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Hygric Properties of Natural and

Manufactured Timber

David Bailey
Advanced Study Dissertation
Supervisor: Dr. Matthew Hall
Date: 7 May 2009
Nottingham University
ABSTRACT

Understanding the hygroscopic properties of wood is the first step in ensuring its
proper application within a structure. As each species of timber has unique properties,
no set model has yet been designed to determine the way wood will react to moisture
and the most reliable data is still obtained through physical experimentation.
This paper seeks to explore the continuous state of equilibrium flux that manifests
itself as a moisture sorption curve when wood is exposed to varying relative humidity
values under isothermal conditions. These sorption isotherms allow a comparison
between the samples of timber in a number of respects, including: natural vs.
manufactured timber, the relationship between hardwood and softwood and the effect
of density on sorption. The results show that the actual wood used in the construction
of manufactured timber has little effect on its sorption characteristics, which are
mostly controlled by the moisture resistant chemical treatments added to them after
production. The paper also expands on the isotherm data in two in two key areas,
modelling of data and time sorption time dependency. The analysis of a diffusion
coefficient model, proved its validity, as calculated data from the sorption isotherm in
conjunction with the model, was corroborated against research from other papers. The
study into sorption time dependant variables is dealt with under three headings, time
taken to reach equilibrium, the dependence of that time on the environmental relative
humidity and finally the hysteresis of the water mass absorbed and desorbed by the
timber over a period of time. Results call into question the definition of equilibrium in
relation to hardwood moisture sorption. The final area of research does lead to an
interesting theory of constant hysteresis, initiated by observed trends in the sorption
mass curves.

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Table of contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................4
List of figures................................................................................................................5
List of Graphs...............................................................................................................6
List of Tables................................................................................................................7
1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................9
1. 1 Overview of the problems.................................................................................10
1.1.1 Humidity control in buildings – Comfort, Energy and Structure................10
1.2 Aims and objectives...........................................................................................11
1.2.1 Overall Aim.................................................................................................11
1.2.2 List of Objectives........................................................................................11
1.3. Limitations of Study.........................................................................................12
1.3.1 Practical Limitations...................................................................................12
1.3.2 Theoretical Limitations...............................................................................12
2. BACKGROUND LITERATURE.........................................................................14
2.1 Wood structure..................................................................................................14
2.2 Moisture Sorption/Desorption .........................................................................16
..............................................................................................................................18
2.2.1 Hysteresis ...................................................................................................18
2.3 Methods of measuring moisture content .........................................................19
2.4 Moisture buffering capacity of materials ........................................................20
.................................................................................................................................21
2.5 Strength/Dimensions of structure ...................................................................21
2.6 Phenomenological Macroscopic Models ........................................................23
3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................27
3.1 Background.......................................................................................................27
3.2 Materials and Preparation ...............................................................................28
3.3 Procedure..........................................................................................................29
3.4 Primary Testing and Modifications .................................................................30
4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION..................................................................................33

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4.1 Characterisation................................................................................................33
4.1.1 Isotherms ...................................................................................................33
4.1.2 Diffusion Coefficient & Model Comparisons.............................................38
4.1.3 Parametric Review......................................................................................41
4.1.4 Storage Function.........................................................................................43
4.2 Time Dependant................................................................................................44
4.2.1 Time Taken To Reach Equilibrium.............................................................44
4.2.2 Dependence of β on RH (ø).........................................................................47
4.2.3 Hysteresis of Δmw at duration of β.............................................................48
5. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................53
6. EXPERIMENTAL RECOMENDATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH....54
6.1 Experimental Recommendations......................................................................54
6.2 Future Research................................................................................................54
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................55
APPENDIX A: TEST RESULTS.............................................................................58
APPENDIX B: DATA CONCLUSIONS.................................................................69
APPENDIX C: DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT CALCULATIONS.......................75

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• Dr. Matthew Hall, Lecturer, Nottingham University – I would like to express
my gratitude for his continual support, instructions and guidelines. His
teaching and supervision have been invaluable throughout the year and have
have helped to make the project what it is today.
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• David Allinson, Nottingham University – For helping in various areas of the
experimentation and in the laboratory. .

List of figures
Figure no. Page no.

1 Hardwood Structure 13
2 Softwood Structure 14
3 Surface view and section through bordered pits in conducting cells 15
4 An example of the shape of a typical wood sorption isotherm 15

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5 Graphical representation of the stages of sorption. 17
6 Sorption Isotherms of white spruce at 25oC, demonstrating the hysteresis
effect. 18
7 Sorption Possible energy savings 20
8 The FSP of several wood species 21
9 Relationship of Longitudinal compression strength to moisture content of
the wood species 21
10 Permeability experimental setup 29
11 Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Pine 38
12 Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Pine 39
13 Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Pine 39
14 Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Oak 39

List of Graphs
Graph no. Page no.

1 Change in mass over a set time for the wet-cup/dry-cup testing. 30


2 Moisture content against environmental RH for Pine wood 32
3 Moisture content against environmental RH for Medium density
Fibreboard 32
4 Moisture content against environmental RH for Oak wood 33
5 Moisture content against environmental RH for Chipboard 33
6 Moisture content against environmental RH for Plywood 34
7 Hardwood vs. Softwood Absorption isotherm 36
8 Hardwood vs. Softwood Desorption isotherm 38
9 Absorption Isotherms-All 5 Samples 41
10 Desorption Isotherms-All 5 Samples 42
11 Time taken to reach absorption equilibrium for Pine and Oak at varying
RH values 45
12 Time taken to reach absorption equilibrium-All 5 samples 45
13 Change in mass over time-Pine Δmw hysteresis 48
14 Change in mass over time-MDF Δmw hysteresis 48

Graph no. Page no.

15 Change in mass over time-Oak Δmw hysteresis 49


16 Change in mass over time-Chipboard Δmw hysteresis 49
17 Change in mass over time-Plywood Δmw hysteresis 50
18 Change in mass over time- Chipboard; predicted Δmw hysteresis 51

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List of Tables
Table No. Page No.

1 Desorption isotherm data 34


2 Absorption isotherm data 34
3 Calculated density of the samples 35

4 Calculated Diffusion Coefficients of the samples at varying RH values 38


5 Model vs. Experimental Equilibrium Moisture Content Comparison 40
6 Storage Function slopes 43
7 Absorption-β for all 5 samples at varying RH 46
8 Absorption-β for all 5 samples at varying RH 47
9 Calculation of the constant value of hysteresis for all 5 samples 50
10 Oven Drying of Samples Appendix A
11 Absorption at different RH levels for Group A Appendix A
12 Absorption at different RH levels for Group B Appendix A
13 Absorption at different RH levels for Group C Appendix A
14 Desorption at different RH levels Appendix A
15 Permiability testing results Appendix A
16 Equilibrium Values for all three tests Appendix B
Absorption moisture content as a percentage of dry weight for all 5
17
samples Appendix B
Desorption moisture content as a percentage of dry weight for all 5
18
samples Appendix B
19 Time to reach equilibrium for all samples at varying RH levels Appendix B
20 Days to reach equilibrium vs. Mass of water at equilibrium Appendix B
21 Diffusion coefficient variables and calculation data Appendix C

Nomenclature

A the area (m2)


cp the specific heat of air (J/kgK)
cv the compressibility of water vapour
D the transverse diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
Da the diffusion coefficient of vapour in air
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Dbt the transverse bound water diffusion coefficient
Dv the vapour diffusion coefficient in the lumens
Eb the activation energy
Gd the nominal specific gravity of wood substance (at a given bound water
content.)
Gm the specific gravity of wood (at a given moisture content)
h the relative vapour pressure (kPa)
J the diffusion flux (mol/m2s)
K1, K2, W, ms(T),n(T),i(T) temperature dependant variables
L the sample thickness (m)
M the bound water content on the surface of a sample (kg/kg)
m the moisture content (kg/kg)
mr the mass (kg)
mw the mass of water contained within the wood (kg)
Mw the molecular weight of water (kg/kmol)
Ø the concentration in dimensions of (amount of substance/length3)
ø the relative humidity (%)
R the gas constant (kmol K)
Ra the ideal gas constant for water vapour (Nm/kgK)
S the surface emission coefficient (cm/s)
T the temperature in Celcius (C)
τ the time (s)
Tk the temperature in Kelvin (K)
u0 the initial moisture content
ue the equilibrium MC
va the porosity of wood
x the position (length)
α the heat transfer coefficient of air (W/m2K)
β the time it takes for a sample to reach equilibrium moisture content at a given
relative humidity (days)
ρ the density of wood (kg/kg)
ρ0 the oven dry density of wood (kg/kg)
ρa the density of air (kg/m3 at a given temperature)
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ρw the density of water (kg/m3)
φ the relative humidity (RH %)
φs the saturation humidity of air
ω the constant value of hysteresis (g)

1. INTRODUCTION
Moisture absorption in wood is characteristic of that of most hygroscopic materials, in
that it seeks to achieve equilibrium with the surrounding environment and will
continue to do so as long as there is a variation in moisture content (MC) between the
timber and air. This attribute is both useful and destructive and this study seeks to
quantify the timber moisture relationship in terms of absorption and permeability in
order that proper design and application of wood in a structure can be carried out. As
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each species of timber has unique properties, no set model has yet been designed to
determine the way a wood will react to moisture (ASTM 2007). Through this study
we will seek to identify this moisture relationship in 5 different species of wood.

1. 1 Overview of the problems

1.1.1 Humidity control in buildings – Comfort, Energy and Structure


Accurate temperature and humidity control within a building envelope is essential to
the comfort and wellbeing of its occupants as well as long term preservation of the
building fabric itself (Highley Terry L. 1999). It is necessary therefore to take into
account hygroscopic properties of wood, as one of the most widespread materials
used in construction.
Studies by C.J. Simonson et al. (2004, cited in Osanyintola Olalekan F. et al.
2006:1271) demonstrated that wood can reduce peak humidity by up to 35%,
depending on the species and ventilation rate, subsequently reducing heating and
cooling energy consumption by up to 5% and 30% respectively.
The amount of moisture in timber can have a dramatic effect on its strength, elasticity
and dimensions, all very important variables in the construction industry. Being able
to predict the response of timber to changing humidity levels can also help to prevent
mould and bugs associated with excessive moisture (generally above 30% moisture
content) in timber (Sunley John et al. 1985). These can cause scarring and sometimes
irreparable and hazardous damage, especially in older buildings where wood is less
likely to be treated with chemicals.
This study will gather data on 5 different types of wood. The data will help to
establish the equilibrium moisture content, the fibre saturation point, and various
other hygric properties of the wood. The psychometrics involved in the study include
understanding the relationship between the absorption and permeability of moisture in
wood, the movement of moisture and the physics behind it. The experimentation will
provide wood sorption isotherms for each of the samples in which the hysteresis
effect should be demonstrated (Bell Leonard N. et al. 2000). The samples will also be
tested for vapour permeability, defined as the ratio between the density of vapor flow

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rate at that point and the magnitude of the vapor pressure gradient in the direction of
the flow (Miniotaite Ruta 1998).
As each different type of wood has unique properties, no one model has yet been
designed to determine the way a wood will react to moisture (Sunley John et al.
1985). The data acquired during this study should help to validate those theoretical
models that do exist or even become the foundation to a new model.

