire Max HRR (MW)
FS01 Level 0 1 (mall) C2 5.0
FS02 Level 0 2 (mall) C2 5.0
FS03 Level 0 3 (major store) C2 2.0
FS04 Level 0 4 (specialty shop) C2 2.0
FS05 Level 0 5 (specialty shop) C2 2.0
FS06 Level 3 6 (Cinema) C2 5.0

17
 Table 2 Fire Scenarios Examined (sensitivity cases)
Fire Scenario Floor Level Fire location Fire Max HRR (MW)
FS04-a Level 0 4 (specialty shop) C2 5.0
FS04-b Level 0 4 (specialty shop) C3 46.5
FS05-a Level 0 5 (specialty shop) C2 5.0
FS05-b Level 0 5 (specialty shop) C3 46.5

2 1
5
L0
3

cinemas

food
court
L3
6

kids office
play

Figure 13 Assumed Fire Locations

The following conservative assumptions are made in the analyses:

• Fire is only considered to occur in one location at any time.
• Fire burns for a period of 1800 s without intervention.
• Fast response sprinkler heads (activation temperature of 68°C and maximum RTI of
50 m½s½) are installed as per AS 2118.1.
• Smoke detection is provided as per BCA mall space requirements (15 m apart and 7.5
m from walls, bulkheads or curtains).
• Smoke detection is provided within major stores and cinemas as per AS 1668.1
spacing requirements (20 m apart and 10 m from walls).
• All natural vents in the mall space operate on General Fire Alarm.
• Mechanical smoke exhaust of 32 m3/s provided in each major store and activates 30 s
after the detection of smoke in the store.
• Cinema natural vents activates after the detection of smoke in the cinema complex.
• Smoke curtains at the mall entrance to the cinema complex and to the majors drops to
2m above the floor upon detection of fire.

18
Each scenario was analysed for a duration of 1800 s, by which time all occupants would have
moved out of the building (see following section).

6.2.3 Analysis results

The primary results of the analyses are summarised in Appendix C. The three numbers in
each cell in the table correspond to the maximum air temperatures, maximum CO levels and
the minimum visibility, recorded over the analysis period for the relevant floor level and fire
scenario (see example below).
max CO level
max air
recorded (ppm)
temperature
recorded (°C)
36,8,18 min visibility
recorded (m)

Table 3 Summary of fire modelling results (base cases)

Fire max temperature, max CO, min visibility (°C, ppm, m)
Scenario L0 L1 L2 L3
FS01 20,0,30 23,2,30 24,3,30 24,3,30
FS02 25,4,27 26,4,29 20,0,30 20,0,30
FS03 29,10,11 20,0,30 20,0,30 20,1,30
FS04 21,1,30 23,2,30 23,3,30 26,4,26
FS05 27,5,22 25,5,24 28,7,15 20,0,30
FS06 20,0,30 20,0,30 20,0,30 20,0,30

Table 4 Summary of fire modelling results (sensitivity cases)

Fire max temperature, max CO, min visibility (°C, ppm, m)
Scenario L0 L1 L2 L3
FS04-a 21,1,30 27,5,24 25,6,18 31,8,14
FS04-b 22,3,30 47,25,5 45,26,5 62,38,3
FS05-a 30,8,14 28,8,14 35,13,8 20,0,30
FS05-b 53,25,5 55,39,3 86,68,2 20,0,30

The results show that:

• Air temperatures and CO levels remain well below the tenability limits of 100°C and
2,800 ppm, respectively, for all floor levels. This is applicable to all base and
sensitivity cases.
• Air temperatures also remain well below the limiting temperatures of steel and
concrete. This is applicable to all base and sensitivity cases.
• Radiant heat levels in the egress paths away from the fire (refer to Graphs in
Appendix C) are well below 2.5 kW/m2.
• Visibility remains above 10 m in all the base case scenarios. In a number of sensitivity
cases it drops below 10 m [shown as (bold) in the table above]. Based on further
analysis of the results, the locations where the visibility initially drops below 10m is
generally in the areas near the fire or voids where occupants would have evacuated
from. When the visibility on the floor decreases below 10 m, occupants are expected
to be queuing at exits and hence do not require 10m of visibility.

The results also show that the air temperatures, CO levels and radiant heat levels within the
building spaces generally stabilise and remain largely unchanged before the end of the
analysis period (refer to graphs in Appendix C). It is therefore expected that they would also

19
remain largely unchanged should the analysis continue for a longer period of time, or even
indefinitely. The following graphs provide a sample of the stabilized ASET results for FS05.

100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60

CO (ppm)
60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

Figure 14 Stabilised ASET results for FS05 after 1800 s

Given that the air temperatures, radiant heat levels and CO levels are well below the
tenability limits and their values remain unchanged with time, it can be concluded that the
building spaces would be tenable indefinitely with respect to these three quantities. Hence,
the ASETs for the floor levels may be summarised as shown in the following table.

20
 Table 5 ASET for Proposed Design (in seconds)
Criterion L0 L1 L2 L3
Air temperature ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
CO level ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
Radiant heat level ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

It is noted that the results above are compiled from the relevant worst fire scenarios for each
floor level including the sensitivity fire scenarios.

6.3 RSET Analyses

Evacuation times for the shopping centre are determined by means of computer simulations
using the program Pathfinder [15], which is an agent-based egress and human movement
simulator that uses steering behaviours to model occupant motion.

6.3.1 Pathfinder model

For the purpose of the evaluation, a 3-D computer model was constructed for the building for
the proposed design. The figures below show the model of the building when fully occupied
with the assumed population density as follows (based on FCRC population densities):
• Level 0 Mall space – 10 m2/ person
• Level 0 Shops - 6 m2/ person
• Levels 1 to 3 – 10 m2/ person
• Level 3 Cinema Theatres – 960 persons (as advised in brief)

Figure 15 Pathfinder Model of Proposed Design

6.3.2 Assumptions
The following general and conservative assumptions are made in the analysis:
• The shopping centre is fully occupied with the FCRC Project 6 recommended
population numbers rather than BCA assumed population, as shown in the following
figure.

21
 Level 3 FCRC 6
BCA

Level 2

Level 1

Level 0

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000

Population (persons)
Figure 16 BCA vs FCRC 6 assumed population

• All the occupants within the centre commence evacuation at the same time. This is
the worst case scenario as occupants from each level fill the stairs at the same time.
• The stairways and escalators are used for occupant movement between the floor
levels.
• The occupants within the enclosure at the perimeter of the building on the ground
level (Level 0) move directly to the outside using the doorways that lead to the
outside.
• The occupants on the upper levels also use the stairways at the perimeter to move
down the building.

6.3.3 Analysis results

Each scenario was analysed for the period till all occupants have moved out of the building.

The movement times for the occupants to move out of each floor level (into the stairway) or
out of the building are summarised in the figure below.

Total Building

Level 3

Level 2

Level 1

Level 0

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Time to move outside building (s)

Figure 17 Occupant movement times

The result shows that the occupants could move out of the entire shopping centre in 900 s.

22
The RSET value for each floor may be taken as the corresponding movement time in the
figure above plus pre-movement time. As recommended in FCRC 6, pre-movement time may
be ignored for occupants located in the vicinity of the location of fire.

6.4 ASET vs RSET

Given that the building remains tenable indefinitely with respect to air temperatures and CO
level, the ASET is greater than the RSET for all cases examined. Hence:

ASET > RSET

Nevertheless, in order to determine if way finding is an issue visibility in the centre during
the fire is further examined.

The following table summarises the time when visibility drops below 10m. It should be
noted that these values are conservative estimates and are based on the first instance where
any gas phase device located in the egress paths drops below 10m. At these times 10m of
visibility is still maintained in areas away from the fire or voids.

Table 6 Visibility for Proposed Design (in seconds)

Scenario Time (s) when visibility first drops below 10m
L0 L1 L2 L3
FS01 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
FS02 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
FS03 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
FS04 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
FS05 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
FS06 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

Table 7 Visibility for Proposed Design (in seconds)

Scenario Time (s) when visibility first drops below 10m
L0 L1 L2 L3
FS04-a ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
FS04-b ∞ 425 s 445 s 243 s
FS05-a ∞ ∞ 1,044 s ∞
FS05-b 371 s 374 s 200 s ∞

The results show that in all the base cases examined, the occupants would have sufficient
time evacuate prior to visibility dropping below 10 m.

In the sensitivity scenarios, further analysis of the visibility slice files show that the visibility
levels elsewhere in the building away from the fire and voids are still maintained above 10 m,
occupants are provided with sufficient visibility to evacuate the building. Visibility slice files
indicating the extent of reduced visibility for FS04-b is shown in Figure 18.

23
 t = 600s t = 900 s
L0

L1

L2

L3
Note 1 Note 1

Note 1: At 534 s egress modelling shows occupants already entered into escape corridors

Figure 18 FS04-b visibility slice at 2m height above floor levels

The assessment shows that ASET is greater than RSET for the mall spaces with a significant
margin of safety. Sufficient visibility is also maintained in the base case design and
sensitivity design to allow occupants to evacuate the building.

It shows that the Proposed Design exhibits a high level of fire safety for the occupants and:

Objective 1 is achieved 9

24
7 EVALUATION AGAINST OBJECTIVE 2 – FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION

In the previous section, the evaluation focuses on the tenability conditions of the building
immediately after the fire starts until the occupants move to a place of safety. The conditions
over this period of time may be regarded as “early tenability” of the building. Analysis results
for this case study show that this period concerned is no more than 900 s.

The Fire Brigade, however, would arrive relatively later in the event of a fire. Their safety,
should they decide to enter the building, is therefore dependent on the tenability conditions of
the building at a later stage. This may be regarded as “later tenability”, which generally
occurs after the occupants have evacuated the building.

7.1 Tenability Limits

The Australasian Fire Authorities Council Fire (AFAC) has also developed criteria for fire
fighters using a similar approach for short exposure periods [16]. The criteria for fire fighters
are typically more severe given that they are better equipped with protective gear (see Table
below).
Table 8 AFAC Tenability Limits for Fire Fighters
Condition
Routine Hazardous Extreme Critical
Max Time 25 minutes 10 minutes 1 minute < 1 minute
Max Air Temperature 100°C 120°C 160°C > 235°C
Max Radiation 1kW/m2 3kW/m 2
4 - 4.5kW/m2 > 10kW/m2

max max
1.5 m
120°C 3.0 kW/m 2

< 10 mins

W Poh 2010

Figure 19 AFAC Criteria for Fire Fighters for Exposure up to 10 Minutes

AFAC appears to have set an exceedingly low radiant heat limit of 1.0 kW/m2 for a routine
fire fighting condition. The limit is lower than the heat flux received from sun bathing in the
tropics, which is estimated to be 1.1 kW/m2 [19].

25
7.2 Fire Brigade Intervention
In order to estimate the Fire Brigade Intervention, the AFAC Fire Brigade Intervention Model
(FBIM) Charts [16] are used to model their response to a fire in the building.

Some of the main assumptions are as follows:

• A fire occurs in the cinema complex located on Level 3 which is considered to be the
worst case scenario as it is the most remote location in the building.
• Automatic alarm detection via smoke detectors with automatic direction connection to
fire brigade.
• Brigade turnout time is based on a standard response time of 7.7 minutes.
• 2 x fire trucks and 8 fire fighters attend site.
• Travel distance for search and rescue of Level 3 is 500 m.

The results are contained in Appendix D and are summarised below.

Table 9 Summary of FBIM analyses

Fire Brigade activity Time from fire start (s)
Arrival on site 682 s
Apply water to fire 2,715 s
Complete walk-through “search & rescue” of Level 3 3,381 s

7.3 Brigade tenability

The fire modelling, as discussed in the previous section, shows that, in both the sprinklered
and unsprinklered fires, the air temperatures within the building remain less than 100°C
indefinitely. The radiation levels in the egress routes are also less than 1.0 kW/m2. Based on
this routine conditions for fire fighters are expected.

As fire fighters approach a fire (< 10m), temperatures and radiant heat levels will increase to
potentially hazardous or extreme conditions, however the trained fire fighters will position
themselves in a safe location to fight the fire and are able to move back out of the fire
affected area if required.

The centre is provided with a 60 minute FRL throughout as a means of redundancy. The fire
modelling shows that temperatures in the centre are well below the limiting temperatures of
structural steel and concrete. In addition, occupants in the building would have evacuated
and fire fighters can commence applying water to a fire within 60 minutes period.

Under these conditions, the fire brigade will be able to enter the building and fight the fire
inside the building using the hydrants inside the building. The fire brigade will be able to
conduct search and rescue in the building. Hence:

Objective 2 is achieved 9

26
8 EVALUATION AGAINST OBJECTIVE 3 – MINIMISE SMOKE AND FIRE
SPREAD

8.1 Limiting Fire Spread

Given that the building is fully sprinkler protected, fire in the building is controlled and
confined to the area of fire origin. The sprinklers also prevent it from spreading beyond the
area and enclosure of fire origin.

Barriers are also provided within the ceiling space to prevent fire spread within the ceiling
space.

8.2 Limiting Smoke Spread

Smoke from a fire may spread throughout the connected spaces in the building. However, as
part of the performance based design, its spread is limited and the extent of smoke spread is
discussed below.

8.2.1 Limiting spread into retail areas

The individual retail areas, including the major stores, specialty shops and cinemas, are
smoke separated from each other by virtue of its wall construction (generally full height walls
separating shops). As part of the performance design, they are also smoke separated from the
mall area as follows:
- Each major store is smoke separated from the mall by means of a baffle and/or
automatic shutters at the mall entry. These shutters descend to a 2m height above the
floor upon detection of fire in the major store or near the shutter.
- The cinema complex is smoke separated from the mall by means of baffle and/or
automatic shutter at the mall entry which descends to a 2m height above the floor
upon detection of a fire in the cinema complex or near the shutter.
- Each specialty shop is smoke separated from the mall by means of its shopfront wall
and baffle above its doorway.

With the above provisions in place, smoke spread into the majors and cinema complex would
be minimized as the smoke detectors provided in front the shutters would detect smoke and
initiate the descent of the shutters. The 2 m height still allows for occupants to pass through
the shutter and provides a baffle to minimize smoke spread into the store.

The specialty shops will be provided with a shop front wall and baffle above its doorway to
minimise the extent of smoke spread in.

The provision of a natural ventilation smoke management system in the mall space also vents
smoke out of the building minimizing the spread of smoke to the stores.

The extent of smoke spread from a fire in the centre is further discussed in the following
sections based on a fire occurring in the mall space, specialty shops and majors.

27
 8.2.2 Limiting spread into mall area
As part of the performance design, smoke is prevented from spreading into mall area from the
major stores and cinema complex as follow:
- Each major store is equipped with automatic smoke exhaust and smoke separated
from the mall as discussed earlier.
- The cinema complex is equipped with automatic smoke venting and smoke separated
from the mall as discussed earlier.

The results of fire modelling (Fire Scenarios 3 and 6) show that, in the event of fire occurring
in a major store or cinema complex minimal smoke spread into the mall space occurs outside
of the major store or cinema.

Extent of floor area

L0 L1
(typically highlighted)

L2 L3

Figure 20 FS03 Extent of smoke spread out of Level 0 major store fire

L0 L1

L2 L3

Figure 21 FS06 Extent of smoke spread out of cinema

8.2.3 Limiting extent of smoke spread in mall area

As part of the performance design, smoke produced into the mall area, including those from
specialty shops, is allowed to spread vertically up the building through floor void and vented
out to the roof vents. The strategy is to provide enough roof vents such that smoke spread
within the mall in the horizontal direction is limited.

28
 To provide a conservative ASET for each fire scenario, the fire modelling (Fire Scenarios 1,
2, 4 and 5) conducted assumed full height walls around all the stores to confine smoke within
the mall space only. This leads to a worst case design in terms of smoke spread throughout
the mall areas. Had the stores been open, smoke would spread into the stores and dilute
leading to less smoke spread within the mall space.

The results show that in the worst case fire scenarios where the fire is occurring at the lowest
floor level, smoke does not spread throughout all the mall spaces of the shopping centre. The
extent of smoke spread throughout the mall space is shown in the following figures. It can be
reasonably expected that if the smoke is located in the mall space where the shops open into,
smoke spread into these shops is also possible.

Extent of floor area

(typically highlighted)
L0 L1

L2 L3

Figure 22 FS01 Extent of smoke spread out from mall fire

L0 L1

L2 L3

Figure 23 FS02 Extent of smoke spread out from mall fire

29
 L0 L1

L2
L3

Figure 24 FS04 Extent of smoke spread out from specialty store

L0 L1

L2 L3

Figure 25 FS05 Extent of smoke spread out from specialty store

In the sensitivity scenarios, smoke spread is still limited. The following figures show the
extent of smoke spread in the shopping centre in the sensitivity scenarios.

30
 L0 L1

L3
L2

Figure 26 FS04-a Extent of smoke spread out from specialty store

L0 L1

L2
L3

Figure 27 FS04-b Extent of smoke spread out from specialty store

31
 L0 L1

L2 L3

Figure 28 FS05-a Extent of smoke spread out from specialty store

L0 L1

L2 L3

Figure 29 FS05-b Extent of smoke spread out from specialty store

For the purpose of this assessment the objective is to minimize smoke spread throughout the
centre.

The results show that smoke spread from a fire in the proposed design is minimized and:

Objective 3 is achieved 9

32
9 EVALUATION AGAINST OBJECTIVE 4 – LIMIT IMPACT ON BUSINESS
CONTINUITY

9.1 Business disruption

Business disruptions will occur both during a fire and after the event the fire.
- During the event of fire, the area of fire origin and the area affected by the fire will
need to be evacuated. Business will be suspended in these areas during this time.
Business loss could occur from smoke and fire damage due to a fire and also loss of
business due to the evacuation of the building.
- After the event of fire, business may resume when the shopping centre is determined
to be safe to occupy. However, the areas affected by the fire may need to be repaired
or cleaned up prior to occupations. Business in these areas will be suspended until the
repair and clean up are complete.

The extent of business disruption will depend on:

- Extent of the shopping centre need to be evacuated during the event of the fire
- Extent of repair and clean up of the fire affected areas after the event of the fire

9.2 Limiting impact on business continuity

9.2.1 During the event of fire
The fire modelling results show that the shopping centre overall remains tenable in the event
of fire, including the sensitivity case of sprinkler failure. Hence only areas affected by the
fire need to be evacuated first. Other areas may progressively be evacuated when required, as
directed by the building management through the warden system. This would assist in
managing occupant movement in fire affected area and also minimise business disruption to
areas not affected by the fire.

Based on the performance design of the centre, evacuation is to be directed by the wardens
and the centre may be evacuated as follows:
- Major stores – in the event of a fire occurring in a major store, the store of the fire
origin is to be evacuated immediately. The occupants in the major store may move to
the mall area, which is designed as a safety place. The adjoining mall and other parts
of the centre need not be evacuated unless smoke starts to spread into the mall area.
Floor area directly above the major store may also need to be evacuated as instructed
by the fire brigade when they attend and assess the fire.
- Cinema complex – in the event of a fire occurring in cinema, the cinema complex is
to be evacuated immediately. The occupants in the cinema complex may move to the
mall area, which is designed as a safety place. The adjoining mall and other parts of
the centre need not be evacuated unless smoke start to spread into the mall area.
- Mall area – the mall area is divided into 3 zones: East, Centre and West. When smoke
spreads into the mall, the zone concerned is to be evacuated. Other zones need not
evacuate unless smoke starts to spread to the zone.

The above strategy would help the centre management control the evacuation and also limit
the impact on business continuity of the areas not affected by the fire.

33
9.2.2 After the event of fire
After the event of fire, the fire safety systems including the sprinkler systems are to be
reinstated. When the centre is determined to be safe to be occupied, businesses in the area not
affected by the fire may continue.

Businesses affected by fire and/ or smoke will need to be repaired and cleaned prior to re-
occupying. The sprinklers and smoke management system provided in the proposed design
have been demonstrated to be highly effective in limiting fire spread and also limiting smoke
spread throughout the building. These provisions minimise the effects of fire on businesses
outside the area of fire origin.

With the strategy outlines impact on business continuity shopping centre is limited and:

Objective 4 is achieved 9

34
10 CONCLUSIONS

A performance-based design has been presented for the case study which incorporates 4
storey shopping centre interconnected by floor voids.

As part of the performance-based design, a fire engineering strategy has been developed to
encompass all the sub-systems as outlined in the International Fire Engineering Guideline and
to achieve the design objectives set out for the case study.

The key design features of the Proposed Design include the use of:
• A sound fire safety management of the building to control fire start and occupant
evacuation.
• An effective sprinkler system to control the fire growth in the building.
• A reliable natural smoke venting system at the roof to allow smoke to vent from
shopping centre through the interconnecting floor voids. Mall is therefore designed as
a safe place.
• Normally used circulation paths, external open stairs and escalators for egress
purposes.
• Staged evacuation of the mall to minimise business disruption.
• Shutters to the entries of the majors and cinema complex designed to prevent smoke
spread.

The evaluation shows that the Proposed Design achieves each and every fire safety objective
set out for the case study.

35
11 REFERENCES

[1] “Building Code of Australia”, Volume 1—Class 2 to 9, Australian Building Codes

Board, 2016.
[2] “International Fire Engineering Guidelines”, Australian Building Codes Board, 2005.
[3] Bennetts, I.D., Poh, K.W., and Thomas, I.R. “A Framework for Fire-Engineering
Design”, Australian Journal of Structural Engineering, IEAust., 3(1-2), 9-22, 2000
[4] Bennetts, I. D., Poh, K. W. and Lee, A. C., "BCA Fire Safety Requirements for
Shopping Centres", (Fire Code Reform Centre Project 6), BHP Research Report No.
BHPR/SM/R/045, June 1996.
[5] Bennetts, I. D., Culton, M., Dickerson, M., Lewins, R. R., Poh, K. W., Poon, S. L.,
Ralph, R., Lee, A. C., and Beever, P. F., "Shopping Centre Review", (Fire Code
Reform Centre Project 6), BHP Research Report No. BHPR/SM/R/G/058, January
1997.
[6] Beever, P. F., Lee, A. C., Bennetts, I. D., Poh, K. W. and Poon S.L., "Review of Fire
Safety in Shopping Centres: The Key Issues", (Fire Code Reform Centre Project 6),
BHP Research Report No. BHPR/SM/R/G/060, February 1997.
[7] Bennetts, I. D., Poh, K. W., Thomas, I. R., Lee, A. C., and Beever, P. F., "Case Studies
of Fires in Retail Buildings", (Fire Code Reform Centre Project 6), BHP Research
Report No. BHPR/SM/R/056, October 1996.
[8] Thomas, I. R., "Analysis of US Retail Fires", (Fire Code Reform Centre Project 6),
BHP Research Report No. BHPR/SM/R/G/056, February 1997.
[9] Bennetts I. D., Culton, M., Dickerson, M. L, Lewins, R., Poh, K. W., Poon, S.L., Ralph,
R., Lee, A. C., Beever, P. F., Cooper, R. J., Haggar, P. I., Moore, I. P., Ramsay, G. C.
and Timms, G. R., "Simulated Shopping Centre Fire Tests", BHP Research Report No.
BHPR/SM/R/G/062, March 1997.
[10] Moore, I. and Timms, G., "Reliability of Smoke Control Systems", Report undertaken
for Fire Code Reform Centre—Project 6, Scientific Services Laboratory, Report No.
XR0122/R1, April, 1997.
[11] Bennetts, I. D., Poh, K. W., Poon, S. L., Thomas, I. R., Lee, A. C., Beever, P. F.,
Ramsay, G. C. and Timms, G. R. “Fire Safety in Shopping Centres”, Fire Code Reform
Centre, July 1998.
[12] Bennetts, I.D., Poh, K.W., and Thomas, I.R., “Design of Sprinklered Shopping Centre
Buildings for Fire Safety”, OneSteel, Marketing—Construction and Engineering, Nov
2000.
[13] McGrattan, K, B., Forney, G. P., Floyd, J. F, Hostikka, D., Prasad, K. “Fire Dynamic
Simulator – User’s Guide”, National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST
6784, 2002.
[14] Tewarson, A., “Generation of Heat and Chemical Compounds in Fires”, SFPE
Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Edition 4, Section 3/Chapter 4, SFPE, 2008
[15] “Pathfinder”, Thunderhead Engineering, 2009
[16] “Fire Brigade Intervention Model”, Australasian Fire Authorities Council Fire, 2004.

36
[17] Poh, W., “Tenability Criteria for Design of Smoke Hazard Management Systems”,
Ecolibrium, AIRAH, August 2011.
[18] “Practice Note for Tenability Criteria in Building Fires”, Society of Fire Safety,
Engineers Australia, April 2014.
[19] Raj, P.K., “A Review of the Criteria for People Exposure to Radiant heat Flux from
Fires”, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 159, 2008, pp 61–71.

