Professional Documents
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Manufactured Timber
David Bailey
Advanced Study Dissertation
Supervisor: Dr. Matthew Hall
Date: 7 May 2009
Nottingham University
ABSTRACT
Understanding the hygroscopic properties of wood is the first step in ensuring its
proper application within a structure. As each species of timber has unique properties,
no set model has yet been designed to determine the way wood will react to moisture
and the most reliable data is still obtained through physical experimentation.
This paper seeks to explore the continuous state of equilibrium flux that manifests
itself as a moisture sorption curve when wood is exposed to varying relative humidity
values under isothermal conditions. These sorption isotherms allow a comparison
between the samples of timber in a number of respects, including: natural vs.
manufactured timber, the relationship between hardwood and softwood and the effect
of density on sorption. The results show that the actual wood used in the construction
of manufactured timber has little effect on its sorption characteristics, which are
mostly controlled by the moisture resistant chemical treatments added to them after
production. The paper also expands on the isotherm data in two in two key areas,
modelling of data and time sorption time dependency. The analysis of a diffusion
coefficient model, proved its validity, as calculated data from the sorption isotherm in
conjunction with the model, was corroborated against research from other papers. The
study into sorption time dependant variables is dealt with under three headings, time
taken to reach equilibrium, the dependence of that time on the environmental relative
humidity and finally the hysteresis of the water mass absorbed and desorbed by the
timber over a period of time. Results call into question the definition of equilibrium in
relation to hardwood moisture sorption. The final area of research does lead to an
interesting theory of constant hysteresis, initiated by observed trends in the sorption
mass curves.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................4
List of figures................................................................................................................5
List of Graphs...............................................................................................................6
List of Tables................................................................................................................7
1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................9
1. 1 Overview of the problems.................................................................................10
1.1.1 Humidity control in buildings – Comfort, Energy and Structure................10
1.2 Aims and objectives...........................................................................................11
1.2.1 Overall Aim.................................................................................................11
1.2.2 List of Objectives........................................................................................11
1.3. Limitations of Study.........................................................................................12
1.3.1 Practical Limitations...................................................................................12
1.3.2 Theoretical Limitations...............................................................................12
2. BACKGROUND LITERATURE.........................................................................14
2.1 Wood structure..................................................................................................14
2.2 Moisture Sorption/Desorption .........................................................................16
..............................................................................................................................18
2.2.1 Hysteresis ...................................................................................................18
2.3 Methods of measuring moisture content .........................................................19
2.4 Moisture buffering capacity of materials ........................................................20
.................................................................................................................................21
2.5 Strength/Dimensions of structure ...................................................................21
2.6 Phenomenological Macroscopic Models ........................................................23
3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................27
3.1 Background.......................................................................................................27
3.2 Materials and Preparation ...............................................................................28
3.3 Procedure..........................................................................................................29
3.4 Primary Testing and Modifications .................................................................30
4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION..................................................................................33
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• Dr. Matthew Hall, Lecturer, Nottingham University – I would like to express
my gratitude for his continual support, instructions and guidelines. His
teaching and supervision have been invaluable throughout the year and have
have helped to make the project what it is today.
David Bailey Page 4 of 77 Advanced Study
University of Nottingham Dissertation
• David Allinson, Nottingham University – For helping in various areas of the
experimentation and in the laboratory. .
List of figures
Figure no. Page no.
1 Hardwood Structure 13
2 Softwood Structure 14
3 Surface view and section through bordered pits in conducting cells 15
4 An example of the shape of a typical wood sorption isotherm 15
List of Graphs
Graph no. Page no.
Nomenclature
1. INTRODUCTION
Moisture absorption in wood is characteristic of that of most hygroscopic materials, in
that it seeks to achieve equilibrium with the surrounding environment and will
continue to do so as long as there is a variation in moisture content (MC) between the
timber and air. This attribute is both useful and destructive and this study seeks to
quantify the timber moisture relationship in terms of absorption and permeability in
order that proper design and application of wood in a structure can be carried out. As
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University of Nottingham Dissertation
each species of timber has unique properties, no set model has yet been designed to
determine the way a wood will react to moisture (ASTM 2007). Through this study
we will seek to identify this moisture relationship in 5 different species of wood.