1.2 Aims and objectives

1.2.1 Overall Aim


The main aim of this study is to obtain sorption characteristics for a number of natural
and manufactured timber species with a strong emphasis on the application of these
characteristics in existing models, and a range of time dependant tests. By analysing
the sorption data collected it is hoped that various useful trends can be identified, such
as a tendency of one species to absorb greater amounts of moisture, more rapidly, or
the affinity of one species to remain outside of the mould and insect moisture content
region.

1.2.2 List of Objectives

• To review existing research in the field of wood moisture sorption, including


wood structure, hysteresis, diffusion models and structural and dimensional
changes resulting from moisture sorption and desorption.
• Obtain samples of natural and manufactured timber for testing.
• Prepare and test the specimens based on two well known methods of
absorption and permeability testing.
• Analyse data within 2 sub-categories
1. Characterisation: Evaluation of the sorption curves themselves,
Moisture content (MC) vs. Relative Humidity (RH), Fibre saturation
point (FSP), Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) vs. RH. Then a
comparison of the different types of timber in relation to the sorption
curves. A diffusion coefficient analysis.

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2. Time Dependant: A study of the sorption curve in relation to time, MC
vs. Time to reach EMC. An in-depth analysis of the hysteresis effect;
MC vs. RH, and time vs. MC for absorption and desorption
comparison. Compare natural and manufactured samples.
• Suggest possible applications of the data and trends observed along with ways
to improve the study.

1.3. Limitations of Study

1.3.1 Practical Limitations


The practical limitations can be broken down into two main categories:
• Time: The 4 months or so set aside for testing was sufficient enough to obtain
accurate and useful data in the case of the absorption tests, but with the
permeability testing the recommended period of observation is over a year
(discussed further in section 3.4).
• Equipment: The absorption testing focused on a weight measuring method of
MC monitoring which is simple and fairly accurate; ideally x-ray imaging
could be used as it provides a much more detailed picture. The lack of such
equipment leads to the necessary assumption that the moisture is distributed
uniformly throughout the sample and renders the FSP and diffusion coefficient
modelling imprecise.

1.3.2 Theoretical Limitations


This report is concerned primarily with the absorptive properties of wood and whilst
there is some background into the physical changes that occur, things like strength
and dimensional changes are not actually measured. Wood structure also plays an
enormous part in the absorption properties of a species, but as there is little or no
uniformity between the different types of manufactured wood, therefore the structure
of those samples is not discussed. It is also not known how the bonding materials used
in the manufactured types of wood affects the absorption.

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2. BACKGROUND LITERATURE

The literature review will focus on the mechanics and methods of moisture sorption,
wood structure, hysteresis, diffusion models and structural and dimensional changes
resulting from moisture sorption and desorption.

2.1 Wood structure

Natural timber can be divided up into two primary categories, soft wood and
hardwood. Both types are made up of long hollow cells, elongated and parallel to each
other along the trunk of the tree (Miller, 1999).

Figure 1: Hardwood Structure

In hardwood these cells vary in size and wall thickness, the largest used primarily for
the transport of sap throughout the tree and the smaller ones used for structural
rigidity and strength. In hardwood there are far more transverse cells than in
softwood, again adding to the strength and density of the wood.

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Figure 2: Softwood Structure

Softwood has basically the same structural makeup, except the cells are all similar in
size and generally orientated in the same direction. They are less compacted and have
larger pores and openings. The experimentation within this project is looking at the
absorption and desorption of water within the wood and it is within this cell structure
that the moisture transfer at the microscopic cellular level occurs. For both hardwoods
and softwoods the cell walls are made up of layers containing micro-fibrils which
give the walls strength and rigidity (Dinwoodie J.M. 1989). The cell wall and its
constituents also contain water in various forms that are relevant to the
experimentation.
As Haque M. Nawshadul (2002) discusses, water exists within the wood in one of 3
forms, free water, bound water and water vapour.
• Free water occurs within the cell Lumina or macroscopic capillaries.
• Bound water is trapped within the actual cellulose of the cell wall of the wood.
• Water vapour, like bound water, is held within the cell wall Lumina, but in
comparison with free water and bound water its effects are insignificant.
Moisture movement through the wood is attributable to either pressure difference or
moisture gradient (Skaar 1988) It moves through passageways in the structure of the
wood, interconnected by small openings or thin areas in the walls known as pits
(Dinwoodie 2000). The permeability of moisture longitudinally, within the
passageways is many times greater than via the pits, in the transverse direction.
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Figure 3: Surface view and section through bordered pits in conducting cells; right- solid view of two pits cut in half: I, pit
opening; II, torous; III, margo strands formed from the primary wall; IV, pit cavity; V, secondary wall (Desch and Dinwoodie,
1996).

It is worth noting that in softwoods the cell structure off the wood is not as dense,
allowing for larger passageways and greater ease of movement and theoretically faster
and greater absorption. This phenomenon will be further investigated in a comparison
between both the natural hardwood and softwood that are to be tested.

2.2 Moisture Sorption/Desorption

Figure 4: An example of the shape of a typical wood sorption isotherm. (Note the Equilibrium moisture content or EMC only
ever reaches 30% or the fibre saturation point. Also note the hysteresis effect between sorption and desorption.)

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Within the field of timber sorption, principally timber drying, there are three primary
driving forces that are used to predict the rate of moisture sorption and absorption
within the wood: Moisture content, the partial pressure of water vapour, and the
chemical potential (Skaar, 1988; Keey et al., 2000). These along with capillary forces
are the means by which the wood reaches equilibrium. The experimentation deals
with two types of water within the cell wall.
• Free Water: Termed free water due to the fact that it is not chemically bound
to the wood, it is simply held via capillary forces (Skaar, 1988), and therefore
easily desorbed or absorbed.
• Bound Water: On a molecular level the cell wall is negatively charged and
therefore attracts the water (which is a polar substance), due to van der Waals
forces (Haque M. Nawshadul 2002). The resulting hydrogen bonds are what
keep the water within the wood. The tests being carried out will deal largely
with bound water.
There are detailed sorption theories discussed by Simpson (1973, 1980) and Simpson
and Rosen (1981) (all three cited in Bastías Marcia Vidal et al. 2005:146) and Skaar
(1988). The theories are designed to provide an explanation into the sorption of water
in hygroscopic materials, including wood.
In one theory Skaar (1988) and Dinwoodie J.M. (2000) reviewed water sorption from
a molecular point of view, thereby dividing the sorption curve into 3 separate parts as
shown in figure 5. Water is hydrogen bonded to the hydroxyl groups of the cellulosic
and hemicellulosic portions of wood (Bowyer Jim L. et al. 2003). In zone 1 of figure
5, water is subject to Van der Waals forces. In moisture absorption, water molecules
gradually cover the external surface of the cell wall and are held in a rigid state via the
chemical bonds. This layer is termed the monolayer. Once the monolayer is saturated
Zone 2 begins. The sorption graph becomes linear as more molecular layers are added
to the cellular structure of the wood. Zone 3 demonstrates the appearance of liquid
water within the capillaries of the wood due to capillary condensation. This is
signified by the steep increase in MC on the sorption graph.

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100
Figure 5: Graphical representation of the stages of sorption. (Skaar 1988)

2.2.1 Hysteresis
There are a few hypothesis used to explain hysteresis in wood: Excess energy
produced by water sorption (Richardson Barry A. 1976), plasticity in relation to the
irreversible inelastic exchanges of hydroxyl groups (Barkas Wilfred W. 1949), and
the behaviour of hydroxyl groups within the cellulose and lignin(Dinwoodie J. M
2000). The most popular theory relates to the differences in contact angle and
pressures of the advancing and receding water through the capillaries of the wood and
into the porous structure (Mujumdar A. S. 2006).
Sorption and desorption of water within the cellular structure does not happen
instantaneously with changes in the surrounding RH. When absorption occurs due to a
high surrounding RH, capillaries in the wood begin to fill with water. The capillaries
in turn are attached to the pores in the wood, but in order for the pores to fill up the
partial pressure of the vapour in the air, needs to be greater than that of the vapour
pressure of the liquid in the pore. Only then will the moisture move into the porous
structure of the wood. For desorption the wood is already saturated, the pores are full
and the process is reversed, but as the pores are already full the MC will be
consistently higher along the drying curve (see figure 6). This theory does assume a
rigid pore structure and therefore is valid in a timber application. “The explanation is
that the contraction and swelling is superimposed on the drying and wetting process,
producing states of tension in the capillaries and pores, leading to varying EMC

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depending on whether desorption or absorption is in progress (Mujumdar A. S. 2006,
pg. 16).” A study by Stamm (1964) showed the tendency of white spruce to conform
to a “middle curve” when exposed to alternating RH conditions.

Figure 6: Sorption Isotherms of white spruce at 25oC, demonstrating the hysteresis effect. (Stamm 1964)

Higgins (1957, cited in Bowyer Jim L. et al. 2003:177) found that the hysteresis effect
varied considerably from one species to another as demonstrated by the fibre
saturation points in figure 8.

2.3 Methods of measuring moisture content

Bowyer Jim L. et al. (2003) discuss a number of methods that are used to measure the
moisture content of wood. Continuous examination of the moisture content can be
done via a neutron gauge in tandem with a gamma radiation gauge to measure the
total mass of the sample; the MC can be also be measured via the amount of
microwave power that the sample is absorbing. A simpler method is to use a
resistance meter which measures the electrical resistance between two pins inserted in
the wood. These are only generally reliable from 6% to around 30% or FSP moisture
content. A similar method uses the capacitance of the wood as it varies with density
and MC. Prado Pablo J. (2001) did a study into the use of magnetic resonance fields
(MRF), similar to those use in the oil industry and various moisture detection
applications. For MC under 30% the study showed that MRF results were consistent
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with existing MC models. A method widely used in the food and archaeological
industries is the x-ray diffraction method where a sample is bombarded with x-rays.
The diffraction data is capable of giving important structural information as well as an
accurate MC reading (Chinachoti Pavinee et al. 2006). Due to the somewhat limited
means of this study the simple interpolation method based on known EMC points was
used. The EMC points are determined using the process described in section 3.2.