37
APPENDIX A

SS-A: Fire Initiation and Development and Control

Design Strategy
• To minimise the number of fire starts.
• To extinguish any fire before it becomes threatening.
Design Principles
• Specific management plans and procedures are to be put in place by the shopping centre
management to control the use and activities within the building
• Sufficient fire extinguishers are to be provided for occupants to fight small fires within the retail
areas
Design Details Rationale
Management plans and procedures
Specific management plans and procedures If the initiation of fire within a building could be
are to be developed by shopping centre prevented, all the fire safety objectives would be
management using risk management achieved and there would be no need to invest in
principles as set out in AS/NZS ISO expensive fire-safety measures.
31000:2009.
The tasks outlined in Appendix B were developed to
The fire safety management tasks are to specifically target the major cause of fire starts in
include all types of activities including shopping centre. This is based on the finding of the
communications, maintenance, auditing and study of fire statistics in FCRC 6 [8] that, of all
training (see Appendix B). These tasks are reported fires in shops in the USA:
aimed at minimising the number of fire starts • 36% are due to heat from electrical
and extinguish the fire before it becomes equipment arcing or overloading
threatening. • 15% are due to fuel fired or powered objects

Sprinkler system
The centre is to be sprinkler protected
throughout to control the growth of fire in the
building (details of the sprinkler system will
be further discussed later in the paper).
Sprinkler protection is considered a key fire safety
system of the performance solution. This is based on
the finding of the USA data as reported in FCRC 6
[8] that sprinklers appear to reduce the death rate by
about a factor of three.

Fire extinguishers
Portable fire extinguishers to AS 2444 are to Fire extinguishers are proposed in lieu of fire hose
be provided in: reels. This is based on the study in FCRC 6 [8] that
• each specialty shop occupants are more likely to use fire extinguisher
• throughout each major store than fire hose reels.
• enclosures containing power distribution
equipment FCRC 6 [8] also shows that fires attended by the fire
• kitchens, dining rooms, food and brigade in the USA, 39% of fires are either self
beverage outlets extinguished (15%), or put out with make-shift aids
• hazardous goods or flammable liquids (7%) or portable extinguishers (17%).
stores
The extinguishers are to be installed at the
readily accessible locations in the retail areas
and staff are to be trained in the use of fire
extinguishers.

38
SS-B: Smoke Development and Spread and Control

Design Strategy
• To maintain egress paths tenable for occupants to move to place of safety
• To limit smoke spread to minimise business disruption.

Design Principles
• In the event of a sprinkler controlled fire (C2) anywhere in the centre:
o all main egress paths in the centre are to remain tenable indefinitely.
o smoke spread is limited.
• In the event of sprinkler controlled fire (C2) in a major store or the cinema complex:
o the smoke produced is to be limited from spreading into the adjoining mall.
• In the event of an unsprinkler controlled fire (C3) in the centre:
o all main egress paths are to remain tenable for the expected duration of evacuation using the
paths.

Design Details Rationale

Mall areas
The mall areas are to be served by automatic
smoke venting as follows:
• Louvres are to be installed at the roof
level at the highest part of the building
and evenly distributed along the mall.
• The roofline is to be raised, or barriers
installed, to protect the louvres against
the effects of wind (refer to Figure 10).
• The louvres throughout the mall space
are to be automatically open in full in the
event of fire detection anywhere in the
building.
• The floor void openings, which are part
of the architectural design, are to be
utilised as air paths for smoke in a lower
level to travel up to the roof level and be
vented out.
• Entry/exit doors on the Ground Levels
are to automatically open to provide
make-up air. Open louvres away from
the fire also provide make-up air.
The mall areas are interconnected by floor voids,
hence would be difficult to extract smoke from each
level of the mall area and prevent the smoke from
spreading between the floors through the floor
voids. The strategy is to allow smoke spread up the
floor voids and allow the smoke to escape the
building at the roof level.
For the purpose of this case study, it is also
considered desirable and cost-effective to adopt the
means of natural venting in lieu of BCA DtS high
volume smoke exhaust system. Natural venting is a
relatively simple system and can be very reliable.
The only key factor that may affect the performance
of the natural venting is the environment factor such
as wind. In order to overcome the effects of wind,
the roof is raised or the louvres protected to create a
negative region around the lourvre locations. This
will further assist in pulling smoke out of the
building.

The use of natural ventilation also negates the

requirement for backup power supply for the
mechanical smoke exhaust as the louvres can be
configured to be fail safe open. This represents a
major cost saving for the building.
Major stores
All major stores having a floor area greater Major stores usually have their own system and
than 2000 m2 are to have their own smoke often operate independently with respect to various
exhaust system with a minimum exhaust rate systems in the shopping centre. They can be readily
of 32 m3/s. designed to have their own smoke exhaust system to

39

A baffle is to be installed at their entrance to
the mall to limit smoke spread into the mall
area. Alternatively an automatic shutter may
be installed to automatically descend to a 2 m
height above the floor level to allow
occupants to evacuate into the mall. Shutters
are to automatically descend to 2m above the
floor upon detection of fire in the centre.
Specialty shops
All specialty shops having a floor area less
than 2000 m2 connected to the mall areas are
to be considered parts of the mall for smoke
management purposes.
serve each major store.
The major stores usually have their entrance
connected to the mall area. The mall entrances serve
as an egress path for the occupants. To prevent
smoke spreading into the mall, baffles or automatic
shutter are proposed to be installed at the mall
entrance.
Specialty shops do not have their own smoke
exhaust system. Hence specialty shops connected to
the mall are considered part of the mall with regards
to smoke management.

Cinema complex The cinema complex is considered similar to a

The cinemas are installed with smoke vents major store in that it will have its own system and
at the roof level. operate somewhat independent of the shopping
centre.
Smoke curtains or shutters are to be installed As the cinema is located at roof level, natural vents
at the mall entrance to the cinema complex. in lieu of a mechanical smoke exhaust system is
The curtain will descend to 2m above the proposed for smoke hazard management in the
floor upon detection of fire in the centre. cinema theatres.

Stairway Pressurisation
Stairway pressurisation is omitted.
This is based on the design strategy of maintaining
the mall area tenable. Given that the stairways are
connected to the mall area, they will likewise be
tenable without pressurisation. Stairways around the
perimeter of the building are proposed to be external
and open to the outside.

The omission of pressurisation also represent a

major cost saving.

40
SS:C - Fire Spread and Impact and Control

Design Strategy
• To maintain the stability of the building to ensure occupant and fire brigade safety
• To minimise the spread of fire to adjacent buildings
• To minimise the spread of fire within building to maintain business continuity

Design Principles
• The building is to be designed against spread of fire from the area or enclosure of fire origin.
• The building is to be designed against collapse of multi-level building structure.

Design Details Rationale

Fire resistance
The fire resistance of the building elements is FCRC 6 has shown that, with the presence of a
to be 60 minutes throughout. sprinkler system, a large fire is very unlikely, the
fire-resistance levels of the elements of building
structure are less critical and may be reduced. Fire
brigade will also arrive and commence applying
water to the fire within the 60 minute period.
Fire compartmentation
The centre is designed as a single fire Modern shopping centres, due to the substantial
compartment and not separated into fire openings at each floor level must be considered as
compartments. one compartment. Compartmentation is therefore
not usually relevant.
The atria are not separated by bounding
construction. FCRC 6 also found that bounding construction for
atrium serves little purpose and is not necessary in
sprinklered shopping centres with a rise in storeys of
up to four.
Ceiling barriers
The walls bounding the major stores and Most of the internal walls in the shopping centre
cinemas theatre are to extend to floor slab or terminate at ceiling level and do not extend to the
roof above. floor above. This is desirable for running services
throughout the building. However, the uninterrupted
Ceiling barriers are to be installed at the void within the ceiling space may allow rapid spread
boundary of sprinkler zones or at 50 m from one part of the building to another as revealed
internals. Ceiling and insulation are to be in the FCRC 6 studies.
non-combustible materials.
The installation of ceiling barriers is to reduce the
Ceiling space barriers may consist of a rate of spread of fire as recommended by FCRC 6.
continuation of the wall construction below The barriers at the junction of the sprinkler zones are
the ceiling and be of similar construction (eg. to reduce the likelihood of the sprinklers within the
plasterboard linings on either side of a steel adjacent (still active) zone being overwhelmed
stud). should sprinklers in the adjacent zone fail.

Gaps around penetrating services should not The ceiling barriers are to act primarily as a
exceed 50mm at any location. radiation shield, it is not necessary to fire-stop gaps
around the perimeter of non-combustible services
penetrating the barrier.

41
SS:D - Fire Detection, Warning and Suppression

Design Strategy
• To minimise the time for detecting fire and alerting occupants in the building
• To minimise the time to suppressing or controlling fire in the building

Design Principles
• Sufficient means of detection and warning the occupants are to be provided throughout the
building.
• A reliable sprinkler system which is commensurate with the hazard is to be incorporated
throughout the centre.

Design Details Rationale

Fire detection system
Smoke detection is to be installed in the mall
and within major stores as specified by the
BCA (15m apart and 7.5m from walls )and
AS 1668.1 (20m apart and 10m from walls)
respectively. Automatic brigade call to be
provided on the fire alarm panel.
Smoke detectors are installed to provide an early
detection of fire.
They are to serve to activate the warning system,
particularly to the building management to response
to the fire and also to activate the smoke
management system.

Occupant warning system

A Sound System and Intercom System for FCRC 6 has found that occupant warning alone is
Emergency Purposes is to be installed in unlikely to initiate evacuation.
accordance with AS 1670.4.
The design strategy is to train staff to act as wardens
to assist with building evacuation (see Appendix B).

Sprinkler system
The sprinkler system is to be designed in
accordance with the requirements AS 2118.
As part of the performance-based design
strategy, it is to be further enhanced as
follows:
• Fast response sprinklers with a maximum
RTI of 50m1/2s1/2 are used.
• The system is connected to two town
mains water supply, each capable of
satisfying the required system flow
demand.
• A monitored isolation valve is installed
at each floor level to enable sprinkler
isolation of individual floor level.
• Each major store is served by a control
valve, separate from those of the
specialty shops.
The sprinkler system is the key fire safety system
which is to be enhanced to ensure its reliability.
The sprinklers for each level of the building are to
be separately valved to reduce the chance of two
adjoining zones, being isolated at the one time.
The use of monitored valves will support sound
management as notification of isolation is required
along with time of re-instatement. If the system is
not re-instated within the prescribed time period, the
fire brigade will arrive at the building to investigate
the situation.
Sprinklers associated with major stores are to be
separately valved to those associated with the
specialty shops and mall. This is to reduce the
likelihood of the sprinklers within major stores
being frequently isolated when the specialty stores
are refurbished and vice versa.

42
S-E: Occupant Evacuation and Control

Design Strategy
• To provide means for safe egress of occupants put at risk by a fire.

Design Principles
• The centre is to be designed for a population density of at least 10m2/person.
• The mall area is to be designed as a safe place for the occupants to move away from the fire and
to provide the primary means of escape
• All major access paths in the mall are to be utilised as egress paths.
• All enclosures and areas within the centre are to be designed to avoid entrapment and have
sufficient egress paths to move to a safe place, open space, or roadway, prior to the achievement
of untenable conditions.
• An evacuation plan is to be developed and implemented by the building management.
• Evacuation of the centre is to be controlled by building management through a warden system.

Design Details Rationale

Mall as safe place
The mall is to be designed a safe place for The mall area is designed as safe place for
people seeking to move away from the fire evacuation as recommended by FCRC 6.
and to provide the primary means of escape
for occupants. Tenability of the mall is maintained by means of
sprinkler protection and smoke venting of the mall
All normal access paths include open stairs (see previously discussed strategy).
and escalators within the mall to other levels
are utilised for egress purposes. Studies of occupant behaviour and movement
suggest that fire-emergency passageway commonly
provided for emergency egress from the mall are
unlikely to be used by the occupants (including
staff) in the event of a fire. A better and alternative
concept is to utilise the normal exit/entrance routes
as evacuation paths. Wardens will also be provided
to direct occupants to exits.

Egress to the mall

For each specialty shop having a single exit The maximum travel distance and exit separation is
to the mall, egress doorways are provided for to ensure occupants have sufficient time to move out
each enclosure such that the travel distance to of the shops or major stores into the mall area.
the mall is not more than 20 m.
Provisions of alternative egress routes for enclosure
Where the shops or stores having a frontage having a large frontage is to avoid the occupants
of more than 50 m, at least two doorways are being trapped in the enclosure should one of the
provided for the occupants to move into the egress route become unusable due to fire.
mall.

Egress to the outside

For each specialty shop having a single exit
to the mall, egress doorways are provided for
the shops and stores on the ground level
located at the perimeter of the centres for the
occupants to move directly to the outside
with a maximum travel distance of 30 m.
The mall is designed as a safe place for the
occupants to immediately move to in the event of a
fire.
The egress doorway at the perimeter of the building
on ground level and the stairways at the perimeter of

43
Egress stairways are provided around the the building are designed for the occupants to move
perimeter for the occupants on the upper from the mall to the outside.
level to move down the centre and out of the
building.

Egress Sequence
In the event of fire detection in a major store
or the cinema complex, the occupants in the
store or cinema complex are to evacuate into
the mall. The mall need not be evacuated
unless fire is detected in the mall.
Due to the interconnection of the floor levels within
each section, it is necessary to commence
evacuation of all affected floor levels/ areas at the
same time when fire is detected.

In the event of fire detection in the mall, the

affected zone is to be evacuated first.
Adjoining zones will go into alarm as the
emergency warning system cascades.

Exit signs and emergency lighting

Exit signs and emergency lights are to be Exit signs and emergency lights are to be installed to
installed in accordance with the requirements assist occupants in finding their way to the exits and
of BCA to the outside.

44
SS-F: Fire Services Intervention

Design Strategy
• To provide sufficient notification and means of fire fighting for the fire brigade
• To safeguard fire fighting operation

Design Principles
• Sufficient means of notification of a fire is to be provided.
• Sufficient fire brigade access to the building and the relevant part of the building is to be
provided.
• Sufficient communication within the building is to be provided.
• Sufficient hydrants are to be provided and suitably located to facilitate brigade fire fighting.

Design Details Rationale

Fire Brigade Notification
The fire detection system is to be monitored The fire detection system is monitored and the Fire
and the Fire Brigade is automatically called Brigade is automatically called upon detection of
upon detection of fire. fire.

A MIMIC panel is to be provided at each

major entrance.

Fire Brigade Access

Fire brigade access is to be provided to each It is important that the fire brigade has access to
major entrance and to the exit stairway of the each major entrance of the building.
building.
The provision of continuous vehicular access as
required by BCA is not critical provided the brigade
can be directed to the appropriate entrance.

Internal hydrants
Hydrants are to be provided in accordance Given the building is sprinkler protected, the fire
with AS 2419. brigade will be able to fight the fire within the
building.

45
APPENDIX B FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT

Sound management of fire safety is essential. This can be facilitated by a fire-safety

management plan which should have the following objectives:
• minimise the number of fire starts
• extinguish any fire before it becomes threatening
• enable occupants to escape the effects of a fire.

These objectives are necessary since shopping centre buildings are designed for limited fire
scenarios and the effectiveness of the designed fire-safety systems will always be less than
100%.

Responsibilities of Building Owners and Occupiers

Shopping centre owners and occupiers have the responsibility of ensuring the safety of all
building occupants, including any member of the public entering the premises. That this is the
case is reinforced by various legal requirements.

In order to safeguard the occupants from fire injuries, a sound fire-safety management plan
must be developed and implemented. Such a plan can only be successfully developed and
implemented if it receives full support from all management levels of the centre, in particular
the senior management. The organisation within a shopping centre likely to be given the
responsibility to develop and implement a plan is Centre Management or its designate; but for
major stores (including department stores) it is likely that the management plans for all stores
of a particular chain will have been developed by a centralised group but implemented
locally. It is nevertheless essential that management plans for major stores are consistent with
those of Centre Management.

Fire-safety Management Plan

Having established the objectives of the fire-
safety management plan it is necessary to Establish the context
- Set objectives
develop the plan. This plan should be - Set criteria where possible

developed by reference to AS NZS ISO 31000 Identify risks

since managing fire safety is really managing - What can lead to fire starts?
- What can lead to fire growth?
the risks associated with potential fires. The - What can lead to occupants
being unable to evacuate?
process that should be used in this regard is
illustrated in flowchart shown on the right. Analyse risks
Determine existing controls
Communicate and consult

Monitor and Review

Determine Determine
The plan shall be documented and likelihood consequences

communicated to staff. The successful Estimate level of risk

implementation of the fire-safety management
plan requires ongoing communication, Evaluate risks
consultation and review especially with those
- Compare against criteria
where possible
who will be involved in implementing the plan. - Set risk priorities

Accept yes
risks

no
Treat risks
- Identify treatment options
- Evaluate treatment options
- Select treatment options
- Prepare treatment options
- Implement options

46
 Fire-safety management tasks
Application of the above process to shopping centre situations has resulted in the
identification of many fire-safety management tasks. These are given in the summary table
below. These are tasks which are likely to be important but no attempt has been made to rank
them in order of priority. It will be noted that each of these tasks can be considered as
involving a particular type of action:

Types of Actions
Communication of
1 Î issues and procedures

2 Î Maintenance

3 Î Refurbishment

4 Î Auditing

5 Î Reinforcement

6 Î Training

Table 10 Summary of Management Tasks

MINIMISING FIRE STARTS
Development and communication of rules regarding storage of combustibles
(a) rules need to be developed and documented with respect to:
• no storage within SOU ceilings
• no storage close to switchboards and other electrical/mechanical equipment
• penalties for non-compliance
(b) rules need to be well communicated with photographs showing acceptable and
unacceptable situations.
Routine maintenance of equipment
Maintenance of electrical and mechanical equipment aimed at reducing likelihood of
overheating or electrical faults and consequent fires. Maintenance actions shall be
documented and filed for easy recall.
Establish and communicate "hot work" procedures
These procedures must be documented and communicated. All workers undertaking cutting,
welding, or other hot work must:
• remove or cover combustibles below or adjacent to the hot working area
• carry a functional portable extinguisher
• be trained in the use of extinguishers
• "sign on" before work is started and "sign off" after completion
• understand penalties for non compliance
Ongoing upgrade of electrical lighting and wiring
Older higher voltage lighting and older wiring may represent significant sources for fire
initiation. Modifications shall be documented and filed for easy recall.
Routine inspections of storage of combustibles in relation to potential heat sources such as
switchboards and mechanical equipment

47
 Storage of goods in close proximity to electrical and mechanical equipment can lead to
overheating and fire initiation. These audits shall be documented and filed for easy recall.
Audits of "hot spots" in switchboards and equipment
Can be accomplished using thermal imaging cameras. These audits shall be documented and
filed for easy recall.
Rectification of hot spots
Incorporated as part of maintenance program. Rectification actions shall be documented.
Policing of penalties for non-compliance with procedures
This is where the contractor or tenant is warned or penalised for violations. Constant
education showing the ease with which a fire can start, and the potential consequences, is
required as part of staff and contractor training. A record shall be kept of non-compliances.
EARLY DETECTION
Establish and communicate who should be notified in the event of a member of staff observing a
fire start or smoke
This will most likely be centre management/security staff. Need to also establish how such
notification is to be made.
Establish and communicate who should investigate a potential incident should a smoke or other
detector be activated
Maintenance of automatic fire detection and alarm equipment
This is concerned with the operability of FIP's and associated automatic detection systems
such as smoke detectors.
Use of security cameras and security staff training
Most areas of major shopping centres are visually monitored to reduce theft. Security staff
need to be able to recognise a fire start and respond in the accordance with established
procedures.
General staff training
Similarly a wide range of staff should be trained to recognise a fire start and respond in the
accordance with established procedures.
EARLY SUPPRESSION
Establish and communicate whose responsibility it is to fight a fire with an extinguisher
The rule should generally be that the closest trained staff member to the detected fire should
seek to extinguish the fire with an extinguisher.
Maintenance of portable extinguishers

Training of general and security staff in the use of portable extinguishers

Required
LATER SUPPRESSION
Establish and communicate whose responsibility it is to communicate and interact with the fire
brigade before and after it arrives
The initial contact will probably be made by security/centre management at the time that a
fire is reported. Security/centre management likely to be responsible throughout.
Assist fire brigade to fire source
The purpose of this is to ensure that the brigade gets to the fire as quickly as possible.
Maintenance of sprinkler and hydrant systems

Establish and communicate policy with respect to storage of combustibles in relation to sprinkler
heads
The aim is to:
• limit the shielding due to stored combustibles and non-combustibles in order to
maximise sprinkler effectiveness
• explain the consequences of not complying

48
 • establish and communicate penalties for non-compliance
Auditing of combustibles and non-combustibles in relation to sprinkler heads
Aim is to provide a mechanism to measure and reinforce compliance with above policy so
as to ensure that sprinklers are not overrun due to late activation or to water not being able
to get to fire.
Establish and communicate policy with respect to sprinkler isolation
The aim is to:
• minimise the time that sprinklers are isolated – encourage construction procedures that
only require short term isolation
• ensure that isolation procedures do not introduce permanent blockages into pipework
• ensure that sprinkler system is reinstated each day or at the completion of work
whichever is the lesser period of time
• ensure that sprinkler modifications are adequately recorded such that there is no
confusion about which sprinkler belongs to which zone
• enforce penalties for non-compliance
Policing of penalties for non-compliance with procedures
This is where the contractor or tenant is warned or penalised for violations. Constant
education showing the importance of sprinklers and the effects of high levels of shielding is
required as part of staff and contractor training.
EFFECTIVE EVACUATION
Development and communication of evacuation plan

Maintenance of smoke control systems, doors to stairways, exit signs and emergency lights

Auditing of combustibles in exit paths

This is concerned with ensuring that:
• no combustibles in exits, corridors or stairs
• exit paths are free of obstacles
Policing of rule for no combustibles in exits
• no storage within exits, corridors or stairs
Practice and training in relation to evacuation plan
It is important that staff have an awareness of their responsibilities and that this is reinforced
by training and practice.

49
APPENDIX C FIRE MODELLING RESULTS

50
Fire Scenario FS01 – C2 fire on Level 0 below atrium void
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

51
Fire Scenario FS02 – C2 fire on Level 0 below atrium void
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 31

30
2.00
30
Radiation (kW/m2)

29
1.50
visibility (m)

29

1.00
28

28
0.50
27

0.00 27
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

52
Fire Scenario FS3 – C2 fire on Level 0 in major store
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

53
Fire Scenario FS04 – C2 fire on Level 0 in specialty shop
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

54
Fire Scenario FS4-a (sensitivity) – Increased C2 fire on Level 0 in specialty shop
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

55
Fire Scenario FS04-b (sensitivity) – C3 fire on Level 0 in specialty shop
60000

heat release rate (kW)
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

56
Fire Scenario FS05 – C2 fire on Level 0 in specialty shop
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

57
Fire Scenario FS05-a (sensitivity) – Increased C2 fire on Level 0 in specialty shop
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

58
Fire Scenario FS05-b (sensitivity) – C3 fire on Level 0 in specialty shop
60000

heat release rate (kW)
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 1,800
time (s)
100 100

90
90
80
80
70
air temperature (°C)

70 60
CO (ppm)

60 50

40
50
30
40
20
30 10

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

2.50 35

30
2.00
25
Radiation (kW/m2)

1.50
visibility (m)

20

15
1.00

10
0.50
5

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

59
Fire Scenario FS06 – C2 fire on Level 3 in cinema
6000

heat release rate (kW)
5000
4000
3000

cinemas
food
court 2000
1000
kids
play
office 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s)
100 20

18
90
16
80
14
air temperature (°C)

70 12
CO (ppm)

60 10

8
50
6
40
4
30 2

20 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0max L1max L2max L3max

0.10 35

0.09
30
0.08

0.07 25
Radiation (kW/m2)

0.06
visibility (m)

20
0.05
15
0.04

0.03 10
0.02
5
0.01

0.00 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
time (s) time (s)
L0max L1max L2max L3max L0min L1min L2min L3min

60
APPENDIX D FBIM ANALYSIS

General
The information supplied by the Fire Brigade Intervention Model (FBIM) developed by the
Australasian Fire Authorities Council [16] was used to determine quantitatively the time for
fire brigade intervention activities. These include the time for fire brigade units to respond to
a call and arrive at the site, conduct an initial assessment of the scene and setup water supply.

The following assumptions were made in this analysis:

• Brigade turnout time is based on a standard response time of 7.7 minutes.
• 2 x fire appliances and 8 fire fighters (FF) attend site.

Fire Scenario
A fire occurs in the cinema complex located on Level 3 which is considered to be the worst
case scenario as it is the most remote location in the building. The cinema complex is
provided with sprinklers and smoke detection. Smoke detectors are assumed to activate 80 s
after ignition.

The figure and table below summarize the results of the FBIM for this scenario.

SFPE 2016 - Fire Brigade Intervention Model

Fire in Level 3 Cinema Complex

Alarm activation and verif ication

Call transmitted to f ire station

Dispatch 2 pumper appliance and 8

f iref ighters (FF) to f ire scene.