The literature review will focus on the mechanics and methods of moisture sorption,
wood structure, hysteresis, diffusion models and structural and dimensional changes
resulting from moisture sorption and desorption.
Natural timber can be divided up into two primary categories, soft wood and
hardwood. Both types are made up of long hollow cells, elongated and parallel to each
other along the trunk of the tree (Miller, 1999).
In hardwood these cells vary in size and wall thickness, the largest used primarily for
the transport of sap throughout the tree and the smaller ones used for structural
rigidity and strength. In hardwood there are far more transverse cells than in
softwood, again adding to the strength and density of the wood.
Softwood has basically the same structural makeup, except the cells are all similar in
size and generally orientated in the same direction. They are less compacted and have
larger pores and openings. The experimentation within this project is looking at the
absorption and desorption of water within the wood and it is within this cell structure
that the moisture transfer at the microscopic cellular level occurs. For both hardwoods
and softwoods the cell walls are made up of layers containing micro-fibrils which
give the walls strength and rigidity (Dinwoodie J.M. 1989). The cell wall and its
constituents also contain water in various forms that are relevant to the
experimentation.
As Haque M. Nawshadul (2002) discusses, water exists within the wood in one of 3
forms, free water, bound water and water vapour.
• Free water occurs within the cell Lumina or macroscopic capillaries.
• Bound water is trapped within the actual cellulose of the cell wall of the wood.
• Water vapour, like bound water, is held within the cell wall Lumina, but in
comparison with free water and bound water its effects are insignificant.
Moisture movement through the wood is attributable to either pressure difference or
moisture gradient (Skaar 1988) It moves through passageways in the structure of the
wood, interconnected by small openings or thin areas in the walls known as pits
(Dinwoodie 2000). The permeability of moisture longitudinally, within the
passageways is many times greater than via the pits, in the transverse direction.
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Figure 3: Surface view and section through bordered pits in conducting cells; right- solid view of two pits cut in half: I, pit
opening; II, torous; III, margo strands formed from the primary wall; IV, pit cavity; V, secondary wall (Desch and Dinwoodie,
1996).
It is worth noting that in softwoods the cell structure off the wood is not as dense,
allowing for larger passageways and greater ease of movement and theoretically faster
and greater absorption. This phenomenon will be further investigated in a comparison
between both the natural hardwood and softwood that are to be tested.
Figure 4: An example of the shape of a typical wood sorption isotherm. (Note the Equilibrium moisture content or EMC only
ever reaches 30% or the fibre saturation point. Also note the hysteresis effect between sorption and desorption.)
2.2.1 Hysteresis
There are a few hypothesis used to explain hysteresis in wood: Excess energy
produced by water sorption (Richardson Barry A. 1976), plasticity in relation to the
irreversible inelastic exchanges of hydroxyl groups (Barkas Wilfred W. 1949), and
the behaviour of hydroxyl groups within the cellulose and lignin(Dinwoodie J. M
2000). The most popular theory relates to the differences in contact angle and
pressures of the advancing and receding water through the capillaries of the wood and
into the porous structure (Mujumdar A. S. 2006).
Sorption and desorption of water within the cellular structure does not happen
instantaneously with changes in the surrounding RH. When absorption occurs due to a
high surrounding RH, capillaries in the wood begin to fill with water. The capillaries
in turn are attached to the pores in the wood, but in order for the pores to fill up the
partial pressure of the vapour in the air, needs to be greater than that of the vapour
pressure of the liquid in the pore. Only then will the moisture move into the porous
structure of the wood. For desorption the wood is already saturated, the pores are full
and the process is reversed, but as the pores are already full the MC will be
consistently higher along the drying curve (see figure 6). This theory does assume a
rigid pore structure and therefore is valid in a timber application. “The explanation is
that the contraction and swelling is superimposed on the drying and wetting process,
producing states of tension in the capillaries and pores, leading to varying EMC
Figure 6: Sorption Isotherms of white spruce at 25oC, demonstrating the hysteresis effect. (Stamm 1964)
Higgins (1957, cited in Bowyer Jim L. et al. 2003:177) found that the hysteresis effect
varied considerably from one species to another as demonstrated by the fibre
saturation points in figure 8.