2.4 Moisture buffering capacity of materials


The ability of wood to moderate variations in RH is defined as its moisture buffering
capacity (MBC) and depends on a number of factors, the outdoor climate, the
ventilation rate and even things like furniture. Research has shown that peak indoor
humidity levels can be reduced by up to 35% and minimum levels raised by up to
15% (ASTM 2007) given proper application of hygroscopic materials. The most
widely recognised method of calculating the MBC of hygroscopic materials is based
on a NORDTEST project. The project was initiated after previous MBC testing
proved inconclusive. The subsequent results of the NORDTEST define the moisture
buffering ability of materials in the indoor environment and present a test to measure
the MBC of the materials in question (ASTM 2007). This project is unable to perform
the calculations that establish moisture effusivity through the NORDTEST method, as
they require data from the permeability tests (refer to section 3.4).
Physical testing of MBC includes an interesting method known as the suction
technique; adapted from the analyzation of porous building materials in a high RH
environment, to measure the storage capacity of wood (Thygesen Lisbeth G. et al.
2007). The method is limited though as it assumes moisture is initially removed from
water saturated samples and therefore only produces a desorption isotherm. A simpler
and nearly as accurate method is to measure the amount of water a sample can absorb
at a given RH. Once the sample’s weight has stabilised within the controlled RH
environment it has reached the Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) of wood,
defined as: The moisture content of the timber, such that there is no inward or
outward diffusion of water vapour. This will correspond to a specific temperature and
RH of the surrounding environment (Dinwoodie J. M. 2000). The EMC is the state

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that we wish to obtain via the absorption experimentation as it will allow the RH-MC
relationship to be quantified and provides points for an accurate sorption profile for
all RH conditions.

Figure 7: Sorption Possible energy savings when the indoor temperature in the hygroscopic case is (a) decreased while
maintaining the same indoor RH and in the non-hygroscopic case, and (b) increased while maintaining the same comfort and air
quality conditions as in the non-hygroscopic case. (Chinachoti Pavinee et al. 2006)

2.5 Strength/Dimensions of structure

The rate of moisture absorption is naturally related to the species of wood and
correspondingly the rate of expansion or shrinkage, based on the absorption of the
moisture is also related. Structurally wood needs to be quite stable, in that to much
expansion or shrinkage in a supporting beam could cause irreparable and possibly
harmful damage. A 3% volume change for a 30% RH difference is deemed acceptable
in most circumstances (Sunley John et al. 1985), but depending on the application
changes of up to double that are acceptable. It is important to recognise the
significance of the fibre saturation point in terms of strength and dimensional change
due to MC variation. The Fibre Saturation Point (FSP) of wood is defined as: “the
moisture content at which the cell walls are saturated but no free water remains in the
cell cavities. Moisture content of the individual cell walls at the fibre saturation point
is usually about 30%, but may be lower for some species” (Simpson William T.
1991). The FSP is taken as an average over a piece of timber and thus detailed results

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might be false as not all parts of the timber are at the same MC. The FSP of wood is
important to moisture sorption as it defines the point at which the wood changes
strength and dimensions. It also helps in the comparison of hysteresis in varying
species.

Figure 8: The FSP of several wood species. Higgins (1957)

Once the amount of moisture in the cell wall falls below the FSP the moisture
contained within the cellulosic strands or microscopic capillaries, discussed in section
2.1, begins to leave. This removal of water from the hemicellulose/lignin matrix then
causes the shrinkage, primarily along the length of the cell (Sunley John et al. 1985).

Figure 9: Relationship of Longitudinal compression strength to moisture content of the wood species (Dinwoodie J.M. 1989).

The figure clearly shows the strength relationship apparent when the MC of the wood
falls below the 30% FSP. The removal of water from the hemicellulose/lignin matrix
causes microfibrils to compact, and move closer together thus causing shrinkage in
the wood, but an increase in strength as the wood dries.
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Another structural matter related to the moisture content of wood is the growth of
mould and fungi. The initial infection of a piece of timber requires a MC of at least
20% (Desch, H.E. et al. (1996) or the approximately the FSP of most species of
timber; should an infected piece of timber fall below that MC threshold the fungus
will cease its growth. Fungal attack destroys the cellular structure of the wood and
eventually wood can lose up to 80% of its air dry mass(Dinwoodie J.M. 1989).

2.6 Phenomenological Macroscopic Models

Whilst the data gathered from a wood sorption isotherm can be used directly in a
physical process, oftentimes it is used to validate mathematical models developed to
predict the properties of wood. It is well known that no it is not possible to exactly
predict the nature of a piece of timber, but many people (Skaar, Dinwoodie, Siau)
have devised equations based on existing wood sorption data. These models can be
accurate and are sometimes the only way to obtain the data required. The sorption
data gathered from this experiment will be used in one of these models to determine
the Moisture Diffusion Coefficient (MDC). Moisture is the predominant mechanism
of fluid moisture movement through wood, below the FSP (Dinwoodie J. M. 2000).
There are various different coefficients of diffusion, as moisture does not move at the
same speed through all elements of the wood Siau (1984, cited in Dinwoodie J. M.
2000:46). The MDC model that has been chosen, gives a transverse diffusion
coefficient (D) and a surface emission coefficient (S) by utilising the data from the
experiments in conjunction with the model calculations.
The model chosen incorporates within it a simpler model to define the MC based on
the variable of temperature. This in itself though is a choice as there are many such
equations that have been developed to predict the MC of a sample based on a couple
given variables. A study by Bastías Marcia Vidal et al. (2005) compares 7 such
models and has determined that the most accurate results, based on the parameters of
this experiment, are given by the Malmquist model, developed in 1958. It calculates

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the MC based on temperature and relative vapour pressure and the formulation is as
follows:

The results from the model are compared with the theoretical MC results in the MDC
model in section 4.1.2.
The model chosen was developed by Baronas R. et al. (2001) and is based around the
fundamentals of Fick’s second law:

As derived from Fick’s first law:

The MDC model calculations are as follows:


MC derivation (note the similarities to the Malmquist model)

where
2
K1 = 4.737 + 0.04773Tc – 0.00050012⋅ Τ
2
K2 = 0.7059 + 0.001695⋅ Τ − 0.000005638Τ
2
W = 223.4 + 0.6942⋅ Τ + 0.01853⋅ Τ
Saturated Vapour Pressure
ps = 3390 ⋅ exp(-1.74 + 0.0759⋅ T – 0.000424⋅ T2 + 2.44 ⋅ 10-6 ⋅ T3)

Activation Energy
Eb = (40.195 - 71.179m + 291m2 - 669.92m3) ⋅ 106

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Diffusion coefficient of bound water in cell walls according to the Arrhenius Equation
Dbt = 7⋅ 10-6 exp(-Eb/RTk)

Nominal Specific Gravity


Gd = 1.54/(1.0 + 1.54⋅ m)

Interdiffusion Coefficient of Vapour in Air


Da = 9.2⋅ 10-9 Tk2.5/(Tk + 245.18)

Vapour Diffusion Coefficient in the Lumens

The Transverse Diffusion Coefficient

A secondary part to the model is the evaluation of a surface emission coefficient and
is calculated as follows:

Specific Gravity of Wood

Porosity of Wood

Saturation Humidity

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The Surface Emission Coefficient

The model used to determine the MDC, uses a 2 dimensional formulation process,
best suited to applications where the sample is long and thin and therefore will lose
the majority of its water only in a 2 dimensional field (see Section 3.3). Ideally a 3
dimensional formula should be used given the square shape the samples but it was not
practical due to the amount of extra information and assumptions required for its
completion. The moisture diffusion coefficient is a step toward a complete moisture
sorption profile for a species of wood and is used as a vital part of other moisture
sorption models. Results and analysis of the MDC model are discussed in section
4.1.2.

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3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Background

The first step in determining the hygric properties of timber is to obtain a sample of
the specific species required and perform tests on the sample itself. The tests have
been chosen to give a good indication of the sorption and desorption properties for the
selected timber.

3.1.1 Absorption
The primary reasoning behind the absorption test was simplicity and a necessity. As
mentioned in section 1.3.1 the lab does not contain many of the advanced technology
required for detailed absorption analysis. Thus an experimental procedure based
around a simple but accurate scale, and some controlled humidity jars was devised.
Salt solutions discussed later provide the humidity control needed to acquire the
necessary data. As sorption and desorption takes place, the weight of the wood is
monitored. This weight can be divided by the dry weight of the wood to get the
amount of moisture being absorbed. Once the wood has reached EMC it can be
moved up or down to another RH jar. The information is then compared on a sorption
isotherm graph.

3.1.2 Permeability
A detailed description of the cup method is available in works by Siau (1984 and
1985, cited by Olek Wieslaw 2003:16). The mechanics of the cup method are similar
to the absorption testing in that they rely on the humidity control of salt solutions and
are discussed in depth in section 3.3. The steady state of the bound water during the
test in combination with the one dimensional travel through the wood allows for a
linear regression of time vs. mass change and the flux of the bound water can be
calculated:

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The Flux of the Bound Water

3.2 Materials and Preparation

Initially 5 different species of timber were procured, 2 natural, Pine-Sample 1 and


Oak-Sample 3, and 3 manufactured, MDF-Sample 2, Plywood-Sample 5 and
Chipboard-Sample 4. The timber was then cut into blocks of 50x50x50mm (3 blocks
for each species) and 4 species also were cut into disks 105mm in diameter and 10mm
thick (3 disks for each species). While the dimensions were not strictly adhered to,
this does not affect the results of the test as the final results are largely ratio based.
The identical tangential dimensions of the square blocks used in the experimentation
should help to maintain a universally similar rate of moisture transfer (see section
2.1). The short length of the samples should help to reduce the increased permeability
rate caused by the longitudinal effect of the cells.
All the samples were oven dries to remove as much excess water as possible and
gauge a base dry weight from which all the other tests will stem.
Sealable glass jars containing a salt solution and a small metal shelf provided the
moisture controlled environments for the absorption tests. The chemicals within the
salts control the humidity levels in the air and by mixing the salts with distilled water
it ensures that no extraneous minerals counteract the effect of the salt.
The controlled environment for the permeability cups is a sealed box, containing a
small fan and a tray for the high RH salt solution. Once the wood disks have been
sufficiently oven dried, they are sealed round the edges with aluminium tape to ensure
only one dimensional moisture transfer. A low RH salt solution is added to the cups
and the wood disks are sealed to the top with epoxy resin. They are then placed within
the climate controlled box.