FF 1-6 don BA equipment & obtain

tools

FF 7-8 set up hydrant connection

FF 1-6 communicate with f ire warden

FF 1 (OIC) & 2 assess Level 2 and

Roof Level

FF 3-6 proceed to Level 3

FF 5 & 6 perf orm reconnaissance of

Level 3

FF 3 & 4 attack with hose

0 240 480 720 960 1200 1440 1680 1920 2160 2400 2640 2880 3120 3360 3600
Time (sec)

Figure 30 Cinema Complex FBIM Graph

61
 Task Name Activities Activity Task Elapsed
Time (s) TIme (s) Time (s)
Alarm activation • Activation of smoke detector (worst case 80
and verification detector activation time)
• Time delay for alarm verification 20 100 100
Transmit call to • Relay and dispatch information by phone or 30 30 130
fire station radio
Dispatch 2 • Time to travel to fire station, dress, 90
pumper appliance assemble, assimilate information and leave
and 8 fire fighters station.
(FF) to fire scene. • Time to reach fire scene (Fire Brigade 462 552 682
standard response time of 7.7 minutes)
FF 1-6 don BA • FF to dismount truck and don BA (90th 133
equipment & percentile)
obtain tools • Gather hydrant equipment 56
• Gather forced entry tools 25 214 896
FF 7-8 set up • Remove equipment for hydrant (90th 56
hydrant percentile)
connection • Prepare and flush hydrant (90th percentile) 59
• Remove, connect and charge hose (Hydrant 99
- Appliance) (90th percentile)
• Remove and connect hose (Appliance - 67 281 1177
Booster) (90th percentile)
FF 1-6 • Hindrance factor = 1.5
communicate with • FF approach entrance 25 m away (90th 42
fire warden percentile).
• Time to communicate with Fire Warden 90 153 1049
FF 1 (OIC) & 2 • FF 1 (OIC) & 2 to walk 200m to a stair on 333
assess Level 2 and the perimeter of the building.
Roof Level • FF 1 (OIC) & 2 to ascend stair to Level 2, 300
approximately 120 steps (90th percentile).
• FF 1 (OIC) & 2 to walk 200m into Level 2 333
to assess situation. FF1 (OIC) & 2 approach
stair to roof.
• FF1 (OIC) & 2 to ascend stair to roof, 200
approximately 80 steps (90th percentile).
• FF 1 (OIC) & 2 to walk 200m into Roof 333 1499 2548
level to assess situation.
FF 3-6 proceed • FF 5 & 6 to walk 200m to a stair on the 333
to Level 3 perimeter of the building.
• FF 5 & 6 to ascend stair to Level 3, 400
approximately 160 steps (90th percentile).
• Connect and charge hoses from hydrant 108 841 1890
FF 5 & 6 perform • Reconnaissance of Level 3 (500m per FF) 833 833 3381
reconnaissance of
Level 3
FF 3 & 4 attack • FF 3 & 4 to walk 100m in to Level 3 (90th 167
fire with hose percentile).
• FF 3 & 4 apply water to fire 167 2715

62
 Application of the new “Italian Fire Safety Code” (D.M. 3 agosto 2015) to
Case Study 3 Mall

Vincenzo Puccia
National Fire Corps - Via S. Fidenzio, 3 - 35100 Padova (PD)

Luca Marmo, Enrico Danzi

Politecnico di Torino – Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24 – 10129 Torino

Luca Fiorentini
TECSA S.r.l. – Via Figino, 101 – 20016 Pero (MI)

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

In Italy last year (2015) a specific new fire safety code have been enforced by law. This new
act is a performance based approach that is aimed to overcome prescriptive rules. These rules
have proved to be not completely applicable to nowadays architectures, retrofitting of
existing buildings for new purposes, etc. The importance of the new code resides in the fact
that if the requirements are met no complex activities (like CFD assessments against
thresholds values) should be used to state the conformity and the conformity should be
achieved with a general strategy rather than the compliance to strict requirements in each area
of interest (fire rating of materials, emergency egress, etc.). The new Italian Fire code, at the
moment, doesn’t include in its field of application malls and activities with a prescriptive fire
prevention rule still in course of validity. On the other hand, the structure of the code is as
flexible to be applied, as the original goal, to all civil activities with an huge presence of
people, where the common fire scenario is a compartment fire and the safety of lives is
strongly related to the capability to outcome the fire and smoke spreading between the
compartments.

The aim of the new fire code compilers and developers is that the fire design community will
acquire the new fire design philosophy described by mean of this approach, that represent an
alternative to the fire prevention prescriptive corpus.

INTRODUCTION TO NEW ITALIAN FIRE CODE

The “Fire Code” (D.M. 3 agosto 2015) is the result of the effort of the Italian National Fire
Brigade to update to the state of the art available the fire safety regulation, resulting of a great
number of single fire regulations, each related to a specific type of activity, as school, car
parking, hotel, office.
After a first step of evaluation, started in January 2014, a road map was traced with the aim to
build a new fire code with a strong performance based structure, but, on the other hand,
available to the largest group of professional profiles.
The first technical assessment was conducted between the most relevant fire standards
available, choosing the structure of BS9999 as a main reference, doing an effort to adapt it to
the our specific heritage and construction typology.

REPORT

1. The performance criteria selected to assess the fire safety goals and objectives.

The performance criteria for this study result from the full application of the fire safety code
to the geometry of the mall (case study n.3). The approach of this new fire code is based both
on a semi prescriptive approach and on a performance based risk assessment with the fire
safety and fire protection tools.

The fire safety code includes deemed to satisfy solution, based on largely verified design
criteria and allow, on the other hand, the application of alternative solution, to be
demonstrated by mean of fire models from the fire engineer.
The performance criteria generally intended in the fire code are considered as accomplished
if the activities are designed and managed to:
 Minimize the fire and explosion causes
 Guarantee for a determined time the structural stability
 Limit the spread of the fire all over the activity
 Limit the spread of the fire to neighbouring activities
 Limit the effects of explosions
 Guarantee the evacuation of the occupants, or allow to rescue them in other ways
 Guarantee the safety for the rescue teams
 Safeguard the heritage
 Guarantee the business continuity for strategic structures
 Prevent and limit the environmental damage in case of fire

In this first step of feasibility design, the first choice was to use the deemed to satisfy solution
included in the code, evaluating the use of fire models if the result of this first step would
result too conservative with regard to the safety measures.

The Fire safety code is divided in four main sections, the first (Generalities) introduces the
definitions and allow a characterization of occupants and possible fires, allowing the risk
class attribution, the second (fire design strategy) is a driven process to select the
performance level required to each component of the fire safety / fire protection design.
This section include Fire reaction, Fire resistance of Structures, Compartment maximum
allowable surface, evacuation of occupants strategy, Fire safety management, Fire Control &
Suppression, Fire Detection & Alarm, Smoke Control, Firefighting Operating, Safety of
technical & utility plants.

A third section is dedicated to technical fire regulation addendum for specific activities
(elevators, risk explosion areas etc.)

The fourth section (Methods) includes the full performance based fire design methods, with
reference to the most diffused international standards.
For the data in this case study nothing but the fire safety code tables were used. On the other
hand, the aim of the fire code is to allow to designers solution not easily practicable by mean
of the traditional prescriptive fire prevention regulation.

2. A description of the fire safety design approach used.

The new Italian Fire Code was applied to the case study, starting with deemed to satisfy
solution identified in the code, starting from the identification of risk profiles for the
occupants, as well as evaluating the maximum number of occupants, based on the data
included in the code.

The first step is the risk profile assessment for the occupant typology, based on the BS 9999
classification, included in the Fire Code as a core tool, before the development of his
structure, with a selective choice of international state of art standard. The BS 9999 logic
represented the backbone of the code, but various integrations for the specific Italian issues
on heritage, construction products and work activity was included.

The Occupants Risk Profile Is so related to three Risk Profiles, in a Fire Scenario:
 Life Threat
 Property/Heritage/Business Continuity Threat
 Environment Threat

As above exposed, the Life Threat Risk Assessment was acknowledged from BS 9999
standard, following an approach based on occupants state of wakefulness, their familiarity
with places etc. coupled with the fire Heat Release Rate, related with the time it need to
reach 1MW.
The Fire Code logic flow start with the risk class attribution and assign with a matrix
approach a set of performance levels for the fire strategy design, for items from the allowed
fire reaction of materials to the fire resistance of the structures, the fire suppression the smoke
control the fire safety management etc.

On this basis, the characteristic of the occupants of the shop could generally assumed as B
and the fire growth rate can be assumed 2 or 3, depending on an overall evaluation of the heat
release rate of the fire load stored inside. In a conservative approach, the Class B3 will be
attributed to all occupants of the mall (obviously the employed have an awareness of the
place more close to A, but the largely prevalent characteristic of occupants is B type.

A more articulated approach could attribute, on compartment base, a risk class B2 or B3,
depending on heat release rate of the fire load stored inside.

So the occupants fire risk attribution will be:

1. Mall parking (Out Of The Aim Of This Work, As Per Paragraph V Additional
Remarks)
2. Shops with area from below 100 m2 to above 3000 m2 B3
3. Food-court with sitting area and restaurants B2
4. Fitness club B2
5. Cinema B2
6. Technical plant (Not Included, see Vertical Design Rule Of The Fire Code as a
reference)
7. Malls and atriums with varying height B3

It’s important to understand that the life risk attribution is based on a compartment level, so
for all the compartment L0,1,2 the reference will be B3.The same for the compartment L3.
The approach pursued here was to verify the case study with the maximum number of
occupants and a challenging fire scenario, a rapid fire growth curve, however the fire code
allows the store manager to do a specific evaluation on his activity as well as on the expected
number of occupants.

Next step is the Property Risk attribution, considering the table G-3.6 of the code. The goal
8. Limit the impact on business continuity could be afforded by selecting a Property Risk 3,
with the impact on design criteria, but normally this level of risk is limited to strategic
activities (Hospitals, civil protection headquarters)

The environmental risk could be considered mitigated by the application of all fire prevention
and protection measures derived from the code application, as the activity doesn’t include a
particular risk of loss of containment for environmental dangerous substances.

To assess the number of occupants, the data of Tab S.4-6 is the main reference.

In the reference section of the chapter 4 a number of state of art standards for the occupants
evacuation assessment is reported.

To evaluate the number of occupants in each area, the reference is the values in Tab S.4-6 of
the fire code, where the assessment of this value must be done.
For the levels 0,1 and 2, with shopping areas, the entire surface of the level was considered,
including the mall, with an overall coefficient of 0.2 occupants/square meter.

People/square
L 0-1-2 surf.(mq) Occ.
meter

level 0 16072 3214 0.2

level 1 13332 2666 0.2
level 2 10390 2078 0.2

L1+L2+L3 39794 7959

Tab.1

For the Level 3 the maximum number of occupants is a design defined constraint, with 960
seats, for the food court, the office and the kidsplay, the reference of Tab S.4-6 of the Fire
Code allow an assessment for other areas.

People/square
Level 3 surf.(mq) Occ.
meter

shops 1313 263 0.2

seat places
cinema 1299 960
declared
office 616 62 0.1
kidsplay 526 210 0.4
food court 2059 1442 0.7

tot L3 5813 2936

Tab.2

As for the precedent data, the total number of occupants in the mall complex result in more
than ten thousand people.
3. Fire safety measures selected.

The design based on fire safety code is developed through the section S, fire strategy design,
in order to comply with the fire safety targets above illustrated.
The fire safety measures selected include:
3.1 Fire Reaction Requirements for upholstery and furnishing
3.2 Fire Resistance for Structures
3.3 Division into Compartments and compartments surface
3.4 Escape ways designed to fulfil the requirements of maximum length, position and
availability for the occupants of each level
3.5 Fire management system
3.6 Fire Control & Suppression
3.7 Smoke detection
3.8 Smoke control
3.9 Firefighting Operation
3.10 Safety of Technological & Utility network

The detail of the fire safety measures in the following paragraph.

3.1 Fire Reaction (cap. S.1 of the code)

DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASURE

The fire reaction is related to the goals 5. Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and
smoke until they reach a safe place., 7. Minimize smoke and fire spread inside building

As per the table S.1-3 the performance required for fire reaction of materials will be III for
the egress routes and II for other spaces for activities.
For the level II the conform solution will be the material class GM3, and for level III,
respectively, the material class GM2.

What that mean?

This impact on the characteristics of the upholstery, carpetings, coatings, chairs &
furniture.(table S.1-6)

For GM2 B-s2 d0 Cfl-S1

For GM3 C-s1,d0, Cfl S2

For ventilation ducts, look to table S.1-7.

An alternative approach is always available with the methods of G.2-6

3.2 Fire Resistance

Description of the measure

The fire resistance is mainly involved with the goals 6. Safeguard fire fighters while
performing rescue operations or attacking the fire. And 8. Limit the impact on business
continuity

Level III

By mean of an evaluation of the table S.2-3 and fire load data (reference the buchanan for
statistical data)

Between 60 and 120 minutes of fire resistance of structures.

Alternative solutions on fire resistance of structures as per G.2-6.

For the goal 6. Safeguard fire fighters while performing rescue operations or attacking the
fire it’s important to follow the procedures at paragraph S.2.8.2 of the code, for the secondary
elements.

Must be verified the vulnerability of structures (geodetic structures, membrane structures,

suspended structures, façades) to fire.

The Design decisions related to this issue are

7. Type of suspended ceilings.

The suspended ceilings aren’t a primary structure, as per the current regulation in Italy they
aren’t subject to a fire resistance evaluation, but, on the other hand, the Fire Code include an
evaluation for the rescue teams safety. The design decision is to do evaluate the fire
resistances of pans and other structures, to evaluate the collapse risk as effect of their position
over a fire plume or their resistance to the hot gases from the fire. The presence of a full
protection by an automatic sprinkler system as well as a smoke control system allow to
suppose the thermal effects on suspended ceilings will stay under safety range of resistance.

8. Requirements for shop facades.

The shop facades must be evaluated with reference to the general safety and the safety of the
rescue teams in case of fire.

7. Type of suspended ceilings.

8. Requirements for shop facades.

The detail design must consider the above characteristic of construction products as well as
the overall installation to comply with the objective
6. Safeguard fire fighters while performing rescue operations or attacking the fire.

An overall evaluation based on producer fire performance of products as façade panes, or if

necessary a risk assessment by mean of fire models to evaluate the temperature field must be
conducted, to guarantee the safeguard of fire fighters from partial collapse of heavy and/or
dangerous elements from the ceiling of the mall as well as from panes. The external areas
with direct risk of façade panes collapse, as consequence of a fire in the building must be
considered in the emergency planning.

3.3 Compartments

This measure is related with all goals of the design

5. Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and smoke until they reach a safe place.
6. Safeguard fire fighters while performing rescue operations or attacking the fire.
7. Minimize smoke and fire spread inside building.
8. Limit the impact on business continuity
and involve the No.6. design decision : Fire compartmentation.
The performance level required by table s.3-2 is Level II

Standard solutions

The height of the structure is 17.2 m, as result of 4 levels, each 4.3 m height.

The mall will consist of a multi level compartment with the levels 0, 1, 2 (shop area)
And various compartment at the level 3 for the cinema, the food court and the offices.
The compartment at the third level will be with REI capabilities, each single cinema will be
separated with REI structures from others.

Alternative solution

By mean of SEFC and method G.2.6, a single compartment for all levels could be verified
with regard to a number of design fire scenarios.

Separation

As any information is included about the boundary activities, the chapter separation will not
considered here.

3.4 Escape ways

This is a main issue on this benchmark application of the fire safety code, dealing with the
capabilities of the structure to ensure the safe escape and, in general, the safety for the
occupants of the activity.

The goal of this item is:

5. Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and smoke until they reach a safe place.

By mean of the design decisions:

1. Occupant factors per square meter and overall evacuation strategy.
2. Staircases number, location and sizing.
3. Egress routes – location and sizing.
It’s first important to evaluate the number of occupants to be considered for the all activity,
considering at first the multi level compartment and after the level 3, with cinema and office.
To evaluate the number of occupants in each area, the reference is the values in Tab S.4-6 of
the fire code, where the assessment of this value must be done.

L 0-1-2 surf.(mq) Occ. aff Pers/mq

level 0 16072 3214 0.2

level 1 13332 2666 0.2
level 2 10390 2078 0.2

L1+L2+L3 39794 7959

Tab.1

The fire safety code allow to the store manager to define a different, and less challenging,
number of occupants with regard to the specific type of activity.

Here, for the aim of this paper, the default value of the code result in a total number of
occupants of 10895. A so high number of people require, for a simultaneous evacuation an
huge vertical escape system, as well an high number of escape doors.

Level 3 surf.(mq) Occ. aff Pers/mq

shops 1313 263 0.2

seat places
cinema 1299 960
declared
office 616 62 0.1
kidsplay 526 210 0.4
food court 2059 1442 0.7

tot L3 5813 2936

Tab.2

Making reference to table S.4.1 and S.4.2 of the Fire Code, the performance level required is
I, so the design goal will be the exodus of the occupants to a safe place, as defined at section
G.

Particularly the aim of the design of the escape system will be to move the occupants in an
open space, out of the mall.

For mobile stairs or tapis roulants, they will be considered on the escape systems with a
smoke detection plant, with performance level IV, and they will be safe blocked under the
exodus, under responsibility of the safety management

For the cinema seats, look at the Illustration S.4.1 for the disposition of the places.
 Fig. 1

The fire safety design philosophy, with compliance to the fire safety code approach, is to
include the three shops levels (Level 0, 1, 2) in a single multilevel compartments, and an
independent fire compartment for the third floor, also separating the cinema from the
restaurant. The office space will be also separated by fire resistant walls, with independent
escape routes.

Each component of the escape system is designed with reference to the most dangerous life
risk profile, with reference to the exodus, between the compartments.
So our reference on life risk attribution will be B3.

The design criteria for horizontal escape way is based on tables S.4-10 for maximum length
of 40 m with a maximum available single way pattern of 15 m.
 Fig. 2

For the total width of escape routes the table S.4.11 allow a specific width of 6.20
mm/person, so a minimum total width of horizontal way out is simply evaluable.

Horizontal MINIMUM REQUIRED escape ways L0-1-2

L 0-1-2
Escape way horiz width 1200mm 1800mm 2400mm
number

level 0 17 12 9
level 1 14 10 7
level 2 11 8 6

Tab 3

Obviously the level 0 will have direct external door, with the requirement of absence of flow
interaction with the vertical flows from the levels 1 and 2.
 Fig. 3

The doors from level 0 will be placed enough far away from the external stairs serving the
upper levels of the mall.

Horizontal MINIMUM REQUIRED escape ways L 3

Level 3
Escape way horiz width 1200mm 1800mm 2400mm
number

shops 2 1 1

cinema 5 4 3

office 1 1 1
kidsplay 2 1 1
food court 8 5 4

Tab 4
For the vertical escape ways the design criteria is to totally separate the flows from the 3rd
level with restaurant, cinema, shop and office from the other two levels.

This approach is largely based on external stairs than on smoke proof internal stairs, with the
result to a number of external steel structures, but, in the other hand, the internal layout will
not modified as the shop surface will result completely available with the only exception of
crossing gaps.

A simultaneous exodus approach was chosen, as per paragraph S.4.8-.6.1, in consideration

that the levels 0, 1, 2 are a single compartment.(see S.4.7.2 n.4).

VERTICAL MINIMUM WIDTH L1-2

occup tot L1-2 4744 120 mm 180mm 240mm

unitary width (mm/pers.) 6.4

width tot. ALL (mm) 30364.22 26 17 13

Tab 5
VERTICAL MINIMUM WIDTH L3

occup tot L3 2936 120 mm 180mm 240mm

unitary width (mm/pers.) 6.4

Width tot. ALL (mm) 18790.16 16 11 8

Tab 6
Exodus of people with disabilities

Must be also considered the evacuation of people with disabilities as per S.4.9 paragraph,
including area of rescue assistance, with strong connection with safety & fire management
system.
Area of rescue assistance will be included in all levels, as the presence of people with
disabilities couldn’t be excluded nor in the shopping areas nor in the cinema or restaurant.

For the cinema dedicated places will be included in the detail design of each projection room.
The dimensions of the safe space must be enough to house all people with disability in the
area, for the level 1 and 2 the availability of more than one single safe place must be
considered, with reference to the medium distance from each level point.

Each safe place must include a safe bidirectional communication system with the emergency
management room and with the external lines, rescue tools (wheelchairs, stretchers, first aid
kit) and instructions for the safe behaviour waiting rescue teams.

Fig. 4

The areas of rescue assistance must be compliant with ISO 21524 standard, with information
and indication panels compliant with ISO 7010 or E024 or equivalent.
Fire Management System

This is a main issue on this benchmark application of the fire safety code, dealing with the
capabilities of management to cope with the safety management to maintain the fire risk
under the design conditions (fire loads control, escape ways availability, plants maintenance)

The goal of this item is

5. Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and smoke until they reach a safe place.
7. Minimize smoke and fire spread inside building.
8. Limit the impact on business continuity

Influencing the design decisions related to:

1. Occupant factors per square meter and overall evacuation strategy.
2. Staircases number, location and sizing.
3. Egress routes – location and sizing.

For 2. and 3. must be considered the effective availability of egress routes, a primary item in
shops and malls, as the sell surface and the disposition of products could hardly influence the

As the activity include a very large number of occupants, with crowd management as a
central issue on the safety management system in occurrence of a fire, a level III of Fire
Mangement System will be required.
An emergency room will be included in the design, with a dedicated area and staff.

Fire Control

The goal of this item is related with:

5. Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and smoke until they reach a safe place.
6. Safeguard fire fighters while performing rescue operations or attacking the fire.
7. Minimize smoke and fire spread inside building.
8. Limit the impact on business continuity

An automatic fire control system based on sprinkler technology will be installed in all areas,
with technical requirements of EN 12845 (or equivalent standard as NFPA 13).

The mall will be protected with an internal and external fire protection with fireplugs and fire
hoses full compliant with a state of art standard.
Smoke Detection

The goal of this item is related with:

5. Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and smoke until they reach a safe place
7. Minimize smoke and fire spread inside building.
8. Limit the impact on business continuity
by mean of the design decision
4. Smoke control strategy for the mall.
5. Smoke control strategy in shops.

An automatic smoke detection system will be installed in all areas of the mall, including
technical areas and specific risk areas with level IV of performance as per S.7.2.
The smoke detection will be compliant with commonly accepted standards, and will be
integrated in the fire management system with EVAC

table s.7-5

Smoke control
5. Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and smoke until they reach a safe place
7. Minimize smoke and fire spread inside building.
8. Limit the impact on business continuity
by mean of the design decision
4. Smoke control strategy for the mall.
5. Smoke control strategy in shops

A level III of performance smoke control system will be installed, with convective smoke
evacuation system on the third floor and mechanical evacuation systems on the mall on the
levels 0,1,2 by mean of channels, a full detail study on the compatibility with the sprinkler
system and with the mall geometry will be conducted. For the levels 0,1,2 the smoke duct
will be placed on the external walls, by mean of horizontal ducts operating a forced
convective smoke control from the mall gallery, and from the biggest shop areas.
Fire Rescue Operations

A level III of performance in Fire Rescue Operations, as defined in the table S.9.2 of the Fire
Code, will be required for the overall activity.
This requirement could affect the management of the fire operation in case of fire in the
structure, with regard to the safety for firefighters teams.

The two items:

7 Type of suspended ceilings
8 Requirements for shop facades
are or particular interest to fulfil this requirement

the level III is intended allow the availability of the external area of the mall for rescue teams,

Safety of utility and service network

All utility and service networks must be designed in compliance of standards accepted for the
authority having jurisdiction in the country of construction.
Particularly, the utility network must be installed to avoid explosion or fire risks, and must
comply to the requirements and specific of performance required (i.e. minimum time of
guaranteed service for power auxiliary generation).

4. How safe egress will be provided for building occupants under a variety of
reasonably foreseeable fire scenarios.

The approach to the egress design is based on a large availability of external stairs for Levels
1, 2 and 3, coupled with maximum length of egress horizontal ways. Some internal escape
ways are available, as a mobile stair system is included from levels 0,1,2, with elevators. The
level 3 is accessible by men of fire protected elevators or by external stairs, as it is a separate
compartment from L0,1,2.
The openings at the ceiling of the level 2 are sealed with pans fire resistant, with any pattern
available for the fire smoke.
The Fire code is based on a design philosophy very close to BS9999 with a single fire
ignition in a compartment of the activity.
On the other hand, the performance levels selected for automatic suppression system, fire
detection system and fire control system are designed to guarantee tenability parameters in
each compartment for enough time for a safe evacuation in a large variety of fire scenarios, as
a fire in a shop, or in the mall.

5. How human behaviour was considered.

The safety management system manager is responsible to address a complete and correct
information to the occupants during the emergency, and a number of emergency operators
will be available on the occurrence of a fire.
As above mentioned, the Fire Safety Code doesn’t include the arson as a fire design scenario,
but a security service will be available as usual in the mall.
6. The fire scenarios evaluated, and how they were selected.

The fire safety code consider a design philosophy based on single compartment risk
assessment and a single fire on the activity. The arson will not considered-as a design
scenario.
The fundamental hypothesis of the Fire Safety Code are:
in ordinary conditions, a fire in an activity start from a single ignition point
The overall fire risk for the activity couldn’t reduced to zero

The fire safety measures, intended as fire prevention and fire protection included in the
Italian Fire safety Code are selected to minimize the fire risk both regard to probability of a
fire ignition and to consequence of a fire, in measure of an acceptable risk.

The fire code allow a full performance based approach, with the cap. Methods, but in this
case study an approach based on the guided design procedure, following all the items of the
code from the risk assessment to the design of all fire safety and fire protection measures.

7. A discussion of how the proposed fire safety measures address the performance
criteria.

The fire code is based on a matrix approach, assigning specific performance levels to each
specific fire safety measure

8. How safety for fire fighters will be provided.

A specific chapter of the fire code is related to fire operations

9. How safety for persons with disabilities groups with small children will be
provided.

The above paragraph on egress and evacuation design include the disabilities management.
One or more areas of rescue assistance, compliant at ISO 21542 or equivalent standard, will
be included at levels 1, 2 and 3.
The fire emergency system management, as part of fire safety management system, will
include specific procedures for the areas of rescue assistance.
10. Fire safety tools and design methods used in the analysis and designs (i.e., fire
models, calculation methods, statistics, fire test data, etc.), including why the tools
were selected.