Bowyer Jim L. et al. (2003) discuss a number of methods that are used to measure the
moisture content of wood. Continuous examination of the moisture content can be
done via a neutron gauge in tandem with a gamma radiation gauge to measure the
total mass of the sample; the MC can be also be measured via the amount of
microwave power that the sample is absorbing. A simpler method is to use a
resistance meter which measures the electrical resistance between two pins inserted in
the wood. These are only generally reliable from 6% to around 30% or FSP moisture
content. A similar method uses the capacitance of the wood as it varies with density
and MC. Prado Pablo J. (2001) did a study into the use of magnetic resonance fields
(MRF), similar to those use in the oil industry and various moisture detection
applications. For MC under 30% the study showed that MRF results were consistent
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with existing MC models. A method widely used in the food and archaeological
industries is the x-ray diffraction method where a sample is bombarded with x-rays.
The diffraction data is capable of giving important structural information as well as an
accurate MC reading (Chinachoti Pavinee et al. 2006). Due to the somewhat limited
means of this study the simple interpolation method based on known EMC points was
used. The EMC points are determined using the process described in section 3.2.
Figure 7: Sorption Possible energy savings when the indoor temperature in the hygroscopic case is (a) decreased while
maintaining the same indoor RH and in the non-hygroscopic case, and (b) increased while maintaining the same comfort and air
quality conditions as in the non-hygroscopic case. (Chinachoti Pavinee et al. 2006)
The rate of moisture absorption is naturally related to the species of wood and
correspondingly the rate of expansion or shrinkage, based on the absorption of the
moisture is also related. Structurally wood needs to be quite stable, in that to much
expansion or shrinkage in a supporting beam could cause irreparable and possibly
harmful damage. A 3% volume change for a 30% RH difference is deemed acceptable
in most circumstances (Sunley John et al. 1985), but depending on the application
changes of up to double that are acceptable. It is important to recognise the
significance of the fibre saturation point in terms of strength and dimensional change
due to MC variation. The Fibre Saturation Point (FSP) of wood is defined as: “the
moisture content at which the cell walls are saturated but no free water remains in the
cell cavities. Moisture content of the individual cell walls at the fibre saturation point
is usually about 30%, but may be lower for some species” (Simpson William T.
1991). The FSP is taken as an average over a piece of timber and thus detailed results
Once the amount of moisture in the cell wall falls below the FSP the moisture
contained within the cellulosic strands or microscopic capillaries, discussed in section
2.1, begins to leave. This removal of water from the hemicellulose/lignin matrix then
causes the shrinkage, primarily along the length of the cell (Sunley John et al. 1985).
Figure 9: Relationship of Longitudinal compression strength to moisture content of the wood species (Dinwoodie J.M. 1989).
The figure clearly shows the strength relationship apparent when the MC of the wood
falls below the 30% FSP. The removal of water from the hemicellulose/lignin matrix
causes microfibrils to compact, and move closer together thus causing shrinkage in
the wood, but an increase in strength as the wood dries.
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Another structural matter related to the moisture content of wood is the growth of
mould and fungi. The initial infection of a piece of timber requires a MC of at least
20% (Desch, H.E. et al. (1996) or the approximately the FSP of most species of
timber; should an infected piece of timber fall below that MC threshold the fungus
will cease its growth. Fungal attack destroys the cellular structure of the wood and
eventually wood can lose up to 80% of its air dry mass(Dinwoodie J.M. 1989).
Whilst the data gathered from a wood sorption isotherm can be used directly in a
physical process, oftentimes it is used to validate mathematical models developed to
predict the properties of wood. It is well known that no it is not possible to exactly
predict the nature of a piece of timber, but many people (Skaar, Dinwoodie, Siau)
have devised equations based on existing wood sorption data. These models can be
accurate and are sometimes the only way to obtain the data required. The sorption
data gathered from this experiment will be used in one of these models to determine
the Moisture Diffusion Coefficient (MDC). Moisture is the predominant mechanism
of fluid moisture movement through wood, below the FSP (Dinwoodie J. M. 2000).