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3.3 Procedure

The absorption test involves exposing the samples of wood to a controlled relative
humidity (RH) for a period of time and then measuring the weight change once they
have achieved equilibrium. (BS Standard of 0.1% initial change over a 24hr period)
By subtracting the dry weight from the weight as set by the water absorbed in the
controlled RH we obtain the absorption ratio. This test is performed over 5 varying
RH’s and that allows for 5 separate ratios and subsequently enough information to
draw up a relatively accurate absorption isotherm for the species of wood. A
controlled RH is achieved by placing 1 cube of each type of wood is placed on a small
rack in a sealed jar or multiple jars containing a mixture of salt solutions. The jars are
then kept in a chamber at approx. 100%humidity to provide an approximate constant
temperature of 23oC. The salts in the water have a measured dampening effect on the
evaporation of moisture into the air. This effectively controls the relative humidity in
the jar to an exacting degree. The salts being used are:
• MgCl2 – 32.9%RH@23oC
• K2CO3 – 43.16%RH@23oC
• NaBr – 58.2%RH@23oC
• NaCl – 75.36%RH@23oC
• KNO3 – 94.00%RH@23oC
The process is repeated with each of the samples going through each of the stages of
humidification and then the results can be averaged to form a more accurate
absorption isotherm for the species. The drying curve is the same process as wetting,
just the samples are moved down the RH scale. Time constraints may limit this to just
one set of wood going through the process.
The principle behind the permeability tests is very simple, the liquid in the cup seeks
to escape through the wood due to the imbalance of humidity inside and outside the
cup.

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Figure 10: Permeability experimental setup: 1-wood disk sample, 2-sealant, 3-salt solution, 4-supporting rack, 5-climate
controlled environment (temp. and RH), Olek Wieslaw (2003)

The cup is periodically weighed to establish how much water has escaped through the
sample. The results provide a graph based on the equation in section 3.1.2.

3.4 Primary Testing and Modifications

During the first week the absorption samples were tested on an almost daily basis.
After the first week it was deemed necessary to increase the weighing intervals as
constant testing was causing disruption to the controlled RH environment within the
jars. A subsequent complication arises due to the need to interpolate some of the data
(see section 4.2.1).
The initial stages of the permeability test involved waiting for the system to
equilibrate. The weight of the cups was in constant flux as shown in the graph below:

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Graph 1: Change in mass over a set time for the wet-cup/dry-cup testing.

When the cups failed to reach a state of equilibrium within a few weeks, the
experiment was deemed unfeasible due to time limitations. Some possible reasons for
the constant flux are:
• Saturation of the air within the sealed box caused by a lack of water in the tray
of salt solution within the box, leading to equilibrium between the RH in the
wet cup and the air. This theory of saturation within the box is supported by
the appearance of mould on two of the samples which requires a high level of
moisture.
• The cups are not sealed properly, releasing so much water moisture into the air
that the salt solution within the tray is unable to counteract the effects, again
resulting in equilibrium between the RH of the wet cup and the interior of the
sealed box.
• Because of the nature of the test equipment is necessary to remove the lid of
the sealed box to get at the samples to weigh them. It is possible that the
frequent testing prevented the box from attaining a steady RH, governed by
the salt solution in the tray.
There is however a visible downward trend after 30 days, and it is possible that the
experiment was not a failure and the testing phase just needs to be extended; although
similar experiments by Olek Wieslaw (2003) and Bandyopadhyay A. et al. (2002)
provided trend data after only 2 days.

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The permeability experiment will be continued, but as far as this paper is concerned
the experiment yielded little to no relevant data, and it is impossible to apply the Flux
of bound water equation.

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4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

4.1 Characterisation

4.1.1 Isotherms

Graph 2: Moisture content against environmental RH for Pine wood

Graph 3: Moisture content against environmental RH for Medium density Fibreboard

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Graph 4: Moisture content against environmental RH for Oak wood

Graph 5: Moisture content against environmental RH for Chipboard

Graph 6: Moisture content against environmental RH for Plywood

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There are 3 specific areas that need to be evaluated:
1. Hysteresis
All of the samples seem to follow the general trend of sorption curves given
by previous research (see figure 6) with a constant curve for absorption and
slight variations in the slope at various points for the in the desorption curve.
The separation between the two curves implies the existence of hysteresis
which in turn helps to understand the response of wood, to constant wetting
and drying in a natural setting (see section 5 – further experimentation). As
absorption hysteresis is still an active area of research this relationship in the
samples tested could be used to define the parameters for the theory of
hysteresis within wood.

2. Sorption Isotherms – Natural vs. Manufactured Timber

DESORPTION
Moisture Content
Relative Chipbo Plywo
Humidity Pine MDF Oak ard od
17.83 15.52 14.95 15.48
94% % % % 15.63% %
15.56 13.49 13.38 14.39
75.26% % % % 14.10% %
11.90 10.97 10.74 11.24
58.20% % % % 11.49% %
43.16% 9.72% 9.04% 8.87% 9.19% 9.27%
9.03 7.92 8.20
33% % % % 8.22% 8.15%

Table 1: Desorption isotherm data

ABSORPTION
Moisture Content
Relative Chipbo Plywo
Humidity Pine MDF Oak ard od
33% 4.56% 4.02% 4.40% 4.30% 5.72%
43.16% 6.42% 5.58% 5.49% 5.73% 6.22%
58.20% 8.70% 7.45% 7.51% 7.67% 7.78%
11.99 10.22 10.46 10.60
75.26% % % % 10.62% %
17.83 15.52 14.95 15.48
94% % % % 15.63% %

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Table 2: Absorption isotherm data

Given the sorption data, the manufactured timber isotherms appear very
similar to those of the natural timber. Initial assumptions gave the
manufactured timber a lower EMC due to additives in their composition.
Given the data in tables 1&2 any glues or resins used in their production seem
to have had varying effects on their sorption characteristics. There also
appears to be an unusual similarity between the final moisture contents of the
three manufactured samples with percentages all within 0.15% of each other at
the end of the sorption curve. This may be a coincidence, or it may be that the
wood used to make the manufactured timber is of similar origin. It is also
possible that the glue, used to bond the various timber elements together, has a
moisture absorption factor of its own that is affecting results. There are
difficulties in specifying an exact isotherm for the various types of
manufactured timber as there is no strict regulations on their components.
Different companies may have different methods of constructing
manufactured timber and therefore it is necessary to do a separate test or
model for each sample.
Plywood can be made up of either softwood or hardwood, but in this case the
final MC value resembles that of the Oak, more so than the Pine, in both
sorption curves. The results for MDF should be similar to the pine sorption
isotherm, as MDF is predominantly of softwood origins. However, the resin
used to bind the MDF together appears to have impeded the flow of moisture
and sorption characteristic is more so of a hardwood. Another theory is the
increased density of the wood slows the moisture flow through it. Using the
data from the Diffusion Coefficient Model we can clearly see that the MDF is
both denser and the speed at which the moisture is transported through the
wood is slower (section 4.1.2).
Oven dry
Density
Type (kg/m3)
Pine 472
MDF 576
Oak 660
Chipboa 616
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rd
Plywood 888

Table 3: Calculated density of the samples

Chipboard is made up of tiny pieces of softwood bonded together to form a


sheet. The sample tested here is a low grade, fairly porous example, which
should have allowed a large amount of moisture in and the predicted MC
should be considerably higher than the other manufactured types. The reason
that it obviously isn’t, is simple; Chipboard is used in a variety of applications
which cause it to come into contact with fire and water, therefore it is treated
in its raw form with fire resistant and moisture resistant chemicals. The sample
tested was not chipboard in its raw form, it was in-fact, treated chipboard. The
results of the experiment show that the treatment worked and the wood
moisture sorption is on a similar level as that other manufactured timber and
the natural oak.

3. Sorption Isotherms – Hardwood vs. Softwood

Graph 7: Hardwood vs. Softwood Absorption isotherm

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Graph 8: Hardwood vs. Softwood Desorption isotherm

Theoretically softwood should have both a greater MC, and rate of sorption than
hardwood as the structural makeup of softwood is much more porous. The confirms
this and gives both a higher rate of absorption and a higher overall MC for pine in
both the absorption and desorption curves. The softwood has an FSP of nearly 18%
while the hardwood is closer to 15%. However, a study by Matiasovsky Peter and
Takacsova Zuzana (1996)which includes the sorption characteristics of Spruce
(softwood) and Walnut (hardwood) shows a different trend, with the FSP of the
softwood at approx 10% and the hardwood at approx 15%MC. This reversal of
hardwood and softwood MC boundaries may be down to the different species that
were used in the experiments by Matiasovsky and this paper. But if both sets of data
are valid then the conclusion is that neither hardwood of softwood has exclusively
higher MC and that it is down to the specific species within both categories.

4.1.2 Diffusion Coefficient & Model Comparisons


The Diffusion Coefficients in the table below are based on the equations from the
model in section 2.6, and the data collected from the samples.

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Diffusion Coefficients of Wood Samples
Environment RH
32.90% 43.16% 58.20% 75.36% 94%
2 2 2 2 2
Wood Type D m /s D m /s D m /s D m /s D m /s
Pine 3.16E-11 3.9E-11 5.27E-11 7.87E-11 1.89E-10
MDF 1.98E-11 2.45E-11 3.32E-11 4.98E-11 1.21E-10
Oak 1.42E-11 1.75E-11 2.38E-11 3.59E-11 8.81E-11
Chipboard 1.68E-11 2.08E-11 2.82E-11 4.25E-11 1.04E-10
Plywood 6.35E-12 7.88E-12 1.08E-11 1.63E-11 4.08E-11

Table 4: Calculated Diffusion Coefficients of the samples at varying RH values

The following are diffusion coefficients from a paper by Sehlstedt-Persson


Margot (2003):

Figure 11: Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Pine

Unext. and Extr. relate to the location that the sample was taken from within the tree,
ie. the heartwood or the sapwood. These variations are not taken into account in this
paper.
Two other models examined by Olek Wieslaw and Weres Jerzy (2006), review the
inverse method and the analytical sorption method in relation to Scots pine:

Figure 12: Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Pine

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Figure 13: Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Pine

Fotsing Joseph Albert Mukam and Tchagang Claude Wanko (2004) used the wet cup
dry cup test in conjunction with Ficks laws to determine the diffusion coefficient for
red oak:
Température 30°C 35°C 40°C
DRadial (m²s-1) 1,35 x 10-11 3,70 x 10-11 5.37 x 10-11
DLongitudinal (m²s-1) 3,23 x 10-11 5,38 x 10-11 6,73 x 10-11
DTangential (m²s-1) 1,16 x 10-11 2,65 x 10-11 3,05 x 10-11
Figure 14: Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Oak

Again the basis of the test was a variation in temperature with a constant RH, but the
data obtained is still relevant to.