This design method doesn’t use directly mathematical fire models, the matrix based approach
is based on largely accepted fire statistic and fire test data. A reference is available at the end
o f each chapter of the fire code, including:

G2 Design for Fire Safety

BS 999 ed.2008 “Code of Practice for Fire Safety in the design, management and use of
buildings” British Standard Institution
NFPA 101 2”Life Safety Code”, National Fire Protection Association
International Fire Code 2009, International Code Council

G3 Determination of Risk Profile for the activity

ISO TR 16738:2009
BS 999 ed.2008 “Code of Practice for Fire Safety in the design, management and use of
buildings” British Standard Institution

S1 Fire Reaction and S2 Fire Resistance

European Commission, Harmonized European Standards

S3 Compartments
References for Compartments
Eurocode 1, UNI EN 1991-1-2
UNI EN 12101-6

References for safety distances and separation

R E H Read “External Fire Spread: building separation and boundary distances” BRE
Report
BS 9999 section 36
J R Howell “A Catalog of Radiation Heat Transfer Configuration Factors” University
of Texas, Austin, 2nd edition, 2001
T L Bergaman, F P Incropera “Fundamental of Heat and Mass Transfer “ Wiley, 2011

References for smoke shaft

G T Tamura, C Y Shaw, « Basis for the design of smoke shaft”, Fire Technology
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 1973
S4 Evacuation
ISO 13571 Life-threatening components of fire -- Guidelines for the estimation of time
to compromised tenability in fires
ISO/TR 16738:2009 Fire-safety engineering -- Technical information on methods for
evaluating behaviour and movement of people
ISO 21542:2011 Building construction -- Accessibility and usability of the built
environment
BS 9999 section 5 Design means of Escape

International Fire Code 2009, Chapter 10

NFPA 101 2”Life Safety Code”, hapter 7

Proulx G, “Hazard calculation: Evacuation Time” in the SFPE handbook of fire

protection engineering

UK Department of Health “Health Technical Memorandum 05-02:Fire Code –

Guidance in support of functional provisions (Fire Safety in the design of healthcare
premises), 2014

UK Department for Communities and local government Publications “Technical Risk

Assessment Guide on transport premises and facilities”, 2007

S5 Fire Management

UNI Inail “Linee Guida per un sistema di gestione di sicurezza e salute sui luoghi di
lavoro(SGSSL), 2011

BS OHSAS 18001 e Linee Guida BS OHSAS 18002 per la “valutazione della salute e
sicurezza sui luoghi di lavoro (Occupational health and Safety Assessment Series,
OHSAS)”

UNI 11224 “Controllo Iniziale e manutenzione dei sistemi di rilevazione incendi”

S6 Fire Control
S7 Smoke Detection and Fire Alarm

S8 Heat and Smoke control

S9 Fire Operativity

11. Which aspects of the analysis were modelled, and which were based on
engineering judgment.

Almost all the sections of the Fire Code applied for the design procedures are based on
engineering Judgement included in deemed to satisfy provision, as the quantitative methods
are used for alternative solutions.
The deemed to satisfy solution were derived both from international and national recognized
scientific literature, statistical data and engineering judgement, from the experience of years
of fire operations, in civil and industrial fires.

12. Fire safety management requirements, including material control, change of

occupancy requirements, education and training, etc.

The specific chapter S.5.6 of the Fire Code include specific prescription for the safety
management of the activity, including fire load control, material control (i.e. upholstery,
furnishing). A safety management system, compliant with OHSAS or equivalent standards)
must be activated to take under control the fire risk in the activity as effect of maintenance
and modification of single areas.
All workers must be receive a complete instruction about the fire management system, and
the compliancy to the constraint to shopping areas and all activities.
Here, we considered a fast fire growth curve, conducting to a demanding performance
required to all component of the fire prevention and protection strategy .

13. Discussion of how uncertainties were addressed.

The design procedure for the deemed to satisfy solutions in the code take in consideration an
uncertainly margin, and the performance levels for each issue include a safety coefficients.
The choice in this exercise was to apply nothing but the deemed to satisfy solutions, on the
other hand, however, the method section of the code include an evaluation and validation
procedure for numerical simulation of fires.
14. References for all engineering tools and methods, input data, fire tests, occupant
characteristics, statistics, etc.

A full reference is available in the DM 3/08/2015 (Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica

Italiana n.192 del 20/08/2015 Serie Ordinaria n.51).
As above reported, an engineering reference for each chapter is available in the previous
section

15. Drawings and specifications as necessary.

The following drawings represent the application of the fire safety code to the structure. The
aim of this exercise is only to expose a first result, only using the solution included in the
code for the fire safety and fire protection issues, without a deepest evaluation, however
available in the tool.
The level 1 and 2 have some escape ways on the roof surface of the above levels, and the
level 3 is totally independent for its escape patterns.
The choice was to set a challenging number of occupants, with the higher value supposed in
the default value for the fire code, is however possible for the structure manager to do a
formal declaration with the maximum number of occupants admitted in the structure.
On the other hand, the safety management system must include an occupant number control
system at all gates.

The design choice is a two fire compartment structure, with the first including levels 0, 1 and
2 and the second the level 3.

Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Fig. 10
 SFPE Shopping Centre Case Study

Christine Pongratz (Arup), Darren Agnew (Hoare Lea), and

Sandy Killbourn (Gartcarron Fire Engineering)

United Kingdom SFPE Chapter

May, 2016
Table of Contents
SUMMARY 1

THE TEAM 4

1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 The Design Approach 5
1.2 Qualitative Design Review 6
1.3 RIBA Stage 2 design 7
1.3.1 RIBA Stage 2 description 7
1.3.2 Design decisions (SFPE Design brief section 3) 9

2 GOALS 10
2.1 Regulatory Requirements 10
2.2 Client Goals 10

3 CONSTRAINTS - BULDING DESCRIPTION 11

3.1 Hazard Identification 12
3.2 Risk Profiles 13
3.2.1 Occupancy Characteristics 13
3.2.2 Fire Growth Rate 14
3.2.3 Creating the Risk Profile 14
3.2.4 Variation of Risk Profile 15

4 FIRE STRATEGY 15
4.1 Outline Fire Strategy Assessment and Proposed Approach 15

5 MEANS OF WARNING AND ESCAPE 22

5.1 Evacuation Philosophy 22
5.1.1 Evacuation Strategy 22
5.1.2 Simultaneous evacuation 22
5.2 Automatic fire detection and alarm 23
5.3 Horizontal means of escape 24
5.3.1 Number of occupants 24
5.3.2 Minimum number of escape routes 24
5.3.3 Alternative escape routes 25
5.3.4 Access to storey exits 26
5.3.5 Width of Doors, Corridors and Escape Routes 26
5.4 Vertical means of escape 29
5.4.1 Width of escape stairs 30
5.4.2 Discounting of stairs 32
5.5 Persons with Restricted Mobility 32
5.6 Final Exits 33
6 INTERNAL FIRE SPREAD 34
6.1 Linings 34
6.2 Structural fire protection 34
6.3 Sprinkler system 34
6.3.1 Sprinkler Performance requirements 35
6.4 Compartmentation 35
6.4.1 Compartment Floors 35
6.4.2 Compartment Walls 35
6.4.3 Shop Façade Compartmentation 35
6.4.4 Cinema 36
6.4.5 Places of Special Fire Hazard 36
6.4.6 Including protection of opening and fire stopping and cavity barriers 37
6.5 Proposed compartmentation arrangements 37
6.6 Smoke control strategy 40
6.6.1 Description of the smoke control system 40
6.6.2 False ceiling and mechanical extract design 41
6.6.3 Smoke control zoning strategy 42
6.6.4 Smoke Zone Diagrams per level 49
6.6.5 Smoke extract system - performance requirements 51
6.6.6 Solution Analysis – Design Fires 55
6.6.7 Separation distance requirements through mall circulation space 65

7 EXTERNAL FIRE SPREAD 66

7.1 External Wall Construction 66

8 FIRE FIGHTING ACCESS AND FACILITIES 66

8.1 Internal fire fighting provisions 66
8.2 Vehicle Access 69

9 MANANGMENT 71
9.1 Specific Management Requirements 71

10 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE 73
10.1 Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 73
10.2 Construction, Design and Management Regulations (CDM) 74

11 ENGINEERED SOLUTIONS – RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 74

11.1 Sprinklers design in shop units 74
11.2 Smoke control design within the shop units 76
11.3 Design fire size to inform smoke control 77

12 CONCLUSION 77

13 REFERENCES 79
British Standards Publications 79
SUMMARY

This report was written for the Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE) as part of the 11th
Conference, titled ‘Performance Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods’, which will
be held in Warsaw, Poland in May of 2016. The SFPE United Kingdom Chapter, who
includes Christine Pongratz, Darren Agnew, and Sandy Kilbourne, has developed a fire
safety strategy for the proposed SFPE Shopping Centre case study as a part of this SFPE
Performance Based Design conference.
The objective of this case study is to prepare a performance-based fire safety strategy report
for a shopping mall. The project brief, provided by SFPE, defines the goals of the “client”,
and the “constraints” provided by the buildings architectural plans proposed. It is therefore
the objective of this report, to outline an example a fire safety design solution from the design
perspective of the United Kingdom. This report has been written to address an international
fire engineering audience, mainly the SFPE case study participants, as a means to
communicate an example of the U.K. design practices.
The specific requests within the SFPE design brief have been addressed by means of
providing an example fire strategy. The fire strategy identifies a full set of goals and
constraints (some additional from the design brief, but typical in the U.K.), and describes a
fire safety design solution specifically to address (1) Means of warning and escape (2)
Internal fire spread (linings) (3) Internal fire spread (structure) (4) External fire spread, and
(5) Access and facilities for the fire service. The fire strategy has been written to the level of
detail typical for a RIBA stage 2 (concept design stage). However, additional background
(exceeding a typical stage 2 fire strategy), such as guidance document context and history,
and engineering methodology descriptions and solutions, has been provided within the report
for the purposes of the case study fire engineering audience. The shopping centre is assumed
to be located in the United Kingdom and the basis of the fire strategy design has been
considered to comply with relevant municipal statutory requirements (Part B of the Building
Regulations as an example in England).
A qualitative design review has been performed to develop a fire strategy which applies both
fire engineered solutions and relevant U.K. guidance for an optimal design solution at this
design early stage. Specifically, the smoke control design has been developed utilising a fire
engineered approach, to install a mechanical exhaust system within the shop and mall
circulation areas. Design items such as structural fire precautions, firefighting etc. follow the
guidance offered within BS 9999, BS 5588 (Part 7 and 10), and BS 7974.
THE TEAM

The United Kingdom Shopping Centre Case Study report has been written by the following
individuals:

Christine Pongratz, BSc, MSc, AIFireE (U.K.), E.I.T (USA),

Fire Engineer, Arup Fire U.K.
Christine is a Fire Engineer for Arup in London. She attended the
University of Maryland, where she graduated with her B.S. (2013)
and M.S.(2014) in Fire Protection Engineering. Christine has a
special interest in atrium smoke management, and completed her
M.S. thesis, sponsored by ASHRAE, utilising FDS to study the
impact of increased velocities of make-up air on fire plume
dynamics in atrium smoke control design. As a part of the Arup Fire U.K. team, her current
work includes the development of the fire strategy for a 90,000 capacity stadium designed for
the 2022 Football World Cup. Christine is a member of the IFE, and is currently the treasurer
of the SFPE U.K. Chapter.

Darren Agnew, BSc, AIFireE, Fire Engineer, Hoare Lea

Darren graduated with Honours in 2014 from Glasgow Caledonian
University with a Bachelor’s Degree in Fire Risk Engineering. After
undergoing a successful placement in 2013, he joined Hoare Lea in
Manchester in July 2014 as a Graduate Fire Engineer. He has worked
on a number of projects across a range of sectors, including
Residential, Educational and Health Care. Which have incorporated a
number of aspects such as CFD modelling assessments, fire strategy
reports and fire compartment surveys.

Donald “Sandy” Kilbourne, MBA, BSc, GIFE, Owner &

Managing Director, Gartcarron Fire Engineering
Sandy Killbourn is an ex local authority fire officer with over 31
years’ experience in the fire service, during which he has acquired
twenty three years front line fire safety management predominantly
based in the greater Glasgow area.

Educated to degree level, he has a BSc (Hons) degree in Fire Risk

Engineering and a Master of Business Administration. As a result he has been the lead officer
for the local fire service, in conjunction with building standard’s verifiers, in the approval of
numerous proposals containing fire engineered solutions.
Sandy is the owner and Managing Director of Gartcarron Fire Engineering, a small Fire
Engineering practice based in Stirling. He is a Member of the Society of Fire Protection
Engineers and a Graduate of the Institute of Fire Engineers.
1 INTRODUCTION

The SFPE United Kingdom Chapter, has developed a fire safety strategy for a proposed
Shopping Centre case study. The objective of this case study is to prepare a performance-
based fire safety strategy report for a shopping mall, which includes retail shops,
supermarkets, food-court and restaurants, car parks, entertainment area etc. The fire strategy
approach has been developed on the basis of the drawing information received in the SFPE
design brief.
As a minimum, the proposed fire safety strategy meets the following fire and life safety goals
as described in the SFPE design brief:
 Safeguard occupants from injury due to fire and smoke until they reach a safe place.
 Safeguard fire fighters while performing rescue operations or attacking the fire.
 Minimize smoke and fire spread inside building.
 Limit the impact on business continuity
The full set of project goals, constraints, and assumptions, utilised to inform the design
solution, are identified in Sections 2 and 3 within the fire strategy report. Given the goals and
constraints identified, the design solution and its methodologies are subsequently described in
section 5 – 9, and outlined in a fire safety provision table in Section 4.
The fire safety solution is comprised of three components:
 The Fire Strategy: This is a description of what occupant, building management, and
fire service behaviour and provisions are expected, for given fire scenarios. It includes a
description of the evacuation zoning and any interactions between evacuation zones.
 Fire Protection Features and Systems: This is a description of the fire protection
features (passive and active fire protection systems) that are required to enable the fire
strategy.
 Management Plan: This is a description of the staffing duties, training, and maintenance
requirements required to maintain the fire protection features and systems to ensure the
correct operational response in the event of a fire or alarm. Note: A detailed and co-
ordinated plan is not included within this report, but is required to be developed by the
building operator.

1.1 The Design Approach

The fire safety design challenge is to engineer solutions that meet the goals within the
constraints as identified by the SFPE design brief. The specific client and legislative goals set
out for this U.K. case study are defined in Section 2. The constraints have been developed by
identifying the buildings architecture proposed at this stage, provided by SFPE, and by
identifying the potential hazards within the proposed mall, this is detailed in Section 3. The
fire safety design solution is therefore achieved and supported by addressing the goals while
overcoming the constraints, as the concept shows in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Fire safety goals, constraints and solution

1.2 Qualitative Design Review

In order to ensure the fire strategy solution developed for The SFPE shopping mall is
appropriate, a Qualitative Design Review has been undertaken. This QDR assesses whether
the fire safety solution meets the goals and how this can be demonstrated (i.e. following
prescription, qualitative assessment or quantified analysis). The process shown in Figure 2,
identifies how the QDR fits within the fire engineering design.

Figure 2: Fire engineering process (flow chart created from concepts in PD 7974)
The United Kingdom government produces prescriptive design solution guidance, (such as
BS 9999) for compliance with the municipal statutory building regulations (i.e. Building
Regulations 2010, Schedule 1, Part B in England).
Fire Safety Strategy has largely been developed based on contemporary U.K. based design
guidance to satisfy regulatory requirements (such as BS 9999). However, the scope of these
guidance document are often is limited to the ‘more common’ types of buildings. Therefore,
the fire safety strategy also includes for the adoption of more pefromance-based analytical
methods, specifically in support of the smoke control strategy developed for the mall area.

Fundamentally, the fire safety strategy design solution has been developed by adopting BS
9999, BS 5588 (Part 7 and 10), and BS 7974, where appropriate. The full list of guidance
utilised within this report is described in the references, in Section 13.

1.3 RIBA Stage 2 design

Having considered the input required for this case study design, this fire stragety has been
written during the initial concept development stages, as is typical for projects of this nature.
Therefore, the straetegy developed and information provided is relative to that produced with
working to RIBA Work Stage 2 (Concept Design).

1.3.1 RIBA Stage 2 description

The RIBA Plan of work is published by the Royal Institute of British architects. The RIBA
Plan of Work organises the process of briefing, designing, constructing, maintaining,
operating and using building projects into a number of key stages. It details the tasks and
outputs required at each stage, which may vary, or overlap, to suit specific project
requirements.
The latest 2013 edition is endorsed by the Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists,
the Construction Industry Council, the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland, the
Royal Society of Architects in Wales and the Royal Society of Ulster Architects.
The RIBA Plan of Work provides a shared framework for design and construction that offers
both a process map and a management tool. The work stages are used as a means of
designating stage payments and identifying team member’s responsibilities when assessing
insurance liabilities, and they commonly appear in contracts and appointment documents.
The RIBA Plan of Work outline is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: RIBA Plan of Work 2013
A typical RIBA Stage 2 (Concept Design), with regards the Fire Engineers deliverables for a
project of this nature, may include:
 Provide advice to the design team on items relating to the fire safety design of the
building via over-marked drawings (typically various iterations of drawings are allowed
for in this stage, establishing communication and development of ideas between the
project team) and attendance at design development workshops.
 Produce a concept stage fire strategy report, which would be largely visual in format and
would build on the feasibility report developed during the previous stage of the project.
At this stage a single report is expected to be needed.
 The fire strategy report should incorporate all fire safety goals and requirements as set out
by the client and insurers.
 The concept report should identify risks and opportunities to ensure these are clearly
understood by the client and project team.
 Communication typical for this design stage: design team meetings assumed during this
stage. Numerous meetings with the approving authorities.
1.3.2 Design decisions (SFPE Design brief section 3)
The full fire safety design solution for a Stage 2 (concept design) is described in Sections 4 –
9.
In regards to section 3 of the SFPE design brief, the decision decisions requested have been
addressed in the following sections of the report.
Table 1: Design decisions (per section 3 of SFPE brief)

Design Decision Section within report

Occupant factors per square meter Section 5.3.1
and overall evacuation strategy.
Staircases number, location and Section 5.4
sizing.
Egress routes – location and sizing. Sections 5.3.2-5.3.5
Smoke control strategy for the mall. Sections 6.6.3.2 - 6.6.3.6
Smoke control strategy in shops. Section 6.6.3.1
Fire compartmentation. Section 6.4
Type of suspended ceilings Section 6.6.2
Requirements for shop facades Section 6.4.3
2 GOALS

The objective of this case study is to prepare a performance-based fire safety strategy report
for a shopping mall. The fire safety solution must satisfy the client’s needs, either as the
building landlord, or as an individual tenant.
As such, the importance of integrated design throughout the building life is clear; this
integration therefore relates not only to design, but also construction, flexibility of use,
ongoing maintenance and operation. In order to meet all the needs of the client (SFPE), the
following fire strategy goals have been identified.

2.1 Regulatory Requirements

It is an essential legislative goal to comply with local building regulations. As a minimum in
the U.K., the design and construction of the completed building must:
 satisfy the functional requirements of Part B of the Building Regulations 2010 (Part B) –
(as an example to England specifically);
 satisfy the requirements under the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
2007; and
 be sufficiently manageable in accordance with the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety Order)
2005 (RRO).
This report describes how the functional requirements of the Building Regulations will be
met. In addition to this, it is essential that the building is designed and constructed to meet the
CDM regulations and to allow the owner/occupier to manage the building under the
requirements of the RRO. For the purposes of this case study exercise, this report does not
address the CDM and RRO compliance requirements. However, the CDM and RRO
requirements and consideration practices in the U.K. are identified in Section 10.
Part B of the Building Regulations consider five aspects of fire safety in the design and
construction of buildings:
 B1: Means of warning and escape;
 B2: Internal fire spread (linings);
 B3: Internal fire spread (structure);
 B4: External fire spread; and
 B5: Access and facilities for the fire service.
The above are addressed in Section 5-9 of this report.

2.2 Client Goals

The client, SFPE shopping centre, is focused on the base build design solution. As the
shopping mall will have multiple tenants, and is a multi-use building, the client’s primary
objective is to sell the potential tenants the opportunity for design fit-out flexibility. As tenant
fit-out design changes are anticipated (i.e. tenant change within shop unit or tenant would like
to combine to units into one), the client would like the base build design solution to allow for
maximum future flexibility. This flexibility includes minimizing construction disturbance
during fit-out changes, to avoid affecting business continuity in others the area of the mall.
The goals that have been accounted as described in Table 2.
Table 2: Client goals

Goal Description
Flexibility for tenant fit-out The client would like the base build design to reduce limitations on the tenant
design fit out design, within the unit and in regards to the store front entrance

Flexibility for future shop The mall is mainly fit with various size shop units. The client would allow for
tenants to combine adjacent units if desired.
unit size change

Limit impact of tenant fit-
out construction phase on
other areas of the mall
Limit the impact on business
continuity
It is anticipated that tenant will change within the life of the building. The
client would like the base build design solution to allow for minimum
disruption to the rest of the shopping centre, during the tenant fit out /
construction phase of an individual unit.
The client would like to limit disruption caused by false alarms, which do not
warrant a full building evacuation.

Limit smoke damage to the The client would like to limit smoke damage to the building.
building and its facilities

Realistic Managing regime The client will hire and train building management to follow procedures
regards to the life safety and fire strategy provisions. However, all
management obligations must be manageable with the number of staff
available.

No specific insurance requirements have been identified by SFPE. Therefore, no specific

property protection enhancements have been considered at this stage.

3 CONSTRAINTS - BULDING DESCRIPTION

The SFPE shopping mall contains a total of 4 stories, which house retail shops (ranging from
100m2 to 5000m2), a food-court with seating area, restaurants, a fitness club, and a cinema
with 5 theatres.
For the purposes of this Stage 2 concept design, the shop units as designated on the DWG
drawings produced by SFPE, will be treated as retail units.
The building height (to highest occupied floor in east atrium is 25m, and the building
extension footprint is approximately 26,920m2)
The SFPE shopping mall will consist of:
Level Building description
Level 0 Shop units (largest approximately 3,724m2)
Mall circulation space with kiosks
One “Kids Play” unit
Level 1 Shop units (largest approximately 2,417m2) and mall circulation space
with kiosks
Level 2 Shop units (largest approximately 5,222m2)
 Level 3 Shop units (largest approximately 2,191m2)
Food Court (seating area and kitchen units)
Cinema Foyer and 5 cinemas (which seat approximately 960 people
total) + staff

3.1 Hazard Identification

The following key fire hazards and constraints must be considered:
 High occupancy density, many of who will be unfamiliar within the building or the
evacuation procedures.
 All retail units are accessed off a central mall having a number of atria, which run the full
height of the building. This presents a potential route for fire and smoke to spread
between floors. As the smoke rises up the void, the volume of smoke will also increase.
 The fire growth rate within retail environments is typically fast due to the volume and
type of materials stored within, however automatic suppression is likely to slow this
growth and reduce the potential for fire spread.
 There is a cinema on level 3, which presents a higher occupancy density than expected
within the mall.
 A kid’s play is proposed at Level 0, during evacuation families will want to congregate
together before exiting the building. This presents additional egress considerations.
Note: Where a crèche (kids play) is provided for children separately from their parents
or guardians, it should be sited adjacent to escape routes used by parents or
guardians on their way out to avoid the clashing of streams of people as parents or
guardians collect their children. A crèche should be at or as near ground level (or
the level at which the final exits discharge) as practicable. In no circumstances
should the accommodation for children be:
1) on a floor above the level at which their parents or guardians are
accommodated, unless the escape route is through the upper level; or
2) at basement level, unless the final exit is at basement level.
The crèche should preferably be adjacent to an external wall and should not have
fewer than two exits, one of which should be a final exit.
Based upon this guidance the “Kids Play Area” was relocated from level +3 to the ground
floor level (Level 0). (BS9999)
 The completed building will be very large and there will be elements of complex
geometry (atria voids).
 Most prescriptive design guidance for shopping centres is based on single or two-storey
malls.
 There may be a desire to include fire loading within the mall in the form of displays or
kiosks.
3.2 Risk Profiles
Risk profiles are an important consideration in applying BS 9999 as they provided the
building blocks for the fire safety design of a particular building. They determine the travel
distances that should be applied, where minimum fire safety measures applicable are in place
and allow predetermined variations to those travel distances within certain limits. They also
provide guidance on the most suitable level of management that should be in place for each
risk profile.
The risk profiles are constructed from the occupant characteristics and fire growth rates.