There are various different coefficients of diffusion, as moisture does not move at the
same speed through all elements of the wood Siau (1984, cited in Dinwoodie J. M.
2000:46). The MDC model that has been chosen, gives a transverse diffusion
coefficient (D) and a surface emission coefficient (S) by utilising the data from the
experiments in conjunction with the model calculations.
The model chosen incorporates within it a simpler model to define the MC based on
the variable of temperature. This in itself though is a choice as there are many such
equations that have been developed to predict the MC of a sample based on a couple
given variables. A study by Bastías Marcia Vidal et al. (2005) compares 7 such
models and has determined that the most accurate results, based on the parameters of
this experiment, are given by the Malmquist model, developed in 1958. It calculates
The results from the model are compared with the theoretical MC results in the MDC
model in section 4.1.2.
The model chosen was developed by Baronas R. et al. (2001) and is based around the
fundamentals of Fick’s second law:
where
2
K1 = 4.737 + 0.04773Tc – 0.00050012⋅ Τ
2
K2 = 0.7059 + 0.001695⋅ Τ − 0.000005638Τ
2
W = 223.4 + 0.6942⋅ Τ + 0.01853⋅ Τ
Saturated Vapour Pressure
ps = 3390 ⋅ exp(-1.74 + 0.0759⋅ T – 0.000424⋅ T2 + 2.44 ⋅ 10-6 ⋅ T3)
Activation Energy
Eb = (40.195 - 71.179m + 291m2 - 669.92m3) ⋅ 106
A secondary part to the model is the evaluation of a surface emission coefficient and
is calculated as follows:
Porosity of Wood
Saturation Humidity
The model used to determine the MDC, uses a 2 dimensional formulation process,
best suited to applications where the sample is long and thin and therefore will lose
the majority of its water only in a 2 dimensional field (see Section 3.3). Ideally a 3
dimensional formula should be used given the square shape the samples but it was not
practical due to the amount of extra information and assumptions required for its
completion. The moisture diffusion coefficient is a step toward a complete moisture
sorption profile for a species of wood and is used as a vital part of other moisture
sorption models. Results and analysis of the MDC model are discussed in section
4.1.2.
3.1 Background
The first step in determining the hygric properties of timber is to obtain a sample of
the specific species required and perform tests on the sample itself. The tests have
been chosen to give a good indication of the sorption and desorption properties for the
selected timber.
3.1.1 Absorption
The primary reasoning behind the absorption test was simplicity and a necessity. As
mentioned in section 1.3.1 the lab does not contain many of the advanced technology
required for detailed absorption analysis. Thus an experimental procedure based
around a simple but accurate scale, and some controlled humidity jars was devised.
Salt solutions discussed later provide the humidity control needed to acquire the
necessary data. As sorption and desorption takes place, the weight of the wood is
monitored. This weight can be divided by the dry weight of the wood to get the
amount of moisture being absorbed. Once the wood has reached EMC it can be
moved up or down to another RH jar. The information is then compared on a sorption
isotherm graph.