When compared with results from similar models and other research, the diffusion
coefficient of Pine and Oak, as calculated via the demonstrated model, are validated.
There are some small discrepancies, but those can be attributed to experimental error.
The conclusion therefore is that the diffusion coefficients for the manufactured
timber, as calculated by the same model, are also valid. As research into the sorption
characteristics of manufactured timber is limited the model data could prove useful in
a suitable application.

Model vs. Experimental Equilibrium Moisture Content


Comparison
Experimentally Deduced Moisture
Content
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Relati Model
ve Predicted
Humid moisture Chipbo Plywo
ity content Pine MDF Oak ard od
33% 6.50% 4.56% 4.02% 4.40% 4.30% 5.72%
43.16% 8.03% 6.42% 5.58% 5.49% 5.73% 6.22%
58.20% 10.59% 8.70% 7.45% 7.51% 7.67% 7.78%
11.99 10.22 10.60
75.26% 14.63% % % 10.46% 10.62% %
17.83 15.52 15.48
94% 22.39% % % 14.95% 15.63% %

Table 5: Model vs. Experimental Equilibrium Moisture Content Comparison

As displayed in the table above the predicted moisture content for the various types of
timber are not species specific, but rather based on environmental temperature. The
application of those predicted moisture contents is when the species characteristics are
entered into the equation. The predicted data is considerably higher than the actual
MC values and as such the predicted diffusion coefficient may be slightly greater than
in reality.

4.1.3 Parametric Review


The sorption isotherm of a timber species provides MC data that can be used to
specify the correct environment in which it should be installed. Two areas of
importance are comfort and the conditions at which the timber is most likely to
undergo fungal attack.
The RH comfort zone for people is between 25% and 75% with an ideal RH of
approximately 60%. In terms of comfort, a building wants timber that has the greatest
variation in MC as this signifies its ability to absorb and desorb moisture at a greater
rate, thereby keeping a room within the RH comfort zone when there is a change in
room RH.
The sorption isotherms display this as slope, with the steepest slope indicating the
highest rate of sorption. For all the samples, between 80%-100% RH there is a steep
sorption trend. For desorption the curve actually flattens out somewhat over the
comfort zone and then theoretically drops suddenly again after 25%.

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Graph 9: Absorption Isotherms-All 5 Samples

Amongst the samples tested there is no clear steeper gradient for the absorption
curves. Plywood is probably the least desirable as the arc is somewhat shallower than
the rest at between 30%-55%. Pine has a higher MC level, but the gradient is still
almost exactly the same as the other samples.

Graph 10: Desorption Isotherms-All 5 Samples

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The desorption isotherm gives a steeper slope for pine, chipboard and plywood, with
pine at the highest gradient, consequently labelling it as the most appropriate timber
for relatively rapid humidity control.
The similarities between the slopes displayed may be down to the relatively
straightforward testing process. Given more exact equipment it may be possible to see
a greater differentiation between the samples.
Mould, as discussed in section 2.5, requires a minimum of 20% MC to propagate and
given that the isotherms show an equilibrium point of well below 20% for all the
samples, the existence of mould is theoretically impossible. There was however small
outbreaks on various samples. This is due to the different levels of MC within the
wood. The surface of the wood may be at 25% even 30% and the middle could be 5%
MC. This method of testing assumes a uniform distribution of moisture throughout
the wood sample and therefore we can see mould on a sample of MC under 20%.

4.1.4 Storage Function


It is possible to use a pressure plate in conjunction with sorption isotherms to form a
continuous moisture storage function covering the entire range from dry state to
capillary saturation but as we only have access to data from the sorption isotherm
testing the storage function will be calculated as the slope of the isotherm over stage
2, as defined in figure 5. At this stage the monolayer is completely saturated and more
molecular layers are being added to the cell walls, but the water vapour pressure is not
enough to overcome the pore pressure within the capillaries, resulting in a temporary
decline in moisture content over the midrange RH values.
Referring back to the sorption isotherm graphs in section 4.1.1 we see that the Oak,
Chipboard isotherms show a continuous curve with little or no change in slope. The
Pine and MDF samples have a slight incline in their gradient after 75% RH indicating
a shallower slope before that point. Plywood exhibits the greatest effect, between 33-
50% the slope is dramatically reduced resulting in a lower storage function.

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Storage Function
between 33-75%RH
Sample Slope
Pine R² = 0.997
MDF R² = 0.997
Oak R² = 0.990
Chipboa
rd R² = 0.995
Plywood R² = 0.958

Table 6: Storage function slopes

This storage function data is useful in validating current theoretical models

4.2 Time Dependant

4.2.1 Time Taken To Reach Equilibrium


The time taken to reach equilibrium (β) is based on the definition of equilibrium (see
section 3.3). The process involves taking the dry weight of the sample and calculating
its equilibrium variation, ie. 0.01% of its mass. Each set of data is then studied to
determine the point at which the mass change fell below the equilibrium variation
point. It is important to note that the equilibrium point is not necessarily the total
testing time for the sample. Due to the incapacity to test the samples every day some
linear interpolation of the data is sometimes required to estimate an approximate
equilibrium time for both absorption and desorption tests. However, the absorption
data is based on three separate tests and the calculated times are an average,
increasing the precision of the results. Therefore most conclusions will be drawn from
the absorption data unless there needs to be a direct comparison between the results
(Section 4.2.3).

Variation in β according to natural or manufactured origins


Graph 12 gives no general similarity between the manufactured samples and the
natural samples. The varied make-up of the manufactured samples means that it is
impossible to class them under one heading. The MDF and Chipboard are both of
softwood origins, whereas the Plywood is made from hardwood. The comparison then

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becomes MDF and Chipboard against Pine, and Plywood against Oak; manufactured
softwood and hardwoods against natural hardwood and softwoods.
The relationships now emerge as Pine, MDF and Chipboard all reach equilibrium
faster than Oak and Plywood. The initial stages of sorption place the two varieties of
wood closer together but at higher RH the differences become apparent.
For both comparisons, the natural wood has a quicker β time. Oak is faster than
Plywood and Pine faster than MDF and Chipboard. This is most likely down to
bonding materials in the manufactured samples and the treatments applied to them.
The β time for oak drops considerably and one point during the absorption phase, but
there is no corresponding drop in the desorption period. The conclusion is that the
anomaly is due to an experimental error at some point.

Variation in β according to class

Graph 11: Time taken to reach absorption equilibrium for Pine and Oak at varying RH values

Apart from the slight variance at RH ~40% there is a very clear separation between
the two classes. The basis behind the faster β for pine are based primarily in the
structure of the wood as considered in section 2.1; larger capillaries, a more porous
cellular makeup and various other compositional matters aid in the speed of
absorption in softwood, and therefore its β. The structure of the wood is tied directly
into the density which is examined further by graph 12.

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There is one very noticeable similarity shared by all the samples, and displayed
clearly in graph 11, and that is the apparent increase in β as RH approaches 100%.
This inclination is discussed in more detail in section 4.2.2.
Variation in β according to the density :

Graph 12: Time taken to reach absorption equilibrium-All 5 samples

Denser wood takes longer to reach equilibrium at each different RH stage as shown
by the continually higher β for plywood. The data shows that for a similar sized
sample the plywood was significantly heavier, and therefore denser than the other
samples, the exception being the oak. The oak sample has smaller dimensions and
therefore will reach equilibrium quicker as there is less distance for moisture to travel
for a given moisture diffusion coefficient. A larger sample of the same species will
have the same diffusion coefficient but greater volume to fill with water, thus
validating the oak and plywood results. The graph plainly shows that the denser
plywood sample takes marginally longer to equilibrate but follows the similar pattern
as the rest of the samples in that, as the RH approaches 100%, β increases
dramatically. This means that in a real life application where timber is being used as
an active moisture buffer it should ideally be as porous as possible. Dense woods
(generally hardwoods) seem more suited to seasonal variations as their response time
is too slow for day to day effectiveness.

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4.2.2 Dependence of β on RH (ø)
Graph 12 displays obvious variations in the gradient, or slope, of β for different
values of RH. Within that spectrum we also have a variation in slope depending on
the species of timber.
Absorption-Time to reach equilibrium
(days)
Chipbo Plywo
RH Pine MDF Oak ard od
33% 8 6 11.5 6 9.5
43.16% 7 7 5.5 6 8.5
58.20% 9 7 10 8.5 10.5
75.26% 8.5 8 12 9 15
94% 18 21 26 20 37
Table 7: Absorption-β for all 5 samples at varying RH

Desorption-Time to reach equilibrium


(days)
Chipbo Plywo
RH Pine MDF Oak ard od
94%
75.26% 19.5 14 12 14 13
58.20% 10 7 9 11 10
43.16% 8 4 6.5 8 4
33% 7 5 4.5 4 5.5
Table 8: Absorption-β for all 5 samples at varying RH (Unlike the dry weight it is almost impossible to know the fully saturated
weight so we cannot tell how long it would take to get from fully saturated to 94% RH equilibrium.)

Absorption results show a fairly constant rate of β over all the samples, up to around
70% RH. Oak and Plywood, as the two hardwood representatives have a slightly
higher average β for the absorption curve, but have a lower β over the desorption
curve. This may be due to the density of the hardwood. The moisture absorbed during
the absorption phase penetrated less into the core of the sample. When desorption then
occurs the water within the timber is closer to the surface and equilibrium is achieved
faster. Another possibility is based on the definition of equilibrium. The transfer rate
of moisture from the hardwood samples may be lower than the stipulated equilibrium
requirement of 0.01% mass change over 24 hours. For the absorption phase this is not
the case as the porous structure of the wood absorbs moisture more quickly then it
desorbs (see section 2.2.1). The resulting outcome is a longer β during the absorption
phase and a deceptively short β for the desorption period. The wood has not in fact

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reached an equilibrium point during desorption, the rate of mass change is simply
incredibly slowed due to the hysteresis effect.
At RH levels above 70% the β increases dramatically throughout the range of
samples. Section 4.2.1 examines the tendency of hardwoods to have a longer β during
absorption, due to their structural makeup. The β above 70% on the desorption curve
is also steeper, but generally the rate is less than that of the absorption equilibrium.
Pine seems to have the longest average β, which is unusual as the untreated natural
softwood should have the greatest transport rate and therefore reach equilibrium the
fastest. It is likely that the results are subject to previously discussed equilibrium rate.
The fact that pine loses over 0.01% of its dry weight during a 24 hr period actually
means that it is considered not to have reached equilibrium for a longer time, whereas
the other samples will still be losing moisture long after Pine has reached equilibrium;
they are just doing so at a much slower rate.