3.2.1 Occupancy Characteristics

The occupancy characteristics take account of the occupant’s familiarity of the building
layout and therefore their knowledge of the locations of final exits and stairs and whether the
occupants are likely to be awake or asleep. The occupant characteristics are broken down into
five main groups, with the classification – Occupants who are likely to be asleep: having
three sub-groups to reflect the differing needs of different residential occupancy types.
Table 3: Occupancy Characteristics

Occupancy Description Examples

characteristic
A Occupants who are awake and familiar Office and industrial premises
with the building
B Occupants who are awake and Shops, exhibitions,
unfamiliar with the building museums, leisure centres,
other assembly buildings,
etc.
C Occupants who are likely to be asleep:
Ci Long-term individual occupancy Individual flats without 24 h
maintenance and management
control on site
Cii Long-term managed occupancy Serviced flats, halls of
residence, sleeping areas or
boarding schools
Ciii Short-term occupancy Hotels
A)
D Occupants receiving medical care Hospitals, residential care
facilities B)
E C) Occupants in transit Railway stations, airports
A)
Currently occupancy characteristic D, medical care, is dealt with in other documentation
and is outside the scope of this British Standard.
B)
Under some circumstances, residential care facilities may be classified as occupancy
characteristic Cii.
C)
This occupancy characteristic is included for completeness within this table but is not
referred to elsewhere in this British Standard.
For the shopping centre under consideration the occupancy characteristics “A” and “B” are
relevant and have been applied in this case study.
3.2.2 Fire Growth Rate
The fire growth rate is the rate at which it is estimated that a fire will grow. The fire growth
classifications have been developed through scientific research. Fire growth rates should be
categorized as follows:
Table 4: Fire growth rate examples

Category Fire growth Examples Fire growth

rate Parameter A) kJ/s3
1 Slow Banking hall, limited combustible 0.0029
materials
2 Medium Stacked cardboard boxes, wooden 0.012
pallets
3 Fast Baled thermoplastic chips, stacked 0.047
plastic products, baled clothing
4 Ultra-fast Flammable liquids, expanded 0.188
cellular plastics and foam
A)
This is discussed in PD 7974-1.

3.2.3 Creating the Risk Profile

Risk profiles are given as a combination of occupancy characteristic and fire growth rate.
Where a number of risk profiles apply within one building, the higher risk profile should be
used.
Table 5: Risk Profile from BS 9999

Occupancy characteristic Fire growth rate Risk profile

A 1 Slow A1
(Occupants who are awake and familiar with the 2 Medium A2
building) 3 Fast A3
4 Ultra-fast A4 A)
B 1 Slow B1
(Occupants who are awake and 2 Medium B2
unfamiliar with the building) 3 Fast B3
4 Ultra-fast B4 A)
C 1 Slow C1 B)
(Occupants who are likely to be 2 Medium C2 B)
asleep) 3 Fast C3 B), C)
4 Ultra-fast C4 A), B)
A) These categories are unacceptable within the scope of BS 9999. Addition of an effective
localized suppression system or sprinklers will reduce the fire growth rate and
consequently change the category
B) Risk profile C may be divided into sub-categories, viz. Ci1, Cii1, Ciii1, etc.
C) Risk profile C3 will be unacceptable under many circumstances unless special
precautions are taken.
Therefore, the following risk profiles are considered applicable to the shopping centre that
forms the basis for this case study:
Table 6: Occupancy and Risk profile for mall population

Occupancy Risk profile

Concourse or shopping mall B2
1)
Crèche B2
Office (open-plan exceeding 60m2) A2
B)
Shop sales area B3
Shop sales area C) B3
2
Office (closed-plan or office less than 60m ) B2
Restaurant B2
Theatre/cinema/concert hall auditoria B2
This category is not defined within BS9999, based upon the groupings available; we have
assumed that it falls within a Risk Profile B2.
B) Excluding those in covered shopping complexes and excluding department stores but
including those that trade predominantly in furniture, floor coverings, cycles, prams, large
domestic appliances, or other bulky goods, or cash and carry shops.
C) Including supermarkets, department stores, shops for personal services like
hairdressing, shops for the delivery and collection of goods for cleaning/repair/treatment or
for members of the public themselves carrying out such leaning/repair/treatment.

3.2.4 Variation of Risk Profile

Automatic sprinkler systems can provide an efficient means of fire control within a building
compartment. Such provision restricts fire growth, prevents fire spread, limits heat and smoke
generation, and can extinguish the fire. The guidance in BS 9999 therefore adopts an
approach whereby the risk profile level can be reduced by one level when sprinklers are
installed.
EXAMPLE The provision of an automatic sprinklered installation permits a reduction in fire
growth rate, allowing larger travel distances, smaller doors, larger compartments, reduced fire
resistance periods and other provisions recommended in this standard. An unsprinklered shop
with a risk profile of B3 would become B2 when sprinklered and an unsprinklered office with
a risk profile of A2 would become A1 when sprinklered. Also the addition of sprinklers
would have the effect of reducing a not allowable B4 risk profile to an acceptable B3.

4 FIRE STRATEGY

4.1 Outline Fire Strategy Assessment and Proposed Approach

The fire protection features and systems proposed as part of the fire strategy solution for the
SFPE shopping centre are described in Table 7. The table identifies the key fire safety
features and challenges in reference to the design brief, and the proposed design solution
strategy. As this is a stage 2 design, with various options to consider, also includes the
potential risks (from an approving authority’s perspective) and the opportunities to amend the
design solution by re-evaluation of goals and constraints (i.e. cost vs. benefit). Specific risks
and opportunities are further described in Section 11.
Section 5 - 9 describe the life safety and fire protection systems considerations in detail, in
the event of a fire within specific areas of the shopping centre.
Table 7: Fire Safety Provisions

Fire Safety Provision Comments Risks & Opportunities

Protected stairs and All protected stairs and corridors

corridors should be constructed to achieve a
minimum level of fire resistance of 60
minutes (for integrity, insulation, and
load-bearing capacity, where
required), when tested in accordance
with BS476 parts 21 & 22 1987.
Disabled refuge Refuges are commonly located within A person located within a refuge space
spaces fire protected stairwells. Each refuge should be assured that their presence
should provide an area accessible to a there is known by the building
wheelchair and in which the user can management team.
call for and await assistance. It is the responsibility of the building
Refuges spaces should be provided on management team to inform the
all storeys above ground of a building persons with the refuge of the
for: emergency, and attend to their safe
a) each protected stairway evacuation.
affording egress from each
storey; and
b) each final exit leading onto a
flight of stairs external to the
building.
A refuge space should be of sufficient
size both to allow the user to
Architecture

manoeuvre into the wheelchair space

without undue difficulty. The space
provided for a wheelchair in a refuge
should be not less than 900 mm ×
1,400 mm.
In addition, a system of two-way
communication between each refuge
space and a manned control room
(responsible for organising and
managing building evacuation) should
be provided.
Occupancy The occupants of the shopping centre As those unfamiliar with the building
comprise of: will form the largest group of
 Staff, both shopping centre occupants their risk profile takes
and individual retail units, precedence over all others.
who are generally familiar It is the clients responsibility to ensure
with the building layout and the building management for both the
fire safety systems within it; shopping centre and the individual
 Members of the public who units are sufficiently trained to assist
are assumed to be unfamiliar the occupants to make their escape.
with the building layout, and
their apporproate response/
exit location in the event of a
fire alarm or fire event
Fire control centre The fire command centre should be A discussion is required with the client
located adjacent to the main Fire to review available space for this
Fire Safety Provision Comments Risks & Opportunities

Service access point (indicative provision, and the Fire Service to agree
location shown in Figure 34), and is and co-ordinate for this provision
defined as a room which is either
solely dedicated as a control centre or
is combined with the building
management/security office.
Downstands Fixed smoke reservoir barrier The depth of the downstands directly
downstands, or smoke channelling informs the smoke exhaust rate
screens, are required within the mall required per smoke zone. Should the
areas to limit smoke spread beyond a proposed arrangement of such
defined area (i.e. smoke zone). The downstands require modification
design and location of such (either location or depth) beyond this
downstands is described further in stage, then this can affect the calculated
Section 6.6.2. performance of the smoke exhaust
system (i.e. exhaust rate and inlet air
provision).
Emergency voice Each refuge space contains a two way
communication communication device linking back to
system for refuge the fire control centre (in accordance
spaces with BS 5839-9).
Emergency lighting All emergency escape routes should
have adequate artificial lighting
provided in both public and back of
house areas. Lighting to escape stairs
should be on a separate circuit from
that supplying any other part of the
escape route. In addition, all escape
routes and communal areas should be
provided with emergency lighting in
compliance with BS 5266-1:2011.”
The system should be supplied with
backup power supply as it is
considered a life safety system.
Escape signage In accordance with BS 9999, every
escape route (other than those in
ordinary use) should be distinctively
and conspicuously marked by
emergency exit signs of adequate size
complying with the Health and Safety
(Safety signs and signals) Regulations
1996.
In general, signs containing symbols
or pictograms which conform to BS
ISO 3864-1:2011 satisfy these
regulations.”
Door control Power door mechanisms will be The automatic opening of the three
mechanisms provided to all final exit doors on final exit doors may present a security
Level 0 upon activation of a risk for the client, if the system were to
confirmed fire due to replacement air operate outside mall opening hours. If
required for the smoke control system. so, the solution for the make-up air of
The final exits will provide the inlet the smoke control system may be
air for the system, as described in reviewed at the next design stage.
Section 6.6.5.1. The power door
Fire Safety Provision Comments Risks & Opportunities

mechanism should be provided with

emergency power supply.
Sprinkler An automatic sprinkler suppression There is opportunity for fast response
suppression system system will be installed throughout sprinklers at false ceiling level to be
the building, including the additional omitted in shop units only. This is
enhancements for life safety, designed under the condition that the false
in accordance with BS EN 12845-1: ceiling provides a 70% opening to the
2004. ceiling void above.
See section 11.1 for details.
The sprinklers are installed for the
purposes of life safety, business
continuity, and property protection.
Therefore a redundant water tank and
sprinkler pump should be installed.

It is proposed that fast response type

sprinkler heads will be installed in all
shops, mall circulation, cinema and
food court areas (back of house areas
do not require fast response sprinkler
heads).

Sprinklers will be installed at false

ceiling level and within the based
build below the floor slab (topmost
height of the ceiling void).

See section 6.3 for details.

Emergency power Emergency power should be provided
to all life safety systems including
fire/smoke alarms, sprinkler pumps,
mechanical smoke exhaust, powered
doors, etc.
The emergency power should be
achieved by either duplicate and
independent incoming electrical
utilities or an emergency stand-by
generator.
Dry risers Provided in the fire-fighting shafts in
accordance with BS 9990. The dry
riser inlet will be provided on ground
level within 18m of the fire fighting
access point. The dry riser outlets are
located at each floor within the fire-
fighting shafts.
See section 8 for details.
False ceiling design A false ceiling with a 1.5m depth
in shop units and (below the 5.5m floor slab height) is
mall circulation required in all shop units, and mall
space circulation space. The suspended
ceiling is required to be at least 25%
‘open’ (geometric free area) to allow
smoke to rise through the ceiling. The
25% free area is based on the design
of sprinklers installed at the false
ceiling level.
Fire Safety Provision Comments Risks & Opportunities

See Section 6.6.2. for details.

Smoke control The shop units will contain a The smoke extraction system is
within the shop units mechanical smoke extraction system. designed for a 2.5MW fire in the shop
Within the shop units, smoke units given fast response sprinkler
reservoirs within the false ceiling will installation within the units. This may
create smoke zones (see Section be considered conservative. (See
6.6.3.1). Each smoke zone is limited 6.6.6.1 for details).
in area to 1,300m2, or 60m in length.
The mechanical extraction smoke
system is designed to extract smoke at
a rate to allow for a smoke layer to
form within the ceiling void. Smoke is
then exhausted via ceiling fans/ duct
system. Provisions are as follows:
The shop units greater than 1,300m2
will require their own mechanical
extraction system.
The shop units less than 1,300m2 will
share a ceiling void / smoke reservoir
with adjacent shop units
Each smoke zone is to be formed by
smoke retardant construction
downstands of 1.5m in depth around
its perimeter.
See section 6.6.3.1 for details.
The performance criterion for the
exhaust system is detailed in Section
6.6.5.
Smoke control The mall circulation space (which has
within the mall a floor slab immediately above) will
circulation space also contain a mechanical smoke
extraction system. Within the mall
circulation area, smoke reservoirs
within the false ceiling will create
smoke zones. No smoke zone can
exceed 1300m2, or 60m in length. The
mechanical extraction system will be
designed to extract smoke at a rate to
allow for a smoke layer to form
within the ceiling void. Smoke is then
exhausted via ceiling fans/ duct
system.
See section 6.6.3.2 for details.
The performance criterion for the
exhaust system is detailed in Section
6.6.5.
Smoke control The mall contains three large atria. The large atriums have been designed
within atria voids Each atria will require a mechanical to include for a mechanical smoke
(Atrium 1, 2, and 3 extract system to achieve the life extraction system utilising a zone
as identified in safety and property protection goals model calculation approach. Upon
Figure 13) as identified in Section 2. review of the design fire and
See section 6.6.3.3 for details. architectural considerations, there is an
opportunity to adopt a more
 Fire Safety Provision Comments Risks & Opportunities

The performance criterion for the progressive means of analysis, such as

exhaust system is detailed in Section Computational fire dynamic (CFD)
6.6.5. modelling, to provide a more accurate
assessment on the behaviour of fire and
smoke within the building than is
permitted by the current techniques
employed.

As described in Section 5.4.1, the

means of escape from the cinema does
not require escape through the atrium,
and the stairs are sized for simultaneous
egress. Currently the mechanical
exhaust system is sized for a steady
state condition to maintain a clear
height layer at the top most level.
Therefore the RSET will be relatively
low from the level 3 mall area. There is
an opportunity in the next design stage
to consider an ASET/ RSET analysis to
determine if the calculated mechanical
exhaust rate can be reduced.
Compartmentation – Compartment walls should be It should be noted that shop units less
Retail Units provided with 60 minutes of fire than 1300m2 which share a smoke
resisting construction (for integrity, reservoir zone will not include full
insulation, and load-bearing capacity, height separation within the ceiling
where appropriate). void. The units are therefore fire
separated (wall between units) but do
not have full smoke separation. This is
a potential design with relevant
stakeholders, and further analysis
maybe required in subsequent design
stages to evaluate smoke temperatures
within the ceiling void.
Compartmentation – As described in Section 6.4.1,
Vertical service compartment floors are to be provided
risers

Construction

between the retail units and any

food and beverage units.
 between the retail units and the
Cinema.
Where compartment floors are to be
provided, any vertical riser
penetrating a compartment floor
should be either: (i) enclosed in 60
minutes of fire resisting construction;
or (ii) appropriately fire stopped at
each floor level it penetrates.
Compartmentation – All service penetrations through fire
Horizontal service compartment walls should be
penetrations adequately fire stopped/sealed to
maintain the fire integrity of that wall.
Protected lobbies to Where a lift well is not contained in a
lifts protected stair, there should be
smoke-retarding construction between
 Fire Safety Provision Comments Risks & Opportunities

the lifts and the accommodation. This

should be a protected lobby space,
provided with self-closing smoke-
sealed doors.
Fire Detection and An automatic fire detection and alarm
alarm system should be provided throughout
the building, designed and installed in
accordance with BS 5839-1.

Furthermore, voice alarm should be

provided in lieu of traditional
sounders with the effect of providing
a higher level of information to
occupants and consequently reducing
the risk associated with uncertainty
during response to alarm and thus
aiming to reduce occupant pre-
movement time.
Upon activation of a fire alarm second
stage this will be recognised as a
confirmed fire and the appropriate
effects of the fire safety systems will
operate.
A double knock (confirmed fire) will
be due to:
 Two smoke detectors activating;

Management

A single heat detector or sprinkler

activating;
 A manual call point being
activated;
 The investigation period timing
out without the alarm being
cancelled; and
 The alarm being manually
confirmed during the
investigation period.

See Section 5.2 for additional details.

Simultaneous Due to the large volume, potential for As safety is the over-riding concern a
evacuation a large population, and the public simultaneous evacuation strategy is
nature of the building, a simultaneous considered the best solution.
evacuation strategy is considered
appropriate.
Evacuation of The building management and its
Mobility Impaired tenants are responsible for managing
Persons the evacuation of Mobility Impaired
Persons from within their demise to a
safe refuge point within the landlord
areas.
The building management team will
be responsible for ensuring suitable
arrangements for assisting the
 Fire Safety Provision Comments Risks & Opportunities

evacuation of any Mobility Impaired

Persons within the landlord areas.
Fire safety The fire safety managers of each The centre management, acting on
coordination between individual organization should liaise behalf of the owners, have overall
landlord and tenants to ensure that: responsibility to ensure that the
 the emergency procedures occupiers of the retail units comply
are clearly understood by all with any reasonable instructions
relevant parties; regarding fire safety.
 every aspect of the fire safety These instruction normally form part of
precautions and facilities is the tenants handbook.
clearly allocated to be the
responsibility of at least one
party;
 no element of the procedures
is unreasonably duplicated;
 evacuation strategies for
disabled people are co-
ordinated between the
different occupancies

5 MEANS OF WARNING AND ESCAPE

5.1 Evacuation Philosophy

5.1.1 Evacuation Strategy

The evacuation procedures are an essential part of the overall fire strategy. There are two basic
categories of evacuation procedure:
 total evacuation of the occupants to a place of ultimate safety, by either simultaneous or
phased procedures;
 progressive evacuation of the occupants, initially to a place of relative safety within the
building where they can remain or, if necessary, complete the evacuation to ultimate
safety as part of a managed system.
A simultaneous evacuation (total evacuation) is considered appropriate for the SFPE
shopping centre.

5.1.2 Simultaneous evacuation

Simultaneous evacuation is a common approach adopted in premises where it would be
unreasonable to expect the occupants to remain in an affected area for a prolonged time when
there is a fire. This takes into account not only the physical effects of the fire, but the
psychological response of occupants confronted by an outbreak of fire. There are two
categories of simultaneous evacuation.
I. Single-staged evacuation: In a single-staged evacuation, the activation of a call point
or detector gives an instantaneous warning from all fire alarm sounders for an
immediate evacuation.
II. Two-staged evacuation: In a two-staged evacuation, there is an investigation period
(or grace period) before the fire alarm sounders are activated. A typical sequence of
events for two-staged evacuation is as follows.
1) Initially a coded staff alert is given.
2) There is then an investigation period (or grace period).
3) The evacuation signal is broadcast:
 if a fire is confirmed; or
 if an agreed investigation period lapses without the alarm being cancelled; or
 if a second detector is activated, “break glass” operated or sprinkler flow switch
operated during the investigation period.
In this instance, where there are large atria through which occupants would be aware of what
was happening elsewhere in the centre, and the potential for smoke to travel quickly into the
upper levels a strategy of simultaneous evacuation is appropriate. A delay of 5 minutes
between detector actuating and full evacuation commencing is considered appropriate. Such a
delay would allow the centre management to investigate any automatic fire signal and limit
the exposure of the traders having to evacuate for false alarms.

5.2 Automatic fire detection and alarm

The guidance in BS 9999 outlines the suggested fire alarm and detection system
(performance and coverage) based on the risk profile of the occupancy space.
Throughout the mall, it is considered that the level of coverage is consistent with a category
“L2” system defined by BS 5839-Part 1. The L2 system calls for detection coverage to escape
routes, rooms accessed off escape routes, and some additional supporting areas.
In summary the detection and alarm system should be installed as follows:
 Point smoke detection is provided in the mall circulation areas beneath the soffit above
(applicable at ground, first, second, and third level);
 Point smoke detection is provided within the corridors and lobbies forming part of the
escape routes, including back of house corridors, protected corridors to stairs, stairs,
escape corridors;
Point smoke detection in all retail units;
 Aspirating detection system is provided at high level, along the roof structure;
 The installed system is addressable (with fire control panel in fire control centre)
Automatic fire alarm and detection systems do not provide any degree of fire containment.
However, such systems, in addition to giving an alarm, can be used to initiate such functions
as:
 closing down ventilation and air conditioning plant to prevent smoke spread;
 operating fire suppression and/or smoke control systems;
 releasing passive fire protection equipment (e.g. automatic closing doors and shutters);

Multiple occupancy premises should be provided with a common detection and alarm system
appropriate to the individual risks. In areas with noisy environments or where people might
otherwise have difficulty in hearing the fire alarm, flashing warning beacons must be
considered (i.e. mall circulation, retail, and cinema).

5.3 Horizontal means of escape

Escape routes from each storey (or level) should be so sited that a person confronted by fire
can turn away and make a safe escape via an alternative exit/route. Routes of travel should be
free from any construction that could cause undue delay, especially to mobility impaired
persons, e.g. raised thresholds or steps, or doors that are difficult to open.

5.3.1 Number of occupants

A realistic estimate should be made of the maximum occupancy associated with the intended
use of the building, taking into account that a proportion of people have some form of
disability. The occupant capacity of a room, storey, building or part of a building is either:
 the maximum number of persons it is designed to hold; or
 the number calculated by dividing the area of room or storey(s) (m2) by the appropriate
floor space factor (m2 per person).
NOTE 1 “Area” excludes stair enclosures, lifts, sanitary accommodation and any other
fixed part of the building structure, but includes such features as counters, bars,
seating and display units.
The capacity of the stairs should not be used as a basis for determining the occupancy
capacity of a room, as this might result in an estimated occupancy that could not be
controlled in the event of an emergency.
Table 8: Occupancy load factors

Occupancy Occupancy Load Factor (m2 per person)

Concourse or shopping mall < 8m 0.75
wide
Concourse or shopping mall > 8m 2 1)
wide 1
Crèche 2 2)
Office (open-plan exceeding 60 5
m2 )
Shop sales area 2
Restaurant 1
Theatre/cinema/concert hall As per the number of seats provided, including
auditoria wheelchair spaces.
Applies only to the portion of the mall greater than 8m wide.
Occupancy load factor for classroom has been used.
NOTE 2 Occupancy Load Factors are only typical and higher or lower factors might be more appropriate
depending on the circumstances of the intended use and nature of the occupants.

5.3.2 Minimum number of escape routes

The escape route design must allow for a minimum number of escape routes based on the
maximum number of persons expected in each space. The minimum number of escape routes
is identified in BS 9999, and shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Minimum number of escape routes

Maximum number of Minimum number of escape

persons routes and exits from a room,
tier or storey
60 1
600 2
More than 600 3

5.3.3 Alternative escape routes

Where in multi-storey buildings more than one stair might be needed for escape, every part of
each storey should have alternative access to more than one stair. For those areas involving
initial dead-end conditions, this access should be provided when the alternative routes
become available.

Figure 5 Escape routes 45° or more apart Angle ABD should be at least 45°.
Alternative routes are available from C because CBA or CBD (whichever is less) should
angle ACB is 45° or more, and therefore CA or be no more than the maximum distance
CB (whichever is the less) should be no more of travel given for alternative routes,
than the maximum distance for travel given for and CB should be no more than the
alternative routes. maximum distance for travel where
Alternative routes are not available from D there are no alternative routes
because angle ADB is less than 45°. There is
also no alternative route from E.
a) Option 1 b) Option 2 (travel distance in dead-
end condition)
NOTE The use of dotted lines is to aid use of the diagrams and does not have any other
significance
Single escape routes and exits
A single escape route is acceptable in the following situations:
 parts of a floor from which a storey exit can be reached within the travel distance limit for
travel in one direction, provided that, in the case of places of assembly and bars, no one
room in this situation has an occupant capacity of more than 60 people, or 30 people if the
occupants require assistance to escape;
 levels with an occupant capacity of not more than 60 people, provided that the travel
distance limit for travel in one direction only is not exceeded.
In many cases there is no alternative at the beginning of the route. For example, there might
be only one exit from a room to a corridor, from which point escape is possible in two
directions. This is acceptable provided that the overall distance to the nearest storey exit is
within the limits for routes where there is an alternative, and the “one direction only” section
of the route does not exceed the limit for travel where there is no alternative.

5.3.4 Access to storey exits

Any storey that has more than one escape stair should be planned so that it is not necessary to
pass through one stairway to reach another. However, it would be acceptable to pass through
one stairway’s protected lobby to reach another stair.

5.3.5 Width of Doors, Corridors and Escape Routes

Every escape stair should be wide enough to accommodate the number of persons needing to
use it in a simultaneous evacuation emergency; this width depends on the number of people
using the stair on each storey, as further explained in Section 5.4. In a building designed for
simultaneous evacuation, the escape stairs should have the capacity to allow all floors to be
evacuated simultaneously and to enable people on the fire floor to leave the floor quickly.

5.3.5.1 Doors
The door width per person expected to use the door should generally not be less than the
value given for the appropriate risk profile and the total door width should be:
 not less than the aggregate of the exit widths; and
 not less than 800 mm regardless of risk profile.
However, if additional fire protection measures are provided the width may be reduced
subject to certain limitations.
NOTE An increased door width might be necessary on some access routes.
Where the minimum level of fire protection measures are provided the minimum width of doors
based upon the risk profile is:
Risk profile Minimum door width per person (mm)
A2 3.6
B2 4.1
B3 6
If a storey has two or more storey exits it has to be assumed that a fire might prevent the
occupants from using one of them. The remaining exit(s) need to be wide enough to allow all
the occupants to leave quickly. Therefore, when calculating the aggregate of the exit widths
the largest exit width should be discounted.
Generally, the total width of doors is calculated by multiplying the maximum number of
occupants by the minimum door width per person for the appropriate risk profile. This is
calculated as follows:
𝐶∗𝑑
𝑊=
𝑁−1
Where:
W = Door width
C = Occupancy Capacity
d = Minimum door width per person in mm
N = Minimum number of exits, when more than one is provided, or number of exits actually
provided if the minimum number is exceeded.
NOTE 1 This can result in very wide exits and additional exits may be provided to reduce the actual width
of the exits.