3.1.2 Permeability
A detailed description of the cup method is available in works by Siau (1984 and
1985, cited by Olek Wieslaw 2003:16). The mechanics of the cup method are similar
to the absorption testing in that they rely on the humidity control of salt solutions and
are discussed in depth in section 3.3. The steady state of the bound water during the
test in combination with the one dimensional travel through the wood allows for a
linear regression of time vs. mass change and the flux of the bound water can be
calculated:
The absorption test involves exposing the samples of wood to a controlled relative
humidity (RH) for a period of time and then measuring the weight change once they
have achieved equilibrium. (BS Standard of 0.1% initial change over a 24hr period)
By subtracting the dry weight from the weight as set by the water absorbed in the
controlled RH we obtain the absorption ratio. This test is performed over 5 varying
RH’s and that allows for 5 separate ratios and subsequently enough information to
draw up a relatively accurate absorption isotherm for the species of wood. A
controlled RH is achieved by placing 1 cube of each type of wood is placed on a small
rack in a sealed jar or multiple jars containing a mixture of salt solutions. The jars are
then kept in a chamber at approx. 100%humidity to provide an approximate constant
temperature of 23oC. The salts in the water have a measured dampening effect on the
evaporation of moisture into the air. This effectively controls the relative humidity in
the jar to an exacting degree. The salts being used are:
• MgCl2 – 32.9%RH@23oC
• K2CO3 – 43.16%RH@23oC
• NaBr – 58.2%RH@23oC
• NaCl – 75.36%RH@23oC
• KNO3 – 94.00%RH@23oC
The process is repeated with each of the samples going through each of the stages of
humidification and then the results can be averaged to form a more accurate
absorption isotherm for the species. The drying curve is the same process as wetting,
just the samples are moved down the RH scale. Time constraints may limit this to just
one set of wood going through the process.
The principle behind the permeability tests is very simple, the liquid in the cup seeks
to escape through the wood due to the imbalance of humidity inside and outside the
cup.
The cup is periodically weighed to establish how much water has escaped through the
sample. The results provide a graph based on the equation in section 3.1.2.
During the first week the absorption samples were tested on an almost daily basis.
After the first week it was deemed necessary to increase the weighing intervals as
constant testing was causing disruption to the controlled RH environment within the
jars. A subsequent complication arises due to the need to interpolate some of the data
(see section 4.2.1).
The initial stages of the permeability test involved waiting for the system to
equilibrate. The weight of the cups was in constant flux as shown in the graph below:
When the cups failed to reach a state of equilibrium within a few weeks, the
experiment was deemed unfeasible due to time limitations. Some possible reasons for
the constant flux are:
• Saturation of the air within the sealed box caused by a lack of water in the tray
of salt solution within the box, leading to equilibrium between the RH in the
wet cup and the air. This theory of saturation within the box is supported by
the appearance of mould on two of the samples which requires a high level of
moisture.
• The cups are not sealed properly, releasing so much water moisture into the air
that the salt solution within the tray is unable to counteract the effects, again
resulting in equilibrium between the RH of the wet cup and the interior of the
sealed box.
• Because of the nature of the test equipment is necessary to remove the lid of
the sealed box to get at the samples to weigh them. It is possible that the
frequent testing prevented the box from attaining a steady RH, governed by
the salt solution in the tray.
There is however a visible downward trend after 30 days, and it is possible that the
experiment was not a failure and the testing phase just needs to be extended; although
similar experiments by Olek Wieslaw (2003) and Bandyopadhyay A. et al. (2002)
provided trend data after only 2 days.
4.1 Characterisation
4.1.1 Isotherms
DESORPTION
Moisture Content
Relative Chipbo Plywo
Humidity Pine MDF Oak ard od
17.83 15.52 14.95 15.48
94% % % % 15.63% %
15.56 13.49 13.38 14.39
75.26% % % % 14.10% %
11.90 10.97 10.74 11.24
58.20% % % % 11.49% %
43.16% 9.72% 9.04% 8.87% 9.19% 9.27%
9.03 7.92 8.20
33% % % % 8.22% 8.15%
ABSORPTION
Moisture Content
Relative Chipbo Plywo
Humidity Pine MDF Oak ard od
33% 4.56% 4.02% 4.40% 4.30% 5.72%
43.16% 6.42% 5.58% 5.49% 5.73% 6.22%
58.20% 8.70% 7.45% 7.51% 7.67% 7.78%
11.99 10.22 10.46 10.60
75.26% % % % 10.62% %
17.83 15.52 14.95 15.48
94% % % % 15.63% %
Given the sorption data, the manufactured timber isotherms appear very
similar to those of the natural timber. Initial assumptions gave the
manufactured timber a lower EMC due to additives in their composition.