4.2.3 Hysteresis of Δmw at duration of β

Graph 13: Change in mass over time-Pine Δmw hysteresis

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Graph 14: Change in mass over time-MDF Δmw hysteresis

Graph 15: Change in mass over time-Oak Δmw hysteresis

Graph 16: Change in mass over time-Chipboard Δmw hysteresis


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Graph 17: Change in mass over time-Plywood Δmw hysteresis

The correlation between the mass variation and time is easily identifiable. The area
that this section focuses on is the variation in water mass over time at varying RH
values. Graphs 13-17 show that over time the hysteresis between absorption and
desorption mass remains fairly constant. The only reason that the two points connect
is due to the reasoning in table 6. Were this not the case, it is a valid hypothesis that
the two lines would be parallel at a constant value of hysteresis (ω) throughout the
absorption/desorption processes.
Should this hypothesis be correct, it is possible to estimate the mass of water
contained within a drying sample of wood, given only the change in mass over time
absorption curve and the ω for that species of timber.
A very crude calculation of ω yields the following results, based on data from the
experiments:
Calculation of ω
Weight difference between
sorption curves (g)
Pin MD Oa Chipboar Plywoo
RH e F k d d
0.0 0.0 0.0
94% 0 0 0 0.00 0.00
2.0 2.3 1.8
75.26% 5 0 9 2.61 4.20
1.8 2.4 2.0
58.20% 5 8 9 2.87 3.83
1.9 2.4 2.1
43.16% 1 3 9 2.59 3.37
33% 2.5 2.7 2.4 2.94 2.68

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6 4 7
ω-taken as
the average
value of 2.0 2.4 2.1
hysteresis 9 9 6 2.75 3.52

Table 9: Calculation of the constant value of hysteresis for all 5 samples

The more constant the hysteresis between absorption and desorption, in the
experimental results, the more accurately ω can be calculated. Graph 18 is the
application of the theory in the case of sample 4, Chipboard. At lower levels of MC or
in other words when the RH is lower the theory seems to be valid.

Graph 18: Change in mass over time- Chipboard; predicted Δmw hysteresis

There are two samples that vary slightly from this theory, Pine and Plywood. The
Pine sample shows a very rapid drop in mass over the first few days, and then levels
out to similar profile as the other samples. Plywood remains at an almost constant
hysteresis for about the first 25 days and then there is a jump in the absorption rate
with a corresponding decrease in β. This may be due to an estimation of the
desorption time, as the mass of water is an experimental result. Further
experimentation to test this hypothesis is advised.

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David Bailey Page 52 of 77 Advanced Study
University of Nottingham Dissertation
5. CONCLUSIONS
The primary component of this project was the characterisation of sorption isotherms
for 5 different samples of natural and manufactured timber. The result of the
experimentation gave data which matched current research within the field of wood
sorption and allowed a certain amount of expansion on the basic sorption isotherm
curves. These areas of expansion included various time dependant variables,
hysteresis and diffusion coefficient (models). Within each section there was an
analysis of the experimental results and a comparison between the samples.
The sorption isotherms display FSP, MC and EMC at varying RH values leading to
the following conclusions. There certain types of timber such as Pine and other
softwoods that can absorb greater amounts of moisture, quicker than hardwood
varieties and are therefore more applicable to moisture control within most buildings.
Manufactured timber tends to display the same sorption characteristics as hardwood
as it is generally treated with moisture retardant chemicals. However, when used it
large amounts the effect that manufactured timber has on a sealed building envelope
can be significant.
Within the species themselves the data gathered on the amount of hysteresis between
the drying and wetting curves is comparable to known values and therefore may be
useful within that field of research. The hysteresis of of Δmw at duration of β gave
some interesting results and the theory of constant value of hysteresis has been put
forward for further research. The definition of equilibrium has been called into
question, with the results of the β desorption curves not matching the predicted
values; the speed at which hardwood desorbes water being brought forward as the
cause. The analysis of a diffusion coefficient model was successful, with calculated
data corroborated against research from other papers. Application of this data in other
models is the logical next step.
Given the experimental limitations, specifically time related, the data and conclusions
drawn from the data appear to be valid when compared against known research from
respected sources.

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6. EXPERIMENTAL RECOMENDATIONS AND FURTHER
RESEARCH

6.1 Experimental Recommendations

• In order to get a more detailed picture of the actual diffusion rate it would be
advisable to use a more complex method of moisture measurement, such as an
x-ray imager. It is important not only to know how much moisture is in the
sample, but also where it is.
• Smaller samples would work better within a short timeframe such as this as
they would respond faster and with more accuracy given the inability to
measure the depth of moisture ingress.
• Test physical properties of the wood, such as expansion, using detailed
measuring equipment.
• Allow more time for the permeability testing and use a sealed box containing a
scale so RH disruption is limited.

6.2 Future Research

• Detailed sorption isotherm testing with daily MC measurements, to test the


theory of constant value of hysteresis between 30-70% RH
• Test samples under a temperature variation with constant RH. Results include
graphs of EMC vs. Temperature.
• Heating and cooling a sealed volume with a known MC, that contains a
sample of wood
• Test physical properties at different moisture contents, including strength,
elasticity and dimensional change.
• Perform a constant wetting and drying of on sample between two relative
humidity levels, and monitor the absorption and desorption characteristics.

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REFERENCES

ASTM, ed. Mukhopadhyaya P., Kumaran M.K. (2007) Heat Air and Moisture
Transport, Measurements on Buildings, ASTM, Pennsylvania

Bandyopadhyay A., Ramarao B.V., and Ramaswamy Shri (2002), Transient moisture
diffusion through paperboard materials, Colloids and Surfaces-A: Physicochemical
and Engineering Aspects, Vol. 206 (2002) 455–467

Barkas Wilfred W. (1949), The swelling of wood under stress: a discussion of its
hygroscopic, elastic and plastic properties, H. M. Stationery Office, Madison,
Wisconsin

Baronas R., Ivanauskas F., Juodeikienė I., and Kajalavičius A. (2001), Modelling of
Moisture Movement in Wood during Outdoor Storage, Nonlinear Analysis: Modeling
and Control, Vol. 6, No. 2, pg 3-14

Bastías Marcia Vidal and Cloutier Alain (2005), Evaluation of wood sorption models
for high temperatures, Maderas.Ciencia y tecnologia, Vol. 7, No. 3, pg 145-158

Bell Leonard N. and Labuza Theodore P. (2000) Moisture Sorption-Practical Aspects


of Isotherm Measurment and Use, 2nd ed. AACC Inc. Minnesota

Bowyer Jim L., Shmulsky Rubin and Haygreen John G (2003) Forest products and
wood science: an introduction, 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, New Jersey

Chinachoti Pavinee and Steinberg M. P (2006), Crystallinity of Sucrose by X-ray


Diffraction as Influenced by Absorption versus Desorption, Waxy Maize Starch
Content, and Water Activity, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 51, No. 2, pg. 456-459

Desch, H.E. and Dinwoodie, J.M. (1996), Timber: Structure, Properties, Conversion
and Use. 7th ed. Macmillan Press Ltd., London.

Dinwoodie J. M (2000), Timber-Its Nature and Behaviour, 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis,
Routledge, UK

Dinwoodie J.M. (1989), Wood-Nature’s Polymeric Fibre Composite, The Institute of


Metals, London

Dinwoodie J.M. (2000) Timber: Its Nature and Behaviour, Second Edition, Building
Research Establishment, Abingdon, Oxford
Fotsing Joseph Albert Mukam and Tchagang Claude Wanko (2004), Experimental
determination of the diffusion coefficients of wood in isothermal conditions,
Academic Open Internet Journal, Volume 11

Halliday Sandy (2003), Sustainable Construction-Ventilation and Cooling Strategies,


Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
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Haque M. Nawshadul (2002), Modelling of solar kilns and the development of an
optimized schedule for drying hardwood timber, PhD Thesis, Dept. of Chemical
Engineering, University of Sydney, pg 2-33

Highley Terry L. (1999) Wood Handbook-Biodeterioration of Wood, US Department


of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin

Keey R.B, Langrish T.A.L, and Walker J.F.C (2000), The Kiln-Drying of Lumber,
Springer, Berlin

Krischer O. and Kroll K. (1956), Trocknungstechnik, Springer, Berlin

Levin Ezra (1971), Wood in Building, Timber Research and Development


Association, London

Madsen Borg (1992), Structural Behaviour of Timber, Timber Engineering, British


Columbia, Canada

Matiasovsky Peter and Takacsova Zuzana (1996), Sorption Isotherms of Interior


Finish Materials, Academic Paper, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Miller Regis B. (1999) Wood Handbook-Wood as an Engineering Material, US


Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin

Miniotaite Ruta (1998), Hygric Properties of Building Materials, Department of Civil


Engineering Technologies, Kaunas University of Tech., Kaunas, Lithuania

Mujumdar A. S (2006), Handbook of industrial drying, CRC Press, Florida

Olek Wieslaw (2003), Analysis of the cup method application for determination of the
bound water diffusion coefficient in wood, Folia Forestalia Polonicia, Vol 34, pg. 15-
25

Olek Wieslaw and Weres Jerzy (2006), Effects of the method of identification of the
diffusion coefficient on accuracy of modelling bound water transfer in wood
Transport in Porous Media, Vol. 66, pg. 135–144

Osanyintola Olalekan F. and Simonson Carey J. (2006), Moisture buffering capacity


of hygroscopic building materials: Experimental facilities and energy impact, Energy
and Buildings, Vol. 38, pg. 1270-1282

Prado Pablo J. (2001), NMR hand-held moisture sensor, Journal of Magnetic


Resonance Imaging, vol. 19, pg. 505-508

Richardson Barry A. (1976), Wood in Construction, The Construction Press Ltd.