5.3.5.2 Exit Widths (Malls)

The total occupancy capacity of the mall has been used to calculate the required exit width
from the various levels. On the ground level (level 0) the proposed entrances/ exits can be
used as there are three of them with a total width of 24m. However, on the upper levels the
exit widths relate to stair or ramps to ensure adequate exits. The table below details the
appropriate exits widths for the malls on each level.
Table 10: Total minimum exit widths – Example

Total Width of Exits (m) Average width of exits (m)

Total Occ Minimum Minimum Fire Additional Fire Minimum Fire Additional Fire
Location Cap No of Exits Safety Safety Measures Safety Safety Measures
WT=C*4.1/1000 WTP=C*3.3/1000 WA=WT/3 WAP=WTP/3
Level 0 5717 3 23.44 18.87 7.81 6.29
Level +1 6176 3 25.32 20.38 8.44 6.79
Level +2 4855 3 19.90 16.02 6.63 5.34
Level +3 5709 3 23.41 18.84 7.80 6.28

Where:
WT = Total Exit Width with minimum Fire Safety Measures in place;
C = Occupancy Capacity;
WTP = Total Exit Width when additional fire safety measures are in place;
WA= Average Exit Width with minimum Fire Safety Measures in place;
WAP = Average Exit Width when additional fire safety measures are in place.
It is demonstrated that very wide exits are required when limited to the minimum number of
exits.
For the purposes of this case study the minimum fire safety requirements have been exceeded
and as a result the exit widths applicable to the malls have been taken to be the figure for
“Additional Fire Safety Measures”.
Figure 4: Examples Showing 5 Stairs on Level 3
As identified in Table 10, the level 3 requires a minimum total of 18.84m of exit width. The
proposed stair locations, and protected corridors identifies a total of 5 stairs required based on
the number of people expected, and minimum exit numbers required. Therefore, each stair
will be sized to 3.8m width (18.84m divided by 5 total stairs). This example applies to the
shopping centre mall area only, the cinema exit example is identified in Section 5.4.1.
NOTE: The Food court consists of a standing area immediately in front of the kiosk
where people wait to be served and a seating area with tables and chairs for
people to eat their food. These two areas have been included in the mall
capacity as they are open to the mall with no clear delineation between the
areas.

5.3.5.3 Shop Exit Widths

A similar exercise was carried out on the retail units, and subject to a minimum exit width for
a B3 risk profile of 1m regardless of the calculated exit width. Table 12 below details the
total exit width required for each retail unit on Level 0.
Due to the lack of detail available at this time – storage areas within the retail units, service
corridors, toilet facilities, staff areas etc. a full design of escape routes has not been possible.
These areas for which we currently have no details for would reduce the retail area and as a
consequence the occupancy capacity of the unit. The calculations presented are indicative of
the entire defined space being used for retail purposes. This has resulted in larger levels of
occupants that will actually be the case.
Once further details are available then the exit widths from each retail unit will be reviewed
and where necessary amended.
Table 11: Calculated exit widths for Level Retail Units

Level 0 Total Exit Width Min Width of

Shop No. Area (m 2 ) Occ Cap No. of Exits (m) Min Width (m) Each Exit (m)

A=L*W C=A/O L N W T =C*6/1000 WM=C*5.3/1000 WA=(C*d)/N

1 3717 1859 3 11.15 9.85 3.72
2 2557 1279 3 7.67 6.78 2.56
3 2183 1092 3 6.55 5.78 2.18
4 525 263 2 1.58 1.39 1.00
5 273 137 2 0.82 1.00 1.00
6 253 127 2 0.76 1.00 1.00
7 370 185 2 1.11 1.00 1.00
8 976 488 2 2.93 2.59 1.46
9 562 281 2 1.69 1.49 1.00
10 700 350 2 2.10 1.86 1.05
11 89 45 1 0.27 1.00 1.00
12 3030 1515 3 9.09 8.03 3.03
13 999 500 2 3.00 2.65 1.50
14 1745 873 3 5.24 4.62 1.75
15 242 121 2 0.73 1.00 1.00
16 1033 517 2 3.10 2.74 1.55
17 66 33 1 0.20 1.00 1.00
18 867 434 2 2.60 2.30 1.30
19 370 185 2 1.11 1.00 1.00
20 425 213 2 1.28 1.13 1.00
21 313 157 2 0.94 1.00 1.00
22 225 113 2 0.68 1.00 1.00

Note: The total width calculation uses a value of 6mm per person to calculate the exit width
and where additional fire safety measures are in place this value reduces to 5.3mm per
person.

5.3.5.4 Corridors and escape routes

The width of a door in a corridor should be not less than either the calculated corridor width
minus 150 mm, or 1,050 mm, whichever is the greater. In those limited circumstances where
the corridor is not required to be accessible to wheelchair users, e.g. in maintenance areas, the
width of the door may be reduced to 800 mm.
Where double doors are provided the width of one of the leaves should be not less than 800
mm. The width of a corridor or escape route should be not less than the calculated width of
any door leading on to it or 1 200 mm, whichever is the greater. Where the corridor is not
required to be accessible to wheelchair users, e.g. in maintenance areas, the width may be
reduced to 1000 mm.

5.4 Vertical means of escape

The number of escape stairs needed in a building (or part of a building) is determined by:
 the constraints imposed on the design of horizontal escape routes;
 whether a single stair is acceptable;
 whether independent stairs are required in mixed occupancy buildings; and
 the provision of adequate width for escape while allowing for the possibility that a stair
might have to be discounted because of fire or smoke.
In larger buildings, it is necessary to provide access for the fire and rescue service, in which
case some escape stairs might also need to serve as fire-fighting stairs.

5.4.1 Width of escape stairs

The guidance in BS 9999 provides the following to detail the width of escape stairs:
 should be not less than the width(s) of any exit(s) affording access to them;
 should not be reduced at any point on the way to a final exit; and
 should be not less than the dimensions given for the appropriate occupancy characteristic.

The width of the escape stairs is dependent on the occupancy use of the area which it serves.
The minimum width of the upward and downward travel defined by BS 9999 is shown in
Figure 10. The required width of escape stairs which serve a simultaneous evacuation, as
described below, should be compared to values in Table 12, to confirm compliance.
Table 12: Occupancy Characteristic (Table from BS 9999)

Occupancy Width of stair for downward Width of stair for upward

Characteristic travel (mm) travel (mm)
A 1000 1200
B (except assembly) 1000 1200
B (assembly only) 1100 1200
C 1000 1200
The width of an escape stair should be measured as the clear width between the walls or
balustrades, at the narrowest point up to 1500 mm above pitch line.
NOTE Handrails and strings which do not intrude more than 100 mm into this width may be ignored.
The escape stairs are sized using the guidance from BS 9999, which defines the minimum
width of stair per person over a total number of floors served for simultaneous evacuation,
based on the risk profile of the building.
Table 13: Width of escape stairs - Simultaneous evacuation (BS 9999)

Example Level 3 Mall

As an example from the mall area of level 3, the total occupant load within the mall is
expected to be 5709 using the methodology described in Section 5.3.1. Therefore, using the
B2 risk profile minimum width as identified in Table 13, a total of 19.41m of stair width is
required to serve the level 3 mall (3.4mm/persons x 5709 persons = 19.41m). It is currently
proposed for level 3 to have a total of 5 escape stairs serving the mall area, as shown in
Figure 4, therefore, each stair will require an average of 3.88m in width.
As the minimum width per stair serving the level 3 mall is 3.88m, the 1100mm minimum
width for downward travel required by Table 12 has been considered, and is exceeded
appropriately.
Example Level 3 Cinema
The simultaneous evacuation strategy will apply to the entire building including the cinema.
Where shopping centre complexes contain office blocks, hotels, residential accommodation
or places of entertainment such as theatres and cinemas, dance halls, etc. each of these other
occupancies needs to have its own internal means of escape arrangements set out in
accordance with accepted principles.
Alternative exits from these other occupancies should not discharge onto a mall even where
they have an entry from a mall.
Means of escape from these other occupancies should be separate from protected stairways
serving the malls or units. Thus the cinema complex requires its own means of escape as
follows:
Cinema Complex
Occupancy Capacity (C) 1000 (960 + 40)
Including Staff
Risk Profile B2
 No of exits/ Stairs *based on exit number provisions 3
from occupant load
Door Exit Width = 1000 persons *3.3 (mm/person) 3.3 m
/1000mm
*based on door exit width
provisions per person
Average Exit Width = 3.3/3 1.1 m
Stair Width = 1000 persons *3.4(mm/person) 3.4 m
/1000mm
*based on stair width provisions
per person
Average Stair Width = 3.4m/3 stair 1.13 m per stair
As the minimum width per stair serving the level 3 cinema is 1130m, the 1100mm minimum
width for downward travel required by Table 12 has been considered, and is exceeded
appropriately.

5.4.2 Discounting of stairs

Where two or more stairways are provided, it should be assumed that one of them might not
be available due to fire or smoke. When determining the aggregate capacity of all the
stairways, it is therefore necessary to discount each stair in turn in order to ensure that the
capacity of the remaining stairway(s) is adequate for the number of persons needing to
escape.
The stair discounting process is not required if:
 the escape stairs are approached on each storey through a protected lobby. In such a case
the likelihood of a stair not being available is significantly reduced and it is not necessary
to discount a stair. A protected lobby need not be provided on the topmost storey for the
exception still to apply;
 the stairways are protected by a smoke control system designed in accordance with BS
EN 12101-6 (i.e. fitted with a pressure differential system to inhibit smoke ingress)
 the building is provided with automatic sprinkler suppression system
As this building has been constructed with protected lobbies and sprinklers installed there is
no need to discount any of the escape stairs serving the mall.

5.5 Persons with Restricted Mobility

The preferred method of evacuation for disabled people is by horizontal evacuation to the
outside of the building or another fire compartment or by evacuation lift. If these are not
available or not in operation, then it might be necessary to carry a person with limited
mobility up or down the escape stair. Means of escape for disabled people may comprise a
combination of structural provisions (e.g. lifts, refuge areas, ramps) and management
procedures (e.g. assisted escape). A strategy should be designed to enable a flexible response
to different situations.
Even with extended distances (where additional means of support are included), most
disabled people are expected to be able to reach a place of relative safety without assistance.
However, certain people, such as some wheelchair users, cannot negotiate stairs unaided. The
following give advice on additional measures that can be taken to aid the evacuation of
disabled people:
 Evacuation Lift - A lift to be used for the evacuation of disabled people should be an
evacuation lift and should be operated under the direction and control of the fire safety
manager or a delegated trained staff representative.;
 Other Lifts - A lift not designed for evacuation may be usable for evacuation in certain
situations. If this is to be considered then a suitable fire risk assessment should be
undertaken to evaluate whether the lift meets the functional recommendations of an
evacuation lift.
 In the risk assessment all the features of fire protection in a building should be taken into
account. For example, in a building with automatic sprinklers and significant
compartmentation or smoke control, a risk assessment might conclude that a non-
evacuation lift would be usable in the initial stages of a fire. Likewise, in a very large
building, a non-evacuation lift which is remote from a fire in the initial stage might also
be usable.
 Refuges - The use of refuges within a building can be of great advantage in the
evacuation of disabled people as it enables their escape to be managed in a way that does
not hinder that of other users of the building.

5.6 Final Exits

Final exits need to be dimensioned and sited to facilitate the evacuation of persons out of and
away from the building. Accordingly, they should be not less in width than the escape
route(s) they serve and should also meet all of the following conditions:
 Final exits should be sited to ensure rapid dispersal of persons from the vicinity of the
building so that they are no longer in danger from fire and smoke. Direct access to a
street, passageway, walkway or open space should be available. The route clear of the
building should be well defined, and if necessary (e.g. potential traffic hazard) suitably
guarded.
 Final exits should be apparent to persons who might need to use them. This is particularly
important where the exit opens off a stair that continues down, or up, beyond the level of
the final exit.
 Final exits should be sited so that they are clear of any risk from fire or smoke in a
basement (such as the outlets to basement smoke vents, or from openings to transformer
chambers, refuse chambers, boiler rooms and similar risks).
 Where a final exit leads to steps outside the building, care should be taken to ensure that
there is space for a wheelchair user to move so they do not obstruct the flow of other
people leaving the building. Wherever possible final exits should provide a level or
ramped route away from the building.
6 INTERNAL FIRE SPREAD

6.1 Linings
In order to limit the risk of fire and smoke spread, all wall and ceiling linings should meet the
recommendations of BS 9999 Table 35, as follows:
Class of Lining
Location
U.K. National Class European Class
Small rooms of area not more than 30m2 3 D-s3, d2
Other rooms 1 C-s3, d2
Other circulation spaces 0 B-s3, d2
Table 14: Lining classifications
The architect must ensure that the above lining classifications are met through their choice
and specification of materials.
A Class 0 finish must be used in the mall and escape routes and gives the slowest spread of
fire when tested in accordance with BS 476: Part 6 and 7. Typical examples include concrete,
ceramic tiles and plasterboard.
A Class 1 finish can be used in retail units and achieves a slightly lower performance
compared to a Class 0 finish.
A Class 3 finish may be used in small rooms. Typical examples include timber with a density
greater than 400kg/m², timber particle board or glass reinforced polyesters.

6.2 Structural fire protection

Under the guidance of BS 9999, a fully sprinklered retail or assembly and recreation building
with a floor level not more than 18m in height from external Ground Level to the top finished
floor level, all structural frames, beams, columns, load bearing elements, and floor structures
are required to have 60 minutes fire resistance (integrity and insulation).
If the loadbearing elements of structure that only support a roof (and not any fire resisting
wall) then they need not be provided with fire resistance.

6.3 Sprinkler system

A sprinkler system will be installed throughout the shopping centre. The sprinklers are
installed for the purposes to limit fire and smoke spread from the compartment of origin by
controlling the size of a fire in order to allow adequate means of escape. Additionally the
sprinkler system is installed to meet the client objective of property protection and business
continuity.
It is proposed to provide sprinkler protection throughout the building at false ceiling level and
below structural slab level (within the ceiling void). An example of the false ceiling design
for smoke control, which includes the sprinkler location is shown in Table 11 in the following
section. The ceiling void should be maintained as fire sterile (no commodities to be stored or
built within the space).
There is opportunity to review the design solution to omit sprinklers a false ceiling level
within the retail units only. This is further described in Section 11.1, for stakeholder review
for the next planning stage.

6.3.1 Sprinkler Performance requirements

The sprinkler system should be designed and installed in accordance with BS EN 12845 serve
the building throughout.
The sprinkler system should be provided with fast response heads. On this basis, a design fire
size of 2.5MW has been used in the assessment, as recommended by BRE 368 ‘Design
methodologies for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation’.
The fast response sprinkler head will have a Response Time Index (RTI) of 50 ms1/2, and an
activation temperature of 68ºC.
The sprinklers are installed for the purposes of life safety, business continuity, and property
protection. Therefore a redundant water tank and sprinkler pump should be installed.
It is the responsibility of the sprinkler specialist contractor (not the fire engineer) to design
and fit the system to purpose.

6.4 Compartmentation

6.4.1 Compartment Floors

In accordance with BS 9999, it is considered necessary to provide compartment floors in the
following locations:
 between the retail units and any food and beverage units.
 between the retail units and the Cinema.
It is not considered necessary to provide compartment floors between different storey levels
within a single retail unit.

6.4.2 Compartment Walls

In accordance with BS 9999, the walls between retail units should be provided as
compartment walls which are provided with 60 minutes fire resistance (for integrity and
insulation, and lead-bearing capacity, where appropriate). It is also necessary to provide 60
minutes fire resistance to the walls separating the retail units from any escape corridors. A
period of fire resistance is defined by BS 476-21, in which elements of structure are required
to demonstrate a time period of resistance to a standard fire test.

The large retail unit on the second floor is in excess of 4000m2 and as such is required to be
provided with a compartment wall. However, this is subject to discussion with the tenant.
This should be developed at the next stage of the project in consultation with the tenant.

6.4.3 Shop Façade Compartmentation

In a covered shopping mall, the circulation space is effectively a substitute for the open street
during initial escape from a fire-affected unit. Due to the local proximity to other shop units,
the impact that a fire in one unit might have on another unit (adjacent or facing) is an
important consideration, and could effect a person’s safe exit through the mall circulation
route (between facing retail units).

The guidance in BS 5588 Part 10 identifies the increased hazard to occupants means of
escape within a covered shopping mall, however, specific quantitative methods of
engineering practice is not included in the guidance. Also consulted for guidance, the
Scottish, “Non Domestic Technical Handbook (NDTH), Annex C for additional guidance for
enclosed shopping centres, identifies a minimum mall width to be 6m (measured from shop
to shop front), which consequently exempts fire resisting construction on the shop façade
facing the mall.

It is considered acceptable to design for no additional fire resistance along the shop façade
facing the mall, as the minimum width of the mall circulation area is no less than 6m between
all facing shop units. Furthermore, this is considered acceptable due to the installation of fast
response sprinklers within each shop unit and within the mall circulation area (limiting fire
growth and spread).

6.4.4 Cinema
The cinema is to be treated as a single 60 minute compartment to assist means of escape, and
separation of the mall void. It is also recommended that the Foyer is separated from the
adjoining accommodation by a 60 minute fire rated compartment wall.

6.4.5 Places of Special Fire Hazard

Places of special fire hazard are defined in Table 31 of BS 9999, and require fire resistance as
below:
Table 15: Places of special fire hazard

Type of construction needed to separate Areas of ancillary accommodation

ancillary accommodation from other parts
of the building
Robust construction having a minimum
standard of fire resistance of 30 minutes
Robust, solid, non-combustible
construction having a minimum standard
of fire resistance of 60 minutes
Storage areas not more than 450m2 (except
refuse storage areas)
Repair and maintenance workshops where
flammable or highly flammable liquids are
not used or stored
Kitchens (separately or in conjunction with
an associated staff restaurant or canteen)
Transformer, switchgear, and battery rooms
for low-voltage or extra-low-voltage
equipment
Engineering services installation rooms
(except those listed below)
Dressing rooms or changing rooms
Cinema projection rooms
Storage areas more than 450m2 (except
refuse storage areas)
Places classified as High Fire Risk areas
 Repair and maintenance workshops where
flammable or highly flammable liquids are
used or stored
Covered loading bays and storage areas not
covered above
Robust, solid, non-combustible Refuse storage areas
construction having a minimum standard Boiler rooms
of fire resistance equivalent to that Fuel storage spaces
required for the elements of structure (i.e. Transformer and switchgear rooms for
90 minutes) equipment above LV
Rooms housing fixed internal combustion
engine(s)
Scene docks

6.4.6 Including protection of opening and fire stopping and cavity barriers
Where appropriate, suitable provisions should be made to prevent the unseen spread of fire
and smoke through cavities or concealed spaces by the use of cavity barriers. The provision
of any such barriers should meet the general recommendations of Section 34 of BS 9999.
Openings in any fire-separating element (e.g. compartment walls, cavity barriers, protected
corridor etc.) should be protected with appropriate fire stopping or sealing to ensure that the
fire resistance of the element is not compromised. The provision of any such protection
should meet the general recommendations of Section 35 in BS 9999.

6.5 Proposed compartmentation arrangements

The figures below, have been prepared to indicate the proposed location of compartment
walls. However, it should be noted that at this early of the design that no stairs, protected
shafts, service corridors etc. have been included. For further details identifying the
compartmentation of the fire-fighting shafts see Section 8.1

The compartmentation walls which require 60 minutes fire resisting construction (insulation
and integrity), are shown in red in Figure 5 - Figure 8.
Figure 5: Level 0 indicative compartment walls (red lines demark 60 minutes fire compartment walls)

Figure 6: Level 1 indicative compartment walls (red lines demark 60 minutes fire compartment walls)
Figure 7: Level 2 indicative compartment walls (red lines demark 60 minutes fire compartment walls)

Figure 8: Level 3 indicative compartment walls (red lines demark 60 minutes fire compartment walls)
6.6 Smoke control strategy
In order to evaluate the appropriate smoke extract system within each space of the shopping
centre, an analysis was completed to evaluate the potential hazards within the area. Individual
scenarios are considered to review each type of space (i.e. shop, circulation area, cinema) to
determine the appropriate means of smoke control for life safety purposes, and smoke
clearance after a fire event. The detailed consideration of each design fire for smoke control
purposes is explained in section 6.6.6.

6.6.1 Description of the smoke control system

In order to design for safe evacuation within the mall a smoke control system is proposed for
the shop units to limit smoke spread into the central mall. Extracting smoke within the fire
origin zone has life safety benefits compared to letting smoke spill out of the units and being
extracted from the mall. This is because it reduces the amount of smoke produced (due to less
air entrainment from a spill plume) and contains the smoke within the retail unit so less
people are affected (also limiting smoke damage of affected areas). The objective of the
system is to prevent smoke from spilling into the mall.
Both shop units and mall circulation space (which have a slab to slab distance of 5.5m) will
be provided with a false ceiling, which will act as a smoke reservoir for the extraction system.
A mechanical smoke extraction system, with each smoke reservoir powered by exhaust fans,
and are to be ducted to outlets within the ceiling void to remove smoke from the reservoir.
The false ceiling design is further described in Section 6.6.2. The extraction rate required
within each zone has been designed in regards to the potential fire size that could be
generated within the zone. The design fire scenarios are further detailed in Section 6.6.6.

Figure 9: Smoke reservoir within ceiling void – Section view

The shop units and mall circulation space will be divided into smoke control zones according
to area and length. The mechanical smoke extraction system in a specific zone will activate
upon a confirmed fire within that smoke zone. The perforated ceiling will allow for smoke to
travel within the ceiling void. The mechanical extract is designed to keep the smoke layer
formation just above the false ceiling height, as illustrated in Figure 9.
Each defined smoke control zone will require powered extraction according to the extraction
rates detailed in Section 6.6.3. A smoke barrier, or downstand, will be provided around the
perimeter of each smoke control zone. The design intent is to restrict smoke flow to adjacent
smoke control zones by extracting the smoke at a rate which will keep the smoke layer within
the ceiling void of the original smoke zone of fire origin.
Activation of extraction system zone
Each smoke extraction system in a specific zone will activate upon a confirmed fire within
that zone. Scenarios which lead to a confirmed fire are described in Table 7.
Addressable smoke detectors will be located at false ceiling level within each zone, designed
to BS 5839-Part 1, as described in Section 5.2. Additionally, the fire brigade and building
management may activate a specific smoke extraction zone via the fire control panel (located
in the Fire Control Centre, as described in Section 8.2).
Smoke strategy principles within the building:
 Shop units greater than 1300m2 will be provided with their own mechanical smoke
extraction system within the false ceiling design.
 Shop units which are less than 1300m2 will be provided with mechanical smoke
extraction within the false ceiling design, which will be shared with adjacent units (up to
a combined maximum area of 1300m2)
 Mall circulation space with a floor slab directly above will be provided with mechanical
smoke extraction within the false ceiling design.
 Atrium 1, 2, and 3 (as identified in Figure 13) will be provided with mechanical smoke
extraction within the false ceiling at roof level.
 Dome 1 (as identified in Figure 13) will have a smoke clearance system, utilising the day-
to-day HVAC system to clear smoke if it accumulates at high levels (not for life safety
purposes).
 The smaller dome voids on level 0 will have a smoke clearance system, utilising natural
ventilation if smoke accumulates at high levels (not for life safety purposes).
 The kitchen area within the food court on level 3 will have local hood extraction at each
kitchen unit (in addition to a bespoke suppression system for each hob). No additional
smoke extraction will be provided.
 The cinema will utilise the day-to-day HVAC system to clear smoke in the event of a fire
(the cinema does not require additional smoke extraction for life safety purposes).
The details regarding the smoke strategy / zoning principles are detailed within Section 6.6.3.

6.6.2 False ceiling and mechanical extract design

The ceiling height is 5.5 between floor slabs (for the purposes of this design, the floor slab
thickness is not considered). The reservoir depth is 1.5 m, which is 27% percent of the overall
height. This depth will allow for a smoke layer to form within the smoke reservoir, the smoke
will then be exhausted through local extract fans within the ceiling void.
Smoke resistant downstands (i.e. laminated or toughened glazing – considered acceptable in
lieu of fire rated construction because of the cooling of the smoke layer by the sprinkler
system) are provided at the front of the retail units to create a smoke reservoir. Downstands
are to be located around the perimeter of each smoke zone specified. It should be noted that
the downstands will extend through the ceiling voids to the floor slab above.
Smoke will be removed from within the ceiling void of the retail units. Therefore the
suspended ceiling in each retail unit will be at least 25% ‘open’ to allow smoke to rise
through the ceiling, into the void from where it can be extracted. The details of the openings
in the ceiling will be provided by the fit out teams but could take the form of slots, coffers or
other types of perforations, which ensure an even distribution of the openings is achieved.

An illustration in section view of the false ceiling design in shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: False ceiling design - Section View

The smoke control zone principle strategy and extract rate per smoke zone is specified in
Section 6.6.3.

6.6.3 Smoke control zoning strategy

The smoke control zoning strategy per area (i.e. shop, atria, cinema, etc.) is described in
Sections 6.6.3.1 - 6.6.3.7. A summary of the extraction details are identified in Table 16. The
performance criteria for the exhaust system is identified in Section 6.6.5

6.6.3.1 Shop units

The individual smoke zones have been determined for the mall based on the guidance of BRE
368, Design methodologies for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation. This guidance
recommends that a reservoir within a shopping mall should not exceed 1300m2 where
powered smoke exhaust is used. Additionally, the smoke reservoir should have a maximum
length of 60m.

The shop units, which exceed 1300m2, will have their own separate smoke zone. If the
specific retail shop exceeds 1300m2, the unit will require two zones, etc. No smoke zone
should exceed 1300m2.
Each shop unit, which is less than 1300 m2, will also have a smoke extraction system.
However, the ceiling void above the shop unit will be shared with the adjacent shop units.
Therefore, the smoke reservoir to exhaust smoke will be shared between shop units. The
shared smoke zone system will be designed so no smoke zone exceeds 1300m2. An example
of the smoke zoning for shop units is shown in Figure 11. As described in Section 6.4.2, the
walls between retail units are to be provided with 60 minutes fire resistance.