Given the data in tables 1&2 any glues or resins used in their production seem
to have had varying effects on their sorption characteristics. There also
appears to be an unusual similarity between the final moisture contents of the
three manufactured samples with percentages all within 0.15% of each other at
the end of the sorption curve. This may be a coincidence, or it may be that the
wood used to make the manufactured timber is of similar origin. It is also
possible that the glue, used to bond the various timber elements together, has a
moisture absorption factor of its own that is affecting results. There are
difficulties in specifying an exact isotherm for the various types of
manufactured timber as there is no strict regulations on their components.
Different companies may have different methods of constructing
manufactured timber and therefore it is necessary to do a separate test or
model for each sample.
Plywood can be made up of either softwood or hardwood, but in this case the
final MC value resembles that of the Oak, more so than the Pine, in both
sorption curves. The results for MDF should be similar to the pine sorption
isotherm, as MDF is predominantly of softwood origins. However, the resin
used to bind the MDF together appears to have impeded the flow of moisture
and sorption characteristic is more so of a hardwood. Another theory is the
increased density of the wood slows the moisture flow through it. Using the
data from the Diffusion Coefficient Model we can clearly see that the MDF is
both denser and the speed at which the moisture is transported through the
wood is slower (section 4.1.2).
Oven dry
Density
Type (kg/m3)
Pine 472
MDF 576
Oak 660
Chipboa 616
David Bailey Page 36 of 77 Advanced Study
University of Nottingham Dissertation
rd
Plywood 888
Theoretically softwood should have both a greater MC, and rate of sorption than
hardwood as the structural makeup of softwood is much more porous. The confirms
this and gives both a higher rate of absorption and a higher overall MC for pine in
both the absorption and desorption curves. The softwood has an FSP of nearly 18%
while the hardwood is closer to 15%. However, a study by Matiasovsky Peter and
Takacsova Zuzana (1996)which includes the sorption characteristics of Spruce
(softwood) and Walnut (hardwood) shows a different trend, with the FSP of the
softwood at approx 10% and the hardwood at approx 15%MC. This reversal of
hardwood and softwood MC boundaries may be down to the different species that
were used in the experiments by Matiasovsky and this paper. But if both sets of data
are valid then the conclusion is that neither hardwood of softwood has exclusively
higher MC and that it is down to the specific species within both categories.
Unext. and Extr. relate to the location that the sample was taken from within the tree,
ie. the heartwood or the sapwood. These variations are not taken into account in this
paper.
Two other models examined by Olek Wieslaw and Weres Jerzy (2006), review the
inverse method and the analytical sorption method in relation to Scots pine:
Fotsing Joseph Albert Mukam and Tchagang Claude Wanko (2004) used the wet cup
dry cup test in conjunction with Ficks laws to determine the diffusion coefficient for
red oak:
Température 30°C 35°C 40°C
DRadial (m²s-1) 1,35 x 10-11 3,70 x 10-11 5.37 x 10-11
DLongitudinal (m²s-1) 3,23 x 10-11 5,38 x 10-11 6,73 x 10-11
DTangential (m²s-1) 1,16 x 10-11 2,65 x 10-11 3,05 x 10-11
Figure 14: Comparative Diffusion Coefficients for Oak
Again the basis of the test was a variation in temperature with a constant RH, but the
data obtained is still relevant to.
When compared with results from similar models and other research, the diffusion
coefficient of Pine and Oak, as calculated via the demonstrated model, are validated.
There are some small discrepancies, but those can be attributed to experimental error.
The conclusion therefore is that the diffusion coefficients for the manufactured
timber, as calculated by the same model, are also valid. As research into the sorption
characteristics of manufactured timber is limited the model data could prove useful in
a suitable application.
As displayed in the table above the predicted moisture content for the various types of
timber are not species specific, but rather based on environmental temperature. The
application of those predicted moisture contents is when the species characteristics are
entered into the equation. The predicted data is considerably higher than the actual
MC values and as such the predicted diffusion coefficient may be slightly greater than
in reality.