Hornby, Lancaster

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Rode Carsten, Peuhkuri Ruut, Time Berit, Svennberd Kaisa, and Ojanen Tuomo,
(2007), Journal of ASTM International, Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 33-35

Sehlstedt-Persson Margot (2003), The effect of extractive content on moisture


diffusion properties for Scots Pine and Norway Spruce, Academic Paper, Luleå
University of Technology, Division of Wood Physics, Sweden

Simpson William T. (1991), Dry kiln operator's manual agriculture handbook,U.S.


Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison,
Wisconsin

Skaar C. (1988), Wood Water Relations, Springer-Verlag, NewYork.

Stamm A. J (1964), Wood and Cellulose Science, Ronald Press, New York

Sunley John, Bedding Barbara (1985) Timber in Construction, TRADA, BT Batsford


Ltd, London

Thygesen Lisbeth G. and Hansen Kurt K. (2007) Improved Suction Technique for the
Characterisation of Construction Materials, Journal of ASTM international, Vol. 4,
No. 1, pg. 12-20

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APPENDIX A: TEST RESULTS
Table 10: Oven Drying of Samples
Sample Original Weight of Wood and Room RH; 2:00pm Tues 18 Nov
A B C D E F
1 66.64 63.78 66.54 56.46 45.99 55.92
2 78.2 77.97 77.97 76.68 76.19 76.33
3 74.95 78.52 73.12
4 84.43 81.3 84.06 73.26 74.02 72.52
5 120.22 124.14 121.84 66.93 67.95 62.74

9:23am Wed 19 Nov


A B C D E F
1 58.9 56.42 58.95 51.07 41.72 50.62
2 72.47 72.27 72.3 70.24 69.81 69.93
3 66.23 67.16 64.4
4 77.34 74.58 77.1 67.06 67.68 66.3
5 111.66 113.6 111.49 60.5 61.45 56.77

1:00pm Wed 19th Nov


A B C D E F
1 58.92 56.39 58.92 51.07 41.71 50.58
2 72.42 72.26 72.22 70.24 69.8 69.93
3 66.13 67.04 64.37
4 77.33 74.54 77.02 67.1 67.74 66.35
5 111.64 113.52 111.38 60.46 61.41 56.74

4:25pm Wed 19th Nov


A B C D E F
1 58.92 56.39 58.88 51.1 41.73 50.62
2 72.46 72.27 72.28 70.18 69.76 69.9
3 66.11 67.04 64.35
4 77.34 74.56 77.08 67.07 67.72 66.31
5 111.3 113.48 111.37 60.46 61.4 56.73
Sample 9:06am Thurs 20 Nov
A B C D E F
1 58.78 58.27 58.74 50.97 41.64 50.5
2 72.27 72.07 72.08 70.11 66.7 69.81
3 65085 66.77 64.15
4 77.1 74.32 76.82 66.97 67.63 66.21
5 111.26 113.09 770.96 60.3 61.24 56.57

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Table 10 Continued: Oven Drying of Samples

11:10am Friday 21st Nov


A B C D E F
1 58.72 56.22 58.7 50.9 41.57 50.42
2 72.15 71.97 71.94 69.69 69.48 69.6
3 65.77 66.72 64.09
4 76.98 74.21 76.7 66.75 67.41 66
5 111.12 112.96 110.81 60.15 61.09 56.46

Dry Weight; 10:50am Mon 24th Nov


A B C D E F
1 58.7 56.2 58.66 50.84 41.51 50.37
2 72 71.83 71.78 69.65 69.26 69.37
3 65.71 66.63 64.02
4 76.88 74.12 76.61 66.64 67.3 65.9
5 110.96 112.81 110.66 60.04 60.97 56.35

10:15am Mon 1st Dec


A B C D E F
1 58.72 56.21 58.68 50.85 41.5 50.39
2 71.89 71.74 71.63 69.48 68.98 69.11
3 65.71 56.64 63.99
4 76.8 74.06 76.57 66.59 67.2 65.82
5 110.85 112.72 110.6 59.9 60.85 56.24

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Table 11: Absorption at different RH levels for Group A
Group A
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t Weight
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
Dry
01-Dec Weight 58.7 72 65.71 76.88 110.96
01-Dec 0 59.99 73.82 66.6 78.66 112.4
04-Dec 3 60.96 74.38 67.4 79.68 113.82
08-Dec 4 61.54 74.64 68.22 80.19 115.12
09-Dec 1 61.6 74.68 68.37 80.25 115.33
MgCl2 –
32.9%R 10-Dec 1 61.64 74.69 68.45 80.28 115.45
H
@23oC 28-Jan 49 61.92 74.91 69.03 80.56 116.33

Group A
Salt Date Time Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weight
Solution Between t t t t Sampl
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Weighing Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl e5
e1 e2 e3 e4
K2CO3 29-Jan 1 62.29 75.38 69.24 80.93 116.68
Group A
43.16% 30-Jan 1 62.48
Weigh 75.73
Weigh 69.32
Weigh 81.1 116.83
Weigh
RH 02-Feb Time 3
@23oC t 62.76 t 76.06 t 69.51 t 81.41 117.13
Weight
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sample
Solution Date
04-Feb Weighing 2 e 62.81
1 e76.16
2 e69.54
3 e81.45
4 5 117.2
11-Feb 1 64.75 78.28 71.19 83.48 119.98
13-Feb 2 65.4 78.94 71.84 84.27 171.08
NaCl –
75.36% 16-Feb 3 65.89 79.25 72.38 84.74 121.95
RH 18-Feb 2 66.08 79.43 72.65 84.96 122.38
@23oC 23-Feb 5 66.4 79.63 73.1 85.3 123.05

Group A
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t Weight
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
NaBr – 06-Feb 2 63.61 77.03 70.24 82.3 118.23
58.2%R
H
@23oC 10-Feb 4 64.23 77.53 70.78 82.79 119.15

Table 11 Continued: Absorption at different RH levels for Group A

Group A
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t Weight
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
25-Feb 2 67.73 81.43 73.82 86.69 124.53
KNO3 –
94.00% 06-Mar 9 69.79 83.76 75.97 89.23 128.09
RH 09-Mar 3 69.99 84.13 76.35 89.56 128.75
@23oC 11-Mar 2 70.15 84.4 76.6 89.77 129.14

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Table 12: Absorption at different RH levels for Group B
Group B
Salt Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Solutio Between Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
n Date Weighing 1 2 3 4 5
28-Jan Dry Weight 55.76 69.61 65.92 72.77 111.7
MgCl2
– 29-Jan 1 56.8 71.5 66.71 74.43 112.38
32.9%R 30-Jan 1 57.31 71.96 67.12 75.04 112.45
H@23 o 02-Feb 3 58.02 72.37 67.91 75.68 119.56
C 04-Feb 2 58.13 72.39 68.16 75.78 121.53

Group B
Salt Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Solutio Between Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
n Date Weighing 1 2 3 4 5
K2CO3 06-Feb 2 58.67 72.97 68.68 76.38 120.4

43.16%
RH@2
3oC 10-Feb 4 59.08 73.38 69.12 76.74 119.89

Group B

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Salt Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Solutio Between Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
n Date Weighing 1 2 3 4 5

11-Feb 1 59.44 73.77 69.45 77.25 120.33


13-Feb 2 59.91 74.26 69.94 77.75 120.66
NaBr – 16-Feb 3 60.12 74.46 70.33 78.03 120.76
58.2%R
H@23o 18-Feb 2 60.22 74.56 70.51 78.15 120.82
C 23-Feb 5 60.34 74.71 70.77 78.32 120.96

Group B
Salt Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Solutio Between Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
n Date Weighing 1 2 3 4 5

NaCl – 25-Feb 2 61.17 75.67 71.37 79.25 121.87


75.36% 06-Mar 9 62.1 76.58 72.62 80.37 123.35
RH@2 09-Mar 3 62.17 76.66 72.76 80.49 123.57
3oC 11-Mar 2 62.21 76.71 72.84 80.54 123.71

Table 12 Continued: Absorption at different RH levels for Group B


Group B
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t t
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
125.4
13-Mar 2 63.27 77.92 73.56 81.75 2
126.7
16-Mar 3 64.14 78.9 74.34 82.69 1
17-Mar 1 64.46 79.33 74.74 83.13 127.4
127.7
KNO3 – 18-Mar 1 64.66 79.47 74.94 83.32 7
94.00%R 128.0
H@23oC 19-Mar 1 64.78 79.64 75.11 83.46 7

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Table 13: Absorption at different RH levels for Group C
Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weig Weig
Time t t t ht ht
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Samp Samp
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 le 4 le 5
109.1
04-Feb Dry Weight 58.15 69.17 63.24 75.02 9
111.7
MgCl2 – 06-Feb 2 59.78 71.64 66.72 77.5 7
32.9%RH 113.0
@23oC 10-Feb 4 60.45 71.95 66.25 78.01 3

Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weig Weig
Time t t t ht ht
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Samp Samp
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 le 4 le 5
K2CO3 – 11-Feb 1 60.85 72.3 66.4 78.44 113.5
9

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114.2
13-Feb 2 61.21 72.62 66.6 78.82 5
114.7
16-Feb 3 61.45 72.77 66.71 79.02 4
115.0
18-Feb 2 61.54 72.85 66.79 79.16 2
43.16%R 115.4
H@23oC 23-Feb 5 61.81 73 66.9 79.37 1

Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weig Weig
Time t t t ht ht
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Samp Samp
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 le 4 le 5
118.1
25-Feb 2 62.33 73.57 67.21 80 6
117.3
06-Mar 9 62.93 74.15 67.84 80.66 6
117.4
NaBr – 09-Mar 3 62.96 74.14 67.89 80.71 8
58.2%RH 117.5
@23oC 11-Mar 2 63.07 74.25 67.96 80.79 8

Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t t
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
118.6
13-Mar 2 63.77 75.16 68.43 81.62 9
119.5
16-Mar 3 64.35 75.66 68.9 82.25 8
119.9
17-Mar 1 64.59 75.89 69.14 82.5 7
120.1
NaCl – 18-Mar 1 64.68 75.96 69.26 82.6 2
75.36%R 120.2
H@23oC 19-Mar 1 64.72 76 69.34 82.69 7

Table 13 Continued: Absorption at different RH levels for Group C

Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t t
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
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122.4
22-Mar 3 67.71 77.82 70.51 84.51 4
KNO3 – 123.2
94.00%R 24-Mar 2 67.6 78.16 70.87 85 2
H@23oC 31-Mar 7 68.5 79.5 72.3 86.6 126