Figure 11: Shop units smoke zones - Section View

Smoke extraction zoning diagrams are presented in Figure 18 - Figure 21. The drawings
identify which shops require individual smoke extraction, and which shops will include a
shared false ceiling (i.e. shared smoke extraction system).

The smoke extraction rate per zone for the retail units is 12.1m3/s. This is based for a
potential fire size of 2.5MW fire. The design fire size was established by means of sprinkler
consideration and guidance from BRE 368. The design fire discussion is presented in Section
6.6.6.1. The extraction rate is based on an axisymmetric plume (i.e. the fire is located below
the smoke zone and bellows directly into the false ceiling / smoke reservoir).

It is a primary client goal to allow for a flexible design, in which shop units can change tenant
in the future. The shop locations as drawn currently may change, as tenants wish to combine
units and alter shop fronts. Given the extraction rate is based on an analysis from an
axisymmetric plume, the rate is less than would be required for a balcony spill plume. A spill
plume analysis would require additional consideration to elements of the store architecture.
The benefit of the smoke extraction within each shop unit is this presents no limitations on
the width of the store entrance door. There is also potential for shop units to combine, or
change storefront design. As this is a key goal of the clients, this solution offers the best
solution for flexibility for future changes.

It is of the building owner’s responsibility that the base build design of the false ceiling
reservoir (downstand) arrangement, which is shared between units, remains intact. Any
changes to this design will comprise the design intent of the smoke control strategy and will
need to be redesigned by a competent fire engineer.
6.6.3.2 Mall circulation space
The mall circulation space, which includes only areas that have a direct floor slab 5.5 m
above (not to include any void areas), will have the same extraction system as specified for
the shop units. The design fire is also specified as 2.5MW, see Section 6.6.6.2 for details. The
mall zoning strategy is identified per level in Figure 18 - Figure 21 . The extraction rate per
smoke zone within the mall circulation space is also 12.1m3/s.
A section view example of the mall circulation space is identified as design fire 2 in Section
6.6.6.2.

Figure 12: Fire in mall circulation - section view

6.6.3.3 Mall Atrium space

The mall atrium space (i.e. large voids above) has been identified as three different atrium
spaces. The three atriums, are identified in Section view in Figure 13. These three atriums will
be designed with mechanical smoke extraction. The roof of each atrium is assumed to be a
skylight. There will be however, solid ceiling area around the perimeter of the skylight on
roof level, to allow for smoke extraction fans.
 Figure 13: Section view A-B-C of Mall

6.6.3.3.1 Atrium 1 and 2

The fuel load within the atrium space is assumed to be items such as kiosks, or seasonal
decoration, such as a Christmas tree. Therefore, the fire size for the atrium voids 1 and 2 are
designed for the largest practical fire size, which is 5MW (Christmas tree). The design fire
solution analysis is detailed in 6.6.6.3. The extraction rate required for Atrium 1, which is a
total of 19.5m, is 91m3/s. The extraction rate required for Atrium 2, which is a total of 25m,
is 130.1m3/s.
The minimum clear height to design a smoke layer within a shopping mall, per guidance from
the 5th ed. of the SFPE Handbook Chapter 63, is 2.5m above the height walking surface. On
the top level of atrium 1 and 2, the mechanical smoke extraction will be located around the
skylight. As it is anticipated the time for this zone to fill with smoke will exceed the
evacuation time (no occupants from the cinema will escape by the atrium 2), a 2.5m clear
height on the top level is used to size the exhaust fans in these zones.
A section view to illustrate the basic smoke control principle within Atrium 2, is shown in
Figure 14.
Figure 14: Fire in Atrium 2- Section view

6.6.3.3.2 Atrium 3
The 4m x 4m voids on levels 1 and 2 which span across the south circulation area of the mall
will be treated as one atrium. Similar to Atrium’s 1 and 2, the space will have mechanical
smoke extraction around the perimeter of the roof (also assuming the roof is mainly skylight).
Given the smaller size of the voids, the fuel load is assumed to be items such as kiosks. For
the purposes of this stage C design, the fire size for this atrium is assumed to be 2.5MW. The
details regarding the design fire chosen for this space is explained Section 6.6.6.4.
The atrium smoke extraction is designed for an axisymmetric plume, which is for a fire
located directly below the 4m x 4m void. The extraction rate is designed to keep the smoke
layer 4.0m above level 3 (the highest walking surface). The exhaust rate required for an
axisymmetric plume to generate a smoke layer to remain above 15.0m from the base of the
fire is 69.5 m3/s.
If a fire within this atrium on ground level is below the level 1 floor slab, the smoke will be
extracted through the local mall circulation space extraction system. Although the space is
treated as a large atrium, the floor slabs on level 1 and 2 may be considered obstructions for
possible smoke extraction at roof level. A fire within that void may generate a plume width
exceeding 4m, and smoke could spread to level 1 or 2.
A basic engineered analysis is applied to approximate the potential smoke plume width at
level 1 and 2, for an axisymmetric plume at level 0. Chapter 51, Control by Mechanical
Exhaust or Natural venting in the 5th Edition of the SFPE Handbook, approximates a plume
diameter to be 25-50% of the distance above the top of the fuel package.
Using the most onerous approximation for plume with diameter of 50% above the base of the
fire, a fire at ground level may have a plume width of 5.5m when it reaches level 2 (11m
above ground). Therefore, it is expected for smoke to spill to level 2. As there is a local
smoke extraction system at level 2, the excess smoke may be detected and the smoke control
extract system at level 2 may clear this smoke. With two smoke control systems runnign at
the same time, it must be ensured that there is sufficient inlet air being achieved as part of the
design calculation.
A section view to illustrate the basic smoke control principle within Atrium 3, is shown in
Figure 15.

Figure 15: Fire in Atrium 3 - section view

6.6.3.4 Dome Void 1

The dome void as detailed in Figure 13, is assumed to be of completely skylight roofing
(glazing) and will have no bespoke extraction system. The large dome which extends from
level 0 through level 1 (floor to ceiling height of 21.5m at the peak), will have limited fuel
load located directly below the void space. It is assumed this circulation space houses stairs
and escalators for occupants to transverse floors close to the entrance. The limitation to fuel
load within this area is specified in Section 6.6.7 of this report.
This void does require a smoke clearance system, per BS 9999. A smoke clearance system is
designed to remove smoke following a fire and used at the direction of the fire and rescue
service to assist fire-fighting operations. This system is not intended for life safety during a
fire event, but simply for smoke removal if smoke were to accumulate in this space after an
event.
The guidance for atrium space in BS 9999, Annex B, describes for a void space of less than
30m but greater than 18m in height, given a simultaneous evacuation strategy, a mechanical
smoke clearance system is needed.
As recommended in BS 9999 the mechanical extraction system is designed as a part of the
day-to-day HVAC system within this space. Given this is a sprinklered building (sprinklers
located at floor height – not within dome), the system would need to be capable of four air
changes per hour.
The illustration, detailed in Figure 16, is taken from Annex C of BS 9999 (Figure C.9). The
dome would require the same characteristics as illustrated where the smoke clearance system
(dedicated as number 1 in the image) is simply the day-to-day HVAC system operating at
four air changes per hour.

Figure 16: BS 9999 requirements for atrium design

6.6.3.5 Small Dome voids on level 1

The smaller dome voids located on ground level, which are approximately 10m tall at their
peak, are assumed to be of completely skylight roofing (glazing) and will have no bespoke
extraction system. Similar to the larger void, this area will require a smoke clearance system.
Given the height of this space does not exceed 18m, BS 9999 allows for natural ventilation to
remove smoke from this void. Therefore, natural exhaust vents should be provided within the
glazing of the roof area. The vents should not be less than 10% of the maximum plan are of
the dome.

6.6.3.6 Kitchen / food court

The kitchen area within the food court will be provided with local hood extraction systems
above all hobs (stoves). As noted previously, bespoke suppression systems will be installed
above any hobs subject to fit out requirements. The food court seating area is within the
atrium 2 void space. In the event of a confirmed fire within this zone, the atrium 2 smoke
extraction system will activate. As described in Section 6.6.3.3.1, a clear height of 2.5m is
designed within this zone.

6.6.3.7 Cinema
The cinema does not require a dedicated smoke extraction for life safety purposes. As
described in Section 5.1.2 the evacuation of the cinema is separate from the mall/food court
area, provided with its own egress stairs sized for simultaneous evacuation.
If smoke were to accumulate in a cinema, the mechanical ventilation system installed could
be designed to be used to remove smoke.

6.6.4 Smoke Zone Diagrams per level

As stated previously, the smoke zone reservoirs may not exceed 1300m2 or 60m width. The
key in Figure 17 identifies the colour scheme for the plan view diagram of the smoke zoning
strategies on all levels as identified in Figure 18 - Figure 21.

Figure 17: Smoke zone key

Figure 18: Level 0 Smoke Zones

Figure 19: Level 1 Smoke Zones

Figure 20: Level 2 Smoke Zones

Figure 21: Level 3 Smoke Zones
The section view of the smoke zoning strategy is shown in Figure 22. The zone is identified as
the entire floor slab – slab distance, however as identified in Figure 11 the zone refers to the
smoke reservoir at ceiling level.

Figure 22: Smoke zones - Section View

6.6.5 Smoke extract system - performance requirements

The smoke control strategy is summarized in Table 16, which identifies the method of smoke
control used in each location, and the extraction details as explained in Section 6.6.3. The
description of the make-up air (inlet air) strategy is explained in section 6.6.5.1. The
extraction details are based on the design fire scenarios as further explained in Section 6.6.6.
Table 16: Smoke Control Design by Location
Location Smoke Control method
Shop units - greater than Mechanical Extract
1300m2
Shop units - less than 1300m2 Mechanical Extract
Mall circulation space Mechanical Extract
underneath floor slab on level
above
Atrium 1 Mechanical Extract
Atrium 2 Mechanical Extract
Atrium 3 Mechanical Extract
Dome Void 1 Day-to-day HVAC system
(smoke clearance for non-life
safety purposes)
Small Dome Voids on Level 1 Natural venting (smoke
clearance for non-life safety
purposes)
Cinema Day-to-day HVAC system
(smoke clearance for non-life
safety purposes)
Food Court Kitchen area Local kitchen hood extract
system
Extraction Details
12.1 m3/s extraction rate,
minimum of two outlets per
zone
(see design fire 1 described
Section 6.6.6.1 for details)
12.1 m3/s extraction rate,
minimum of two outlets per
zone
(see design fire 1 described
Section 6.6.6.1 for details)
12.1 m3/s extraction rate,
minimum of two outlets per
zone
(see design fire 2 described
Section 6.6.6.2 for details)
91 m3/s extraction rate
(see design fire 3 described
Section 6.6.6.3 for details)
130.1 m3/s extraction rate
(see design fire 3 described
Section 6.6.6.3 for details)
69.5 m3/s extraction rate
(see design fire 4 described
Section 6.6.6.4 for details)
Accumulated smoke will be
extracted through day-to-day
HVAC system.
Mechanical ventilation system
required to achieve four air
changes per hour.
Natural exhaust vents, of at
least 10% of plan roof (dome)
area
Accumulated smoke could be
designed to be extracted
through day-to-day HVAC
system.
Extraction System – Fans and Ducting
The guidance in BS 5588-Part 7 states that each system will have two fans, sized at 100%
capacity (duty / standby arrangement). The back-up fan provided will have the same
performance as the largest and most powerful fan. Each fan will be provided with a primary
and back-up power supply. This is to provide sufficient redundancy so that if a fan
malfunctions or the primary power supply is not available, the smoke control system will still
operate as intended. The fans will be capable of operating at 300°C for at least 60 minutes
and enclosed in a 60 minute fire rated plant room.
The ductwork will be fire rated to 60 minutes (integrity / insulation / stability) between the
fans and the retail units. Any distribution ductwork within the retail units will be fire rated to
30 minutes integrity and stability only.
If the tenant fit-out design teams wish to deviate from this approach, they will be responsible
for the design of the smoke control system. All ductwork will be designed in accordance with
BS 476-24 and BS EN 13501-3/4.
As the mechanical exhaust rates which serve the retail and mall space (no atrium areas)
require the same ventilation rate, therefore there are options for the fans installed to serve
multiple zones. The damper system for the ductwork will have to be coordinated
appropriately to serve the activated smoke zone.
There may be scenarios such that multiple smoke zones will require mechanical extraction
activation. Therefore, smoke zones should not be interlocked.
For example, this may be true:
 In a shop unit if smoke spreads significantly within a unit requiring multiple smoke zones
within that unit to activate, or
 in atrium 3 where the axisymmetric fire below the void may hit the floor slab at level 2
requiring activation both within the atrium roof, and on level 2.
In both examples, upon a confirmed fire within the smoke zone, the dedicated smoke
extraction system within that zone will activate (may be more than one zone which receives
confirmed fire status). Consideration is required by the mechanical engineers when
designating shared fan and ductwork systems between zones.

6.6.5.1 Make-up air

While the mechanical extraction system is exhausting smoke from the mall, fresh air is
required to replenish the space to equate pressure in the compartment and allow for fresh air
to form the clear layer at low levels. This make-up air, must enter the mall a low levels
(below the designed smoke layer height).
The make-up air for all mechanical and natural extraction systems will be provided from the
main entrances at level 0. In the event of a confirmed fire (whereby an extraction system may
be activated), occupants on the lower levels will use the final exits on level 0 as identified in
Figure 23. The three final exits identified in, Figure 23, will be power supplied, to open
automatically upon a confirmed fire. The doors require a back-up power supply, as this
design item is a part of a life safety system. This may present a security risk for the system
operating outside mall hours and this risk must be managed by the client and the building
management security team.
Figure 23: Make-up air locations at final exits on level 0
It is typical practice in the U.K., to limit make-up air velocities to 5m/s at exit doors, which
oppose occupant egress. This is based on experimental data published in the ODPM research
report, titled, ‘The Effects of Wind Speed on Escape Behaviour through Emergency Exits’,
which investigated the influence of the intake air speed on people's ability to escape through
an emergency exit of a shopping precinct. The report concluded that a maximum air speed of
5m/s (at the mall exit) is acceptable for all users of a shopping mall (but are equally valid in
any situation where an approach corridor leads to a double door).
The drawings indicate that the final three exit doors on ground floor can achieve 24 meters in
door width. Given cladding and door frame structure expected, it is assumed a total of 18m is
available as clear width (25% cladding/ door structure assumed at this early stage).
For make-up air through an open door, a coefficient of flow must be considered. As
suggested by TM19, the geometric area of the door, is multiplied by a discharge coefficient
of 0.7, to determine the aerodynamic free area provided by the door for make-up air.
Given the total geometric free area provided by the three final exists on level 0 is 72m2
(assumed door height of 3m), the aerodynamic free area is then 70% of this value, which is
50.4m2. Within the mall, the largest required extraction rate from the atria is 130.1m3/s.,
therefore, make-up air should not exceed 2.5 m/s across the final exit doors during an
emergency event. This make-up air value meets the 5m/s acceptability criteria.
Within retail shops, make-up air will enter the mall via the final exit doors, and entire the
shop through the unit front entrance doors. Additionally, the door opening size of the shop
units must be sufficient to ensure a balanced system for the extraction rate specified, this
must be reviewed at the next design stage.
6.6.6 Solution Analysis – Design Fires
In order to determine the appropriate means of smoke control for a space, the potential fire
hazards are considered within each space. The following design fires identified in Figure 24,
are used to determine the mechanical extraction rates within each smoke zone, as listed in
Table 16.

Figure 24: Design Fires considered

6.6.6.1 Design Fire 1 – Fire in a shop (level 0)

Fuel load – Design fire size
In order to evaluate a design fire size in a shop unit a method to determine the potential fire
size at the time of sprinkler head activation is first considered. The floor to slab level height is
5.5m. It is anticipated the temperatures generated within the ceiling void (smoke layer) will
be greater than temperatures closer to the design layer height at 4m. Therefore, the analysis
method uses a sprinkler activating at 5.5m.
This method utilizes basic correlations for jet temperatures and velocities, using Alpert’s
correlations. These correlations are also used by the NIST developed software, FPE Tool.
The equations for this method, along with the assumptions and input values for a standard
sprinkler head, are shown in Table 17 and Figure 25.
Table 17: Inputs used for fire size calculation at sprinkler activation

Parameter Input Reference

RTI 50 Relevant for life safety systems
Fire growth rate Fast BS 9999 for retail accommodation
Activation temperature 68°C BS EN 12845
 Ambient temperature 20°C Typical for U.K. office
Floor to ceiling height 4.0m Measured from sections
Radial distance Radial distance BS EN 12845, based on 4m x 3m spacing

Figure 25: Sprinkler Activation time calculations

The results conclude that a fire may grow to a size of 1295 kW before activation of a
sprinkler head at 166 seconds at which point the fire would become steady state (i.e. the
sprinklers suppress further fire growth). This calculation method assumes a fire is in direct
line with the closest sprinkler head.
However, in retail shops there are often obstructions and layout configurations that could
impede direct suppression of a fire when the first sprinkler head activates. This is referred to
a “shielded fire”.
Historically, guidance from BRE 368 suggested a 5MW design fire should be used for retail
shops that could have shielded fires, given experimental data. However, there are several
conservatives within this experimental data, which must be considered to ensure onerous
values are not applied for the smoke control design. The 5MW fire conservatives included
using non-quick response sprinkler heads used, and locating the sprinkler heads 400mm
below the ceiling (activation will take longer).
Statistical data indicates that a 5MW fire is only likely to occur in less than 5% of fires in
sprinklered shops. Additionally, where sprinklers operate it is unlikely that heat release rate
would be sustained at 5MW. Whilst any smoke control systems in a retail premises must be
designed to operate at peak fire size, it is worth noting that for the majority of the time the
volume of smoke is expected to lower. Further studies carried out by BRE, used fast-response
sprinkler heads. Upon the conclusion of these studies, BRE suggested design fire in premises,
which include fast-response sprinkler heads, can be reduced from 5MW to 2.5MW.
At this early stage, it is not clear if there could be potential shielded fires within the retail
shop units. As a client goal is to keep the retail tenant fit-out options flexible, a 2.5MW
design fire is assumed for design of the mechanical smoke extraction system.
Mechanical extraction calculations
The required mechanical exhaust rate to maintain a 4.0m clear layer height and a 1.5m
reservoir depth, given a 2.5 MW can then be calculated using the parameters in Table 18.
When completing the calculations, 100mm is added to the total clear layer height, to allow
for the smoke layer to form within the reservoir.
The mechanical exhaust rate is calculated using equations presented in TM19 for an
axisymmetric plume. The results present the required volumetric exhaust rate required per
smoke reservoir (zone), and also include the minimum number of exhaust outlets per zone (in
order to avoid plugholing). The TM19 equations, identified in Figure 26, can be applied using
the following assumptions:
 Smoke properties are assumed to be uniform throughout the smoke layer (this is a 2
zone model)
 No heat loss is assumed from the smoke layer to its surroundings, via radiation or
convention/ conduction
Figure 26: TM19 equations for mechanical exhaust rate calculations
The assumptions and input values for this methodology is shown in Table 18 and Figure 27.
Table 18: Input values to calculate the mechanical exhaust rate required – Design fire 1

Parameter Input Reference

Floor to slab height 5.5m Measured from section
Reservoir depth 1.5m Measured from section
Total clear height to be 4.1m (100mm added to Measured from section
achieved design clear layer height to
allow for layer to form
within the reservoir- above
downstand)
Air specific heat capacity 1 kJ/kg.K TM191
Ambient density 1.2 kg/m³ TM19
HRR density 500 kW/m² (total) TM19
350 kW/m² (convective)
Total heat release rate 2500 kW
Ambient temperature 20°C Typical for U.K. office
Convective fraction 66.7% TM19
CIBSE, 1995. TM19: Relationships for smoke control calculations. CIBSE: London
Figure 27: Mechanical exhaust rate calculations – Design Fire 1
The results indicate that required mechanical exhaust rate per zone is 12.1m3/s. The minimum
number of exhaust outlets to achieve the total 12.1m3/s per smoke zone is two outlets. The
total exhaust rate should be evenly distributed between the two outlets.

6.6.6.2 Design Fire 2 – Fire within mall circulation space (level 0)

Covered shopping centres are typically aligned with smaller open retail stall units, known as
kiosks, located down the centre of the circulation space. The second design fire considers a
kiosk fire located along the walking circulation route on the ground level.
Fuel load – Design fire size
As kiosk units carry a fuel load similar to a retail shop, guidance from BRE 368 is applied by
utilising experimental data, which approximates a heat release rate density of 625 kW/m2 for
retail areas. The area of the kiosks may range, for the purposes of a Stage C design, a typical
kiosk size of 2m x 2m is used. It is approximated a 4m2 fuel load area could therefore
generate 2.5MW fire. This closely aligns with the retail design fire as explained in Section
6.6.6.1.
In addition, fast response sprinklers are installed within the mall circulation space at slab
level (5.5m) and false ceiling level (4.0m). It is anticipated a 2.5MW would be controlled by
the sprinkler to inhibit further fire spread.
The provision of kiosk’s or retail islands in the concourse of the mall will need to be
reviewed and assessed on an on-going basis by the shopping centre management to ensure
that the smoke control system is able to maintain tenable conditions in the mall in the event
of a fire given the exhaust provision assumptions are understood and upheld. This will need
to be included as part of the Regulatory Reform Order risk assessment.
Section 6.6.7 details the minimum separation distance requirements for kiosks and retail units
at this design stage. There is an opportunity to assess and amend the separation distance
requirements in the next design stage, as more detail regarding the potential kiosk and retail
shop unit is provided by the client.
Mechanical extraction calculations
The floor to ceiling height and reservoir depth is the same for the mall circulation space as it
is for the retail units. Therefore, the mechanical extraction rate per zone is the equivalent to
that required in the shop units. As described in Section 6.6.6.1, a 12.1m3/s extraction rate
with a minimum of two outlets is required.
Separation of fuel packages (Kiosks)
In order to limit potential fire spread between fuel load packages, the separation distance
between kiosks must also be considered within the mall circulation space. This study is
further explained in Section 6.6.7, and is prescribed as a building management item in
Section 9.

6.6.6.3 Design Fire 3 – Fire within Atrium 2 (level 0)

Atrium 2, as identified in Figure 13, is located in the east side of the building, and is the largest
and tallest atria in the mall.
Fuel load – Design fire size
Given the size of the atrium, it is assumed the fire load at the base may be the largest (i.e.
extravagant decorations such as a Christmas tree). As a Christmas tree is considered to
presents the most onerous fire size, and is likely within this space, a Christmas tree design
fire load is used for the purposes of assessing the smoke extraction system. The Christmas
tree design fire load is applied in Atrium 1 as well as Atrium 2.
In 2011, BRE published a document, “Design Fires for use in fire safety engineering” by
Mayfield and Hopkin. This document presents experimental data of test set-ups for various
fuel load commodities, and examples occupancy scenarios (i.e. compartment fires set with
retail and office commodities). Many experiments give results with for sprinklered and non-
sprinklered compartments. The results are presented to inform fire engineered assumptions
for design fire sizes.
Various Christmas tree fires were experimentally tested. The details regarding the tree
characteristics, and the results from the total heat release rate versus time is shown in Figure
28 and Figure 29.
Figure 28: Christmas tree fire load test description (image from BRE design fire guidance)

Figure 29: Christmas tree heat release rate versus time (image from BRE design fire guidance)
The worst case scenario, identified as Tree 3, shows a total output just above 5MW in just 50
seconds from ignition. Given this data, a 5MW fire is used for Christmas tree design fires.
Although the tree burns very quickly, and may not produce steady-state like conditions (as it
is only at its peak for above 20 seconds), additional decorations or adjacent fuel load such as
chairs may contribute to the total ignition source. The 5MW design fire is therefore
considered an appropriate fire size to determine the smoke extraction rates at this stage. There
is a potential in subsequent design stages to re-evaluate potential fuel load within Atrium 2 in
order to reduce the extraction rate required in the large space.
Mechanical extraction calculations
The mechanical extraction is sized to accommodate a 5MW fire on the ground floor, which is
located directly under the large void which extends to roof level. Therefore, an axisymmetric
plume is considered within the atrium.
Similar input parameters as described in design fire 1 have been applied, as detailed in Table
19.
The atrium is a total of 25m tall, and the available reservoir depth is 6m. The calculations are
therefore considered to keep a 19.0m clear layer height.
Table 19: Input values to calculate the mechanical exhaust rate required – Design fire 3

Parameter Input Reference

Floor to roof height 25m Measured from
section
Reservoir depth 6m Measured from
section
Total clear height 19.1m (100mm added to design clear layer height Measured from
to be achieved to allow for layer to form within the reservoir- section
above downstand)
Air specific heat 1 kJ/kg.K TM191
capacity
Ambient density 1.2 kg/m³ TM19
HRR density 500 kW/m² (total) TM19
350 kW/m² (convective)
Total heat release 5000 kW
rate
Ambient 20°C Typical for
temperature U.K. office
Convective fraction 66.7% TM19
CIBSE, 1995. TM19: Relationships for smoke control calculations. CIBSE: London
Figure 30: Mechanical exhaust rate calculations – Design Fire 2
The results indicate that required mechanical exhaust rate per zone is 130.1m3/s. The
minimum number of exhaust outlets to achieve the total 130.1m3/s per smoke zone is two
outlets. The total exhaust rate should be evenly distributed between the two outlets.
Separation of fuel packages
In order to limit potential fire spread between fuel load packages, the separation distance
between kiosks or Christmas tree like decorations must also be considered within the mall
circulation space. This study is further explained in Section 6.6.7, and is prescribed as a
building management item in Section 9.