Amongst the samples tested there is no clear steeper gradient for the absorption
curves. Plywood is probably the least desirable as the arc is somewhat shallower than
the rest at between 30%-55%. Pine has a higher MC level, but the gradient is still
almost exactly the same as the other samples.
Graph 11: Time taken to reach absorption equilibrium for Pine and Oak at varying RH values
Apart from the slight variance at RH ~40% there is a very clear separation between
the two classes. The basis behind the faster β for pine are based primarily in the
structure of the wood as considered in section 2.1; larger capillaries, a more porous
cellular makeup and various other compositional matters aid in the speed of
absorption in softwood, and therefore its β. The structure of the wood is tied directly
into the density which is examined further by graph 12.
Denser wood takes longer to reach equilibrium at each different RH stage as shown
by the continually higher β for plywood. The data shows that for a similar sized
sample the plywood was significantly heavier, and therefore denser than the other
samples, the exception being the oak. The oak sample has smaller dimensions and
therefore will reach equilibrium quicker as there is less distance for moisture to travel
for a given moisture diffusion coefficient. A larger sample of the same species will
have the same diffusion coefficient but greater volume to fill with water, thus
validating the oak and plywood results. The graph plainly shows that the denser
plywood sample takes marginally longer to equilibrate but follows the similar pattern
as the rest of the samples in that, as the RH approaches 100%, β increases
dramatically. This means that in a real life application where timber is being used as
an active moisture buffer it should ideally be as porous as possible. Dense woods
(generally hardwoods) seem more suited to seasonal variations as their response time
is too slow for day to day effectiveness.
Absorption results show a fairly constant rate of β over all the samples, up to around
70% RH. Oak and Plywood, as the two hardwood representatives have a slightly
higher average β for the absorption curve, but have a lower β over the desorption
curve. This may be due to the density of the hardwood. The moisture absorbed during
the absorption phase penetrated less into the core of the sample. When desorption then
occurs the water within the timber is closer to the surface and equilibrium is achieved
faster. Another possibility is based on the definition of equilibrium. The transfer rate
of moisture from the hardwood samples may be lower than the stipulated equilibrium
requirement of 0.01% mass change over 24 hours. For the absorption phase this is not
the case as the porous structure of the wood absorbs moisture more quickly then it
desorbs (see section 2.2.1). The resulting outcome is a longer β during the absorption
phase and a deceptively short β for the desorption period. The wood has not in fact
The correlation between the mass variation and time is easily identifiable. The area
that this section focuses on is the variation in water mass over time at varying RH
values. Graphs 13-17 show that over time the hysteresis between absorption and
desorption mass remains fairly constant. The only reason that the two points connect
is due to the reasoning in table 6. Were this not the case, it is a valid hypothesis that
the two lines would be parallel at a constant value of hysteresis (ω) throughout the
absorption/desorption processes.
Should this hypothesis be correct, it is possible to estimate the mass of water
contained within a drying sample of wood, given only the change in mass over time
absorption curve and the ω for that species of timber.
A very crude calculation of ω yields the following results, based on data from the
experiments:
Calculation of ω
Weight difference between
sorption curves (g)
Pin MD Oa Chipboar Plywoo
RH e F k d d
0.0 0.0 0.0
94% 0 0 0 0.00 0.00
2.0 2.3 1.8
75.26% 5 0 9 2.61 4.20
1.8 2.4 2.0
58.20% 5 8 9 2.87 3.83
1.9 2.4 2.1
43.16% 1 3 9 2.59 3.37
33% 2.5 2.7 2.4 2.94 2.68
The more constant the hysteresis between absorption and desorption, in the
experimental results, the more accurately ω can be calculated. Graph 18 is the
application of the theory in the case of sample 4, Chipboard. At lower levels of MC or
in other words when the RH is lower the theory seems to be valid.
Graph 18: Change in mass over time- Chipboard; predicted Δmw hysteresis
There are two samples that vary slightly from this theory, Pine and Plywood. The
Pine sample shows a very rapid drop in mass over the first few days, and then levels
out to similar profile as the other samples. Plywood remains at an almost constant
hysteresis for about the first 25 days and then there is a jump in the absorption rate
with a corresponding decrease in β. This may be due to an estimation of the
desorption time, as the mass of water is an experimental result. Further
experimentation to test this hypothesis is advised.