Table 14: Desorption at different RH levels


Group A
Relativ Date Time Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weight
e Between t t t t Sample
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University of Nottingham Dissertation
Humidit Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
y Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 5
Dry
Weight 58.7 72 65.71 76.88 110.96
14-
43.16% Apr 64.6 78.3 71.6 83.9 121
23-
33% Apr 9 64 77.7 71.1 83.2 120
28-
33% Apr 5 63.9 77.5 70.9 83.1 119.7

Group B
Relativ Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
e Time t t t t Weight
Humidit Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sample
y Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 5
Dry
Weight 55.76 69.61 65.92 72.77 111.7
14-
58.20% Apr 61.6 76.6 72.3 80.3 123
23-
43.16% Apr 9 61 76.1 71.7 79.5 122.3
28-
43.16% Apr 5 61 75.8 71.6 79.4 121.8

Group C
Relativ Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
e Time t t t t Weight
Humidit Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sample
y Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 5
Dry
Weight 58.15 69.17 63.24 75.02 109.19
02-
94% Apr 68.7 79.8 72.7 87 126.7
14-
75.26% Apr 12 67.2 78.5 71.7 85.6 124.9
23-
58.20% Apr 9 65.9 77.4 70.7 84.5 122.7
28-
58.20% Apr 5 65.6 77.2 70.4 84 122.1

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Table 15: Permeability testing results

Results of Permeability Testing


Weight of Wet Cup
Time
betwee
n
weighin Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Date g e1 e2 e4 e5
11-Mar 469.53 391.31 431.52 513.98
13-Mar 2 470.74 393.32 433.33 514.69
16-Mar 3 470.53 391.6 432.59 514.88
17-Mar 1 471.1 392.05 433.04 515.44
18-Mar 1 471.36 392.3 433.26 515.82
19-Mar 1 471.65 392.39 433.47 516.22
22-Mar 3 472 392.41 433.61 517.06
24-Mar 2 472 392.43 433.64 517.2
02-Apr 9 472.7 393.5 434.4 519.1
05-Apr 3 472.8 393.7 434.6 519.3
08-Apr 3 472.8 393.9 434.6 519.4
09-Apr 1 472.8 393.8 434.6 519.4
14-Apr 5 471.1 391.7 432.6 516.5
23-Apr 9 470.6 391.3 431.9 516.1
28-Apr 5 470.1 390.9 431.5 515.6

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APPENDIX B: DATA CONCLUSIONS

Table 16: Equilibrium Values for all three tests


Group A
Relativ
e Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Humidi Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
ty Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
Dry
01-Dec Weight 58.7 72 65.71 76.88 110.96
33% 28-Jan 58 61.92 74.91 69.03 80.56 116.33
43.16
% 04-Feb 7 62.81 76.16 69.54 81.45 117.2
58.20
% 10-Feb 6 64.23 77.53 70.78 82.79 119.15
75.26
% 23-Feb 13 66.4 79.63 73.1 85.3 123.05
94% 11-Mar 16 70.15 84.4 76.6 89.77 129.14

Group B
Relativ
e Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Humidi Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
ty Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5

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Dry
28-Jan Weight 55.76 69.61 65.92 72.77 111.7
33% 04-Feb 7 58.13 72.39 68.16 75.78 121.53
43.16
% 10-Feb 6 59.08 73.38 69.12 76.74 119.89
58.20
% 23-Feb 13 60.34 74.71 70.77 78.32 120.96
75.26
% 11-Mar 16 62.21 76.71 72.84 80.54 123.71
94% 19-Mar 8 64.78 79.64 75.11 83.46 128.07

Group C
Relativ
e Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Humidi Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
ty Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
Dry
04-Feb Weight 58.15 69.17 63.24 75.02 109.19
33% 10-Feb 6 60.45 71.95 66.25 78.01 113.03
43.16
% 23-Feb 13 61.81 73 66.9 79.37 115.41
58.20
% 11-Mar 16 63.07 74.25 67.96 80.79 117.58
75.26
% 19-Mar 8 64.72 76 69.34 82.69 120.27
94% 31-Mar 12 68.5 79.5 72.3 86.6 126

Table 17: Absorption moisture content as a percentage of dry weight for all 5 samples
Group A: Moisture content as a percentage of dry weight
Relative
Humidit Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
y 1 2 3 4 5
33% 5.49% 4.04% 5.05% 4.79% 4.84%
43.16% 7.00% 5.78% 5.83% 5.94% 5.62%
58.20% 9.42% 7.68% 7.72% 7.69% 7.38%
75.26% 13.12% 10.60% 11.25% 10.95% 10.90%
94% 19.51% 17.22% 16.57% 16.77% 16.38%

Group B: Moisture content as a percentage of dry weight

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Relative
Humidit Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
y 1 2 3 4 5
33% 4.25% 3.99% 3.40% 4.14% 8.80%
43.16% 5.95% 5.42% 4.85% 5.46% 7.33%
58.20% 8.21% 7.33% 7.36% 7.63% 8.29%
75.26% 11.57% 10.20% 10.50% 10.68% 10.75%
94% 16.18% 14.41% 13.94% 14.69% 14.66%

Group C: Moisture content as a percentage of dry weight


Relative
Humidit Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
y 1 2 3 4 5
33% 3.96% 4.02% 4.76% 3.99% 3.52%
43.16% 6.29% 5.54% 5.79% 5.80% 5.70%
58.20% 8.46% 7.34% 7.46% 7.69% 7.68%
75.26% 11.30% 9.87% 9.65% 10.22% 10.15%
94% 17.80% 14.93% 14.33% 15.44% 15.40%

AVERAGE Moisture content as a percentage of dry


weight
Relative Sample Sample Sample Sample Sampl
Humidity 1 2 3 4 e5
33% 4.56% 4.02% 4.40% 4.30% 5.72%

43.16% 6.42% 5.58% 5.49% 5.73% 6.22%


58.20% 8.70% 7.45% 7.51% 7.67% 7.78%
10.60
75.26% 11.99% 10.22% 10.46% 10.62% %
15.48
94% 17.83% 15.52% 14.95% 15.63% %

Table 18: Desorption moisture content as a percentage of dry weight for all 5 samples
Desorption: Moisture content as a percentage of dry weight
Relativ
e
Humidi Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
ty 1 2 3 4 5
94% 17.83% 15.52% 14.95% 15.63% 15.48%
75.26
% 15.56% 13.49% 13.38% 14.10% 14.39%
58.20 11.90% 10.97% 10.74% 11.49% 11.24%
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%
43.16
% 9.72% 9.04% 8.87% 9.19% 9.27%
33% 9.03% 7.92% 8.20% 8.22% 8.15%

Table 19: Time to reach equilibrium for all samples at varying RH levels
Absorption-Time to reach equilibrium
(days)
Chipbo Plywo
RH Pine MDF Oak ard od
33% 8 6 11.5 6 9.5

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43.16% 7 7 5.5 6 8.5
58.20% 9 7 10 8.5 10.5
75.26% 8.5 8 12 9 15
94% 18 21 26 20 37

Desorption-Time to reach equilibrium


(days)
Chipbo Plywo
RH Pine MDF Oak ard od
94%
75.26% 19.5 14 12 14 13
58.20% 10 7 9 11 10
43.16% 8 4 6.5 8 4
33% 7 5 4.5 4 5.5

Table 20: Days to reach equilibrium vs. Mass of water at equilibrium


Absorption-

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Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Days Days Days Days Days
to to to to to
Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water
h absorb h absorb h absorb h absorb h absorb
Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g)
8 2.63 6 2.82 11.5 2.86 6 3.22 9.5 6.33
15 3.69 13 3.92 17 3.57 12 4.29 18 6.88
24 5.00 20 5.23 27 4.88 20.5 5.74 28.5 8.61
32.5 6.90 28 7.18 39 6.80 29.5 7.95 43.5 11.72
50.5 10.26 49 10.91 65 9.71 49.5 11.71 80.5 17.12

Desorption-
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Days Days Days Days Days
to to to to to
Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water
h absorb h absorb h absorb h absorb h absorb
Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g)
50.5 10.26 49 10.91 65 9.71 49.5 11.71 80.5 17.12
44.5 8.95 30 9.48 32 8.69 37 10.56 32.5 15.92
25 6.85 16 7.71 20 6.97 23 8.61 19.5 12.44
15 5.60 9 6.35 11 5.76 12 6.88 9.5 10.25
7 5.19 5 5.56 4.5 5.33 4 6.16 5.5 9.01

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APPENDIX C: DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT CALCULATIONS

Table 21: Diffusion coefficient variables and calculation data

Ra 461.51
cv 1
K1 5.57022652
0.74190249
K2 8
W 249.16897
ms 0.3996588
-
2.26835854
n 3
2.25108509
i 7
h 2806.45298

How many Oven dry Oven dry


Dimensions cubes per weight Density
Type (cm3) m3 (kg) (kg/m3)
Pine 5 8000 0.059 472
MDF 5 8000 0.072 576
Oak 5 10000 0.066 660
Chipboa
rd 5 8000 0.077 616
Plywood 5 8000 0.111 888

dew Saturation Vapour


point Vapour Pressu
φ @23C Pressure kPa re
0.329 5.84 2.811 919
0.431
6 9.82 2.811 1205
0.582 14.35 2.811 1625
0.753
6 18.41 2.811 2105
0.94 21.98 2.811 2625

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Table 22 Continued: Diffusion coefficient variables and calculation data

φ m Eb Dbt
0.0649 366158
0.329 51 99 2.43681E-12
0.0803 360082
0.4316 16 63 3.11886E-12
0.1059 351243
0.582 21 58 4.4658E-12
0.1462 339125
0.7536 88 79 7.30518E-12
0.2239 313253
0.94 33 98 2.08908E-11

58.20 Avera
32.90% 43.16% % 75.36% 94% ge
Type ρ0 Gm Gm Gm Gm Gm Gm
Pine 472 0.460 0.457 0.452 0.445 0.432 0.449
MDF 576 0.558 0.553 0.547 0.536 0.517 0.542
Oak 660 0.636 0.630 0.622 0.608 0.584 0.616
Chipboar
d 616 0.595 0.590 0.582 0.571 0.549 0.577
Plywood 888 0.845 0.835 0.820 0.797 0.755 0.810

α 6 ρ0 S
0.02053359 8.19E-
φs 1 472 07
6.71E-
cp 1006 576 07

5.86E-
ρa 1.19356 660 07
6.28E-
dφ/du 616 07
3.768896 4.35E-
997 888 07

Gd Dv
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1.3999
Mw 18 68 1.41675E-09
1.3704
Da 2.5651E-05 9 1.44723E-09
1.3240
h 2.80645298 27 1.49801E-09
1.2568
2806.45298 52 1.57808E-09
1.1451
ρw 1000 03 1.73208E-09
R 8314.3

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