6.6.6.4 Design Fire 4 – Fire within Atrium 3 (level 0)

Fuel load – Design fire size

Similar to design fire 2, it is assumed that kiosks will line the centre of the Section A-A
(south) mall area. Given there are 4m x 4m voids above the mall circulation area, it is
assumed large Christmas trees will not be located within these smaller voids, and will be
placed in Atrium 1 or 2. Therefore, the kiosk fire size as described in 6.6.6.2 is assumed
within this space.
Mechanical extraction calculations
Atrium 3 is considered an open space due to the 4m x 4m voids located along Section A-A.
The mechanical extraction is sized to accommodate a 2.5MW fire on the ground floor, which
is located directly under a 4m x 4m void. Therefore, an axisymmetric plume is considered
within the atrium.
It is assumed if a kiosk is located underneath the level 1 floor slab, the local mechanical
extract will exhaust the smoke as designed.
Similar input parameters as described in design fires 1-3 have been applied, as detailed in
Table 20.
The atrium is a total of 19.5m tall, and the available reservoir depth is 4.5m. The calculations
are therefore considered to keep a 15.0m clear layer height.
Table 20: Input values to calculate the mechanical exhaust rate required – Design fire 4

Parameter Input Reference

Floor to roof height 19.5m Measured from
section
Reservoir depth 4.5m Measured from
section
Total clear height 15.1m (100mm added to design clear layer height Measured from
to be achieved to allow for layer to form within the reservoir- section
above downstand)
Air specific heat 1 kJ/kg.K TM191
capacity
Ambient density 1.2 kg/m³ TM19
HRR density 500 kW/m² (total) TM19
350 kW/m² (convective)
Total heat release 2500 kW
rate
Ambient temperature 20°C Typical for U.K.
office
Convective fraction 66.7% TM19
CIBSE, 1995. TM19: Relationships for smoke control calculations. CIBSE: London
Figure 31: Mechanical exhaust rate calculations – Design Fire 4
The required mechanical exhaust rate per zone is 69.5m3/s. The minimum number of exhaust
outlets to achieve the total 69.5m3/s per smoke zone is two outlets. The total exhaust rate
should be evenly distributed between the two outlets.

6.6.7 Separation distance requirements through mall circulation space

The following calculations have been undertaken to provide the client with indicative
separation distances, should they wish to provide retail islands in the concourse of the
shopping centre, and this will need to be considered on an ongoing basis.
The risk of fire spread from a retail island/kiosk to an adjacent shop front or vice versa is
from radiant heat transfer. As it is likely that the client will want to allow for retail
island/kiosk in the concourse, the following calculation methodology should be applied when
assessing the separation distances:
3𝑄̇
𝑟=√
4𝜋𝑞̇ 𝑟 "

𝑄̇ = Total heat release rate (kW)

0.3 = the fraction of the HRR that is radiation
𝑞̇ 𝑟 " = Limit of heat flux (kW/m2)
r = required separation distance (m)

It is advised that q is equal to 10 kW/m2 which represents the radiation required to ignite
clothing, paper, etc. Following this methodology a provisional separation distance can be
calculated as below:

Assuming a worst case fire scenario of 5MW (BRE 368 unsprinklered fire), over an area of
10m2, a separation distance from the centre of a fire to an adjacent retail unit or kiosk is
calculated as approximately 4m.

r = √(0.3 x 5000)/4π(10) = 3.45m

It should be noted that BS 9999 requires the escape provisions to be considered should the
retail islands reduce the exit widths through the concourse. As such the methodology for
calculating the separation distance, and the impact on means of escape should these kiosks be
installed, will be assessed during the next stage of the design (when the dimensions, and fuel
loads of the kiosks can be fully understood).

The separation distance of the fuel load package (kiosks) configuration and fit out will
require understanding from the building management team, this responsibility is identified in
Section 9.

7 EXTERNAL FIRE SPREAD

Under the guidance of BS 9999, it is necessary to construct the external walls such that the
amount of unprotected area on the side of the building overlooking the elevation is restricted,
such that the potential for fire spread by radiant heat transfer is limited.
In order to evaluate the external fire spread requirements, the relevant boundaries to existing
or potential buildings (or property) is considered. It has been assumed that the shopping
centre is located at a distance sufficiently removed from these relevant boundaries and the
risk of fire spreading to or from the shopping mall is negligible.

7.1 External Wall Construction

As a minimum the external surfaces of the walls should be provided with a minimum rating
of not more than 20 (National Class) or Class C-s3,d2 or better (European Class) to a height
less than 18m above ground level.

8 FIRE FIGHTING ACCESS AND FACILITIES

8.1 Internal fire fighting provisions

BS 9999 recommends that if a shopping centre development is not provided with wet fire
mains, Fire Service vehicle access should be provided within 18m of each of a sufficient
number of entry points so that no point in the building is more than 60m from an entry point,
when measured along a route suitable for laying hose.

A shopping centre with a floor level more than 7.5m above fire fighter access level and more
than 900m2 in area should be provided with a minimum of two firefighting shafts. The shafts
should be located such that the maximum hose distance to the most remote point of each floor
level is no more than 60m from the dry rising main in either stair, when measured on a route
suitable for laying hose.

Design of firefighting shafts

Firefighting Shaft
Where stairs are designated as ‘Fire Fighting Stairs’ then their minimum width should not be
less than 1800mm.”
Firefighting lift
The top floor level of the mall is less than 18m above external ground floor level, but has a
floor area of greater than 900m2, therefore a firefighting shaft is required, but which need not
include a firefighting lift.
Firefighting lobby
To ensure sufficient space for the fire service to prepare for firefighting operations, the
minimum area of each firefighting lobby should not be less than 5m2 (and not more than
20m2).
Dry Rising Fire main
Each firefighting shaft should be provided with a dry rising fire main, with an outlet located
within the firefighting lobby at every storey level.
The inlet point for the dry risers should be located at fire service access level, adjacent to the
entry point to the buildings. There should be fire service vehicular access within 18m of the
inlet valve and in line of sight.
Fire Resistance
The firefighting shaft (stair and lobby) should be enclosed in 120 minutes fire resisting
construction. Doors separating the lobby from the accommodation should be to a self-closing
FD 60S standard. FD60S, is a fire door which achieves 60 minutes when tested to BS 476-22,
and the ‘S’ denotes the requirement of smoke seals.
Internally within the shaft, the stair and lift shafts should be enclosed in 60 minutes fire
resisting construction. The door between the stair and the lobby should be to a self-closing
FD30S standard. A schematic from BS 9999 highlighting the general requirements is shown
below:
 Figure 32: Indicative fire resistance requirements of firefighting shaft

Ventilation
Each firefighting shaft should be provided with ventilation to both the stair and the
firefighting lobby.
Ventilation to the stair can be achieved by the provision of a 1.5m2 openable ventilator
located over the head of the stair. Alternatively, a 1.0m2 ventilator can be provided at every
storey level.
Ventilation of the firefighting lobby may be provided by one of the following methods:
 A 1.5m2 openable ventilator direct to outside at every storey above/below entry level.
 A mechanical ventilation system consisting of a smoke shaft approximately 0.5m2 in area.
 A 1.5m2 automatically opening vent which discharges into a natural smoke shaft
measuring 3m2 in plan area.

Protection of External Façade

Under the guidance of BS 9999, it is necessary to prevent fire breaking into a fire-fighting
staircase, where the external wall is on the same plane as the fire-fighting shaft. In this case it
is proposed to provide a 0.5m separation between any non-fire resisting elements of the
façade as shown in Figure 33.
 Figure 33: Sample location of fire-resisting construction separating a fire-fighting shaft from the
external wall of the accommodation
Where the staircase is at right angles to the façade of the building, any portion of the façade
within 5m of the fire-fighting shaft should be provided with 120 minutes fire resistance.

8.2 Vehicle Access

Vehicle Access Routes

All access routes for fire service vehicles should satisfy the following specification (it should
be noted that this can vary from Service to Service, and is subject to consultation with the
Statutory Authority):-

 Minimum width of road between kerbs – 3.7m.

 Minimum width of gateways – 3.1m.
 Minimum turning circle between kerbs – 16.8m.
 Minimum turning circle between walls – 19.2m.
 Minimum clearance height – 3.7m.
 Minimum carrying capacity – 12.5 tonnes.

Access should be provided for a Fire Service pump appliance to within 18m of the dry rising
main inlet within the firefighting shaft and those in each of the stairs serving the cinema. The
guidance in BS 9999 recommends that if any portion of the route is a ‘dead-end‘, turning
facilities will be required (e.g. turning circle, hammerhead, or other point at which vehicle
can turn) so that Fire Service vehicles do not have to reverse more than 20m.

Fire Hydrants

If any building is constructed more than 100m from an existing hydrant in BS 9999
recommends that additional hydrants should be provided within 90m of an entry point to the
building or a dry rising main inlet and not more than 90m apart.
The provision of fire hydrants is subject to confirmation regarding the location of existing
statutory street hydrants around the site, and following conducting a water main water flow
and pressure test to confirm the water flow characteristics in vicinity to the building.

Fire Control Centre

A fire control centre should be provided in in large/complex buildings, to enable the Fire
Service to assist the premises management control an incident immediately on arrival.

The fire control centre should be either:

 a room dedicated solely as a fire control centre; or
 combined with the management central control room.

The fire control centre should be adjacent to a Fire Service access point, or other location
agreed with the Fire Service, and it should be readily accessible, preferably directly from the
open air. If this is not practicable, the route to the fire control centre should be protected. An
indicative location for the fire control centre is shown in Figure 34.

Figure 34: Indicative fire control centre location

Because of the possible need for the fire control centre to be operational over an extended
period of time, it should be separated from the remainder of the building by 2 hours of fire
resisting construction and should incorporate facilities to enable it to function as normal
during an emergency.

The fire control centre should be provided with a 3 hours non-maintained system of
emergency lighting supplied from a source independent of the normal lighting, to enable the
control centre to operate satisfactorily in the absence of the normal lighting supply.
It should be noted that some form of communication should be provided to the fire control
centre, and all fire safety systems should be available to the Fire Service.

9 MANANGMENT

BS 9999 makes recommendations with regards to the required minimum level of

management for different risk profiles. The standard or quality of management is referred to
here as the management level. There are three management levels, with level 1 giving the
highest level of management, level 2 giving a normally acceptable level of management, and
level 3 giving a very basic level of management.
Table 21: Management level based on occupancy characteristics
Occupancy characteristic Fire growth rate Risk Management level
(from Table 2) profile
A 1 Slow A1 3 A)
(Occupants who are awake and 2 Medium A2 2
familiar with the building) 3 Fast A3 1
4 Ultra-fast A4 A) Not applicable B)
B 1 Slow B1 2
(Occupants who are awake and 2 Medium B2 2
unfamiliar with the building) 3 Fast B3 1
4 Ultra-fast B4 A) Not applicable B)
B)
C 1 Slow C1 2
(Occupants who are likely to be 2 Medium C2 B) 1
B), C)
asleep) 3 Fast C3 1
4 Ultra-fast C4 A), B) Not applicable B)
A)
A level 3 system might not be acceptable in some circumstances.
B)
Due to Ultra-Fast fire growth
In the U.K. buildings should not be designed with overly onerous expectations on the
buildings management.

9.1 Specific Management Requirements

Based on the aforementioned, the shopping centre has been designed with a level 2
management system, based on overreliance on the buildings management post-design
outlined in level 1 management.
It should be noted that in the event of a building failing to have this level of management, it is
considered very likely that the building would not have the correct level of management to
satisfy the Regulatory Reform Order (RRO) and steps should be taken to rectify the situation
as appropriate. The RRO is further explained in Section 10.1.
Planning on changes of management systems
Management systems should include procedures for anticipating and taking into account,
either on a permanent or a temporary basis, changes to the occupancy and/or fire growth
characteristics of the building and its contents over the life cycle of the building. These
procedures should form part of the overall audit and review process for the fire safety
strategy and should be able to determine whether any such changes will necessitate
alterations to the fire precautions provided, including the management systems, and to put
any such alterations into effect.
A level 2 system identifies and reacts to any changes as they occur, including changes to the
occupancy, periods of abnormal occupancy, and fire growth characteristics. The system
identifies any alternative protection and management measures that will be required as a
result, and ensures that they are implemented.
Resources and authority
For the management of fire safety to be effective, the fire safety manager needs to be
empowered and able to command sufficient resources to maintain the systems (money needs
to be available). In a level 2 system, the responsibility for fire safety, and the necessary
supporting staff and resources, are likely to be divided over a number of different individuals,
departments or even companies. It is likely that the implementation of any necessary changes
will require approval of those not directly responsible for the routine management of fire
safety within the premises.
Staff level
The role of staff is an important element of the fire safety strategy. The appropriate staffing
level (for fire safety purposes) for a particular building is influenced by the use of the
building and fire growth characteristics; the types of occupant; the fire safety systems in
place; and the roles and levels of the staff concerned in ensuring the fire safety of the
occupants.
In a level 2 system, there will not be any arrangements for contingencies such as training,
sickness, and other unexpected absences, etc., nor there provision for security such as regular
patrols, perimeter controls, entry control systems, or staff able to respond to an intrusion.
Fire Training
Training of staff and others for action in the event of a fire is an essential element of fire
safety management.
In a level 2 system, the training ensures that there are sufficient numbers of staff trained in all
aspects of fire prevention, fire protection and evacuation procedures, and able to use the
appropriate extinguishing equipment, so as to provide full coverage of the building, but has
no contingency provision.
Work Control
Management systems should control work on site, e.g. repairs to structure, and in particular
hot work.
A level 2 work control system is developed reactively to work required on site to include
clear lines of responsibility; a permit system; and logging and audit processes.
Communication Procedures
Communication procedures include means of being alerted to a fire; communications
between management, and between management and staff; messages to occupants; and
communications with the fire and rescue service in the event of a fire.
A level 2 communications system will provide information to all those involved, with
alternative formats as necessary, but will not have contingency arrangements.
Maintenance and testing of fire safety systems
Maintenance and testing is essential to ensure that fire safety systems will operate correctly in
the event of a fire. A level 2 maintenance system is one where there is monitoring of the fire
safety systems, and the equipment is kept fully functional at any time the building is in use.
When systems, equipment and other arrangements are not available or not functioning
correctly, alternative procedures are determined reactively.
Liaison with Fire and Rescue service
A good relationship with the fire and rescue service will have benefits for both the occupier
and the fire and rescue service. In particular it will ensure that the fire and rescue service are
able to have an appropriate pre-determined response strategy for the premises concerned and
will enable the occupier to seek advice where appropriate on:
 how to prevent fires and restrict their spread in their buildings and other property;
 the means of escape from buildings and other property in case of fire.
In a level 2 system, the liaison includes arrangements for notifying the fire and rescue service
of changes to the occupancy, periods of abnormal occupancy, fire growth characteristics, and
other relevant factors. However, the arrangements are unlikely to provide for routine
meetings with the fire and rescue service or where a change in the building or its occupancy
is proposed.
Fire loading in the mall
In terms of the managing the fire load, consideration will need to be made with regards to the
furnishings, and control of combustibles on the concourse. At level 3, the food court area
should be provided with hard furnishings (preferably class 0 products).

10 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE

As an example to England specifically, it has been assumed the development will be subject
to the requirements of the Building Regulations 2010 and, therefore, it will be necessary for it
to meet the requirements of Schedule 1 of the Regulations relating Part B1-B5, as listed in
Section 2.1. Guidance on how these functional requirements can be achieved in buildings is
provided in a number of guidance documents, such as Approved Document B - Fire Safety
(the ‘AD-B’). However, AD-B is not the only method of achieving compliance and this
document permits the use of Fire Engineering as an alternative tool for achieving compliance.
On this basis, it has been proposed to design the building using the guidance given in BS
9999: Code of Practice for fire safety in the design, management and use of buildings.

10.1 Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order

The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order (RRO) is based on risk-appropriate compliance
and requires a fire risk assessment to be carried out. The Fire Service will conduct
inspections of premises to enforce the regulations. It will be necessary for a risk assessment
to be conducted on the premises, to parts of the premises where employees may work (i.e. not
within residential apartments). However, the management and risk assessment requirements
of the RRO are outside the scope of this report.
Where the architect or other consultants use this report or any design guide, standard or
recommendation to specify works they are understood to be competent in alerting the Client,
CDM Coordinator, Contractors and Building Occupier of CDM issues as required under the
CDM Regulations.

10.2 Construction, Design and Management Regulations (CDM)

Projects undertaken within the U.K. are subject to the requirements of the Construction
(Design and Management) Regulations 2007 (CDM). This report provides a holistic strategy
for meeting the functional requirements under Part B of the Building Regulations 2010. It is
intended to form part of the submission for approval by the Enforcing Authority under these
regulations.
Where particular products, materials, or construction methodologies have been specified,
these have been assessed, in accordance with CDM Regulations 11 and 18 (duties for
designers). In the event that these involve unusual or complex hazards which are likely to be
missed, rather than well-known or well understood construction hazards, this information will
be passed on to those that will need it in a format that is readily accessible to them.

11 ENGINEERED SOLUTIONS – RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

The fire design solution as explained in Section 4 - 9 outline the key fire safety design
solutions for the SFPE shopping centre at RIBA design stage 2. It is understood, that at this
early concept design stage, the current architectural drawings are still to be resolved, and
changes to the design are anticipated. As such the proposed design solution must be reviewed
in the next design by a competent fire engineer to determine the solution validity given
alternations to the proposed SFPE shopping centre design.
As a part of the concept stage design, the proposed design must be reviewed determine if the
design solution does meet the goals and constraints driven by all stakeholders involved. The
principle fire safety features, as described in Table 7 identify potential risks and opportunities
at this design stage given the proposed design solution. The following items may be further
discussed with stakeholders during the next design stage.

11.1 Sprinklers design in shop units

It is proposed at this early design stage to install fast response sprinklers within the SFPE
shopping centre. Sprinklers are beneficial in reducing fire and smoke spread, by reducing
temperatures within the fire origin area. The objective of sprinkler suppression is to control a
fire (limiting its size), which may ultimately lead to safer egress conditions for occupants, and
may reduce property damage.
It is currently within the design solution to install sprinklers at the floor slab level (within the
ceiling void) and at the false ceiling level (below the 25% perforated ceiling), as shown in
Figure 35 and described in Section 6.6.2. The base build design will be fit with sprinklers
directly below slab level, and an outlet will be provided for the tenant to install sprinklers
below their false ceiling fit-out design.
Figure 35: False ceiling - sprinklers located at both slab and false ceiling level
However, the sprinkler system within the retail unit at false ceiling height is not required for
life safety purposes. As explained in section 6.6.6.2, the design fire used to size the
mechanical smoke extraction system is taken from the BRE 368 recommendation of 2.5MW.
This is based on potential “shielded fires”, using fast response sprinklers. The floor height at
which the sprinklers are installed is not directly dependent on this design fire for the design
solution at this stage.
There is a possibility to allow tenants to choose if they would prefer to install sprinklers at
false ceiling level. If there are no sprinklers installed at false ceiling level, the base build
sprinklers installed below the floor slab will be the only sprinkler system within this space.
However, the base build must provide all shop units with the option to install sprinklers
(provide zone check value for sprinkler installation).
In order to design for the sprinklers to effectively control a fire at floor level, BS EN 12845
requires the false ceiling to meet the following conditions:
 the total open plan area of the ceiling, including light fittings, is not less than 70 % of the
ceiling plan area;
 the minimum dimension of the ceiling openings is not less than 0.025 m
 the structural integrity of the ceiling and any other equipment, such as light fittings within
the volume above the suspended ceiling, will not be affected by operation of the sprinkler
system;
 there are no storage areas below the ceiling
This false ceiling arrangement option is illustrated in Figure 36.
Figure 36: False ceiling - sprinkler located on floor slab (within ceiling void)
Careful consideration to the potential design fire (if reduced in the next stage) must be
considered if sprinklers at false ceiling level are removed.

11.2 Smoke control design within the shop units

The objective of the smoke control strategy, by means of smoke reservoir zones and
mechanical extract, is to isolate smoke within the fire origin zone. Extracting smoke within
the fire origin zone has life safety benefits compared to letting smoke spill out of the units
and being extracted from the mall, as described in detail Section 6.6.
Additionally, the smoke control design solution to allow for a false ceiling with mechanical
extraction regardless of the unit size meets the following client goals:
1. Flexibility for tenant fit out design – Design allows for no restriction to shop unit
entrance door widths (as there is no spill plume to consider).
2. Flexibility for future shop unit size changes – Although the code does not require
smoke extraction for units less the 1300m2, this design is will allow for smaller shop
unit sizes to combine into larger shops in the future.
3. Minimum business disruption (tenant fit out construction) – As a false ceiling / smoke
extraction design will be installed within each unit, future shop unit size changes will
not require additional construction to introduce fans / ducting system into a shop unit
which did not previously have this design (minimizing future cost and construction
disturbance).
The level of flexibility allowed for by the base build design at this stage is considered
appropriate given the client objectives. The client and stakeholders must review the design in
order to determine the cost vs. benefit of the smoke control strategy at this stage.
In the subsequent design stage, items such as downstand/ false ceiling height may be
reconsidered. For example if the client would like to design for a larger false ceiling height,
the downstand (reservoir depth) is reduced and smoke extraction rates will increase.
Conversely, if the client would like to reduce extraction rates expected due to cost,
downstand depths could be increased to allow for a deeper smoke reservoir and reduced
smoke extraction rates required.

11.3 Design fire size to inform smoke control

The intent and reasoning behind the design fires chosen in the fire strategy are identified in
Section 6.6.6. The design fire size informs the mechanical extraction rates requires in each
smoke zone. The design fire sizes identified at this early concept stage may be considered
conservative, if the fuel load estimated is greater than that planned by the building owner.
There is an opportunity for the stakeholders to detail the fire load intended within each space
during the next stage. A detailed fire size assessment, completed by a competent engineer,
may allow for a revaluation of the mechanical extract rates required per smoke zone.

12 CONCLUSION

This document outlines the key fire safety considerations for the SFPE shopping centre. The
U.K. SFPE chapter team, has applied qualitative design review, by considering the design
goals and constraints (both typical to the UK and in line with the SFPE design brief) to
determine an optimal design solution for a concept stage design. The fire safety solution is
comprised of the fire strategy, the fire safety features and system, and a fire safety
management plan. The fire safety provision are outlined in Section 4, and the detailed
consideration of the fire features, system, and management are described in Section 5 – 9
within the report.
The key aims of the fire strategy which include, (1) safeguarding occupants from injury due
to fire and smoke during egress, (2) safeguarding fire fighting during fire and rescue
operations, (3) minimizing the smoke and fire spread inside the building, and (4) limiting the
impact on business continuity, have all been considered methodically to deliver the optimal
design for the client, tenants, and the buildings future inhabitants.
Key design features which address these goals include:
 Means of escape provisions which consider a total evacuation (simultaneous evacuation)
strategy from both the mall and cinema. Each area within the building has been
considered for adequate travel distances, and horizontal, and vertical escape access
widths.
 The simultaneous evacuation strategy is activated on a double-knock detection system
which allows for full evacuation only upon a confirmed fire. This will minimise the event
of a false alarm, to limit the impact on business continuity.
 A sprinkler system will be installed throughout the building to limit fire and smoke spread
to the room of origin, for the purpose of life safety, property protection, and business
continuity.
 The mall circulation space and atria are designed with mechanical exhaust, to limit smoke
spread and safeguard occupants during egress by designing the system to allow for a clear
height above the highest walking surface (smoke reservoir within false ceiling void).
 All shop units are designed with mechanical smoke extraction. As it is a key goal for the
client to allow for flexibility within the shop tenant fit out units, the smoke control
 strategy has been developed to provide flexibility for each unit within the base build
design. This smoke control design will allow for future tenant shop change of size (i.e.
small units combine to large units), and change of shop front design (i.e. no restrictions
on door width). This design will also reduce impact on business continuity by limiting the
need for additional construction of exhaust systems in future. By designing smoke
extraction within each shop unit, smoke spread throughout the mall is reduced.
A number of risks and opportunities have been identified in Section 12, which will be
developed in subsequent design stages both with the design team and with the approving
authorities. The client must review and provide any feedback on the proposed strategy prior
to the commencement of the subsequent design stage. Further any other fire requirements
from external stakeholders, such as insurers or tenants, must be provided as soon as possible
to enable these to be incorporated into the fire strategy.
Further it is recommended that discussions with the approving authorities are initiated early
in the subsequent design phase, so the proposal can gain agreement ‘in principle’ at an early
stage of the design.
All tenants are responsible for developing a fire safety management plan for their respective
tenancies and for ensuring that these are co-ordinated. To this end, specific management
requirements which must be accounted for in order to enable the efficiency of the fire safety
solution have been highlighted in Section 9 and must be incorporated into the landlord and
tenant fire safety management plans, as produced by others.
Overall it is considered that the life safety standards required for compliance with the
municipal Building Regulations can be achieved within the building in subsequent design
stages through the fire strategy solution outlined in this report.
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For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition
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