• In order to get a more detailed picture of the actual diffusion rate it would be
advisable to use a more complex method of moisture measurement, such as an
x-ray imager. It is important not only to know how much moisture is in the
sample, but also where it is.
• Smaller samples would work better within a short timeframe such as this as
they would respond faster and with more accuracy given the inability to
measure the depth of moisture ingress.
• Test physical properties of the wood, such as expansion, using detailed
measuring equipment.
• Allow more time for the permeability testing and use a sealed box containing a
scale so RH disruption is limited.
ASTM, ed. Mukhopadhyaya P., Kumaran M.K. (2007) Heat Air and Moisture
Transport, Measurements on Buildings, ASTM, Pennsylvania
Bandyopadhyay A., Ramarao B.V., and Ramaswamy Shri (2002), Transient moisture
diffusion through paperboard materials, Colloids and Surfaces-A: Physicochemical
and Engineering Aspects, Vol. 206 (2002) 455–467
Barkas Wilfred W. (1949), The swelling of wood under stress: a discussion of its
hygroscopic, elastic and plastic properties, H. M. Stationery Office, Madison,
Wisconsin
Baronas R., Ivanauskas F., Juodeikienė I., and Kajalavičius A. (2001), Modelling of
Moisture Movement in Wood during Outdoor Storage, Nonlinear Analysis: Modeling
and Control, Vol. 6, No. 2, pg 3-14
Bastías Marcia Vidal and Cloutier Alain (2005), Evaluation of wood sorption models
for high temperatures, Maderas.Ciencia y tecnologia, Vol. 7, No. 3, pg 145-158
Bowyer Jim L., Shmulsky Rubin and Haygreen John G (2003) Forest products and
wood science: an introduction, 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, New Jersey
Desch, H.E. and Dinwoodie, J.M. (1996), Timber: Structure, Properties, Conversion
and Use. 7th ed. Macmillan Press Ltd., London.
Dinwoodie J. M (2000), Timber-Its Nature and Behaviour, 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis,
Routledge, UK
Dinwoodie J.M. (2000) Timber: Its Nature and Behaviour, Second Edition, Building
Research Establishment, Abingdon, Oxford
Fotsing Joseph Albert Mukam and Tchagang Claude Wanko (2004), Experimental
determination of the diffusion coefficients of wood in isothermal conditions,
Academic Open Internet Journal, Volume 11
Keey R.B, Langrish T.A.L, and Walker J.F.C (2000), The Kiln-Drying of Lumber,
Springer, Berlin
Olek Wieslaw (2003), Analysis of the cup method application for determination of the
bound water diffusion coefficient in wood, Folia Forestalia Polonicia, Vol 34, pg. 15-
25
Olek Wieslaw and Weres Jerzy (2006), Effects of the method of identification of the
diffusion coefficient on accuracy of modelling bound water transfer in wood
Transport in Porous Media, Vol. 66, pg. 135–144
Stamm A. J (1964), Wood and Cellulose Science, Ronald Press, New York
Thygesen Lisbeth G. and Hansen Kurt K. (2007) Improved Suction Technique for the
Characterisation of Construction Materials, Journal of ASTM international, Vol. 4,
No. 1, pg. 12-20
Group A
Salt Date Time Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weight
Solution Between t t t t Sampl
David Bailey Page 60 of 77 Advanced Study
University of Nottingham Dissertation
Weighing Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl e5
e1 e2 e3 e4
K2CO3 29-Jan 1 62.29 75.38 69.24 80.93 116.68
Group A
43.16% 30-Jan 1 62.48
Weigh 75.73
Weigh 69.32
Weigh 81.1 116.83
Weigh
RH 02-Feb Time 3
@23oC t 62.76 t 76.06 t 69.51 t 81.41 117.13
Weight
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sample
Solution Date
04-Feb Weighing 2 e 62.81
1 e76.16
2 e69.54
3 e81.45
4 5 117.2
11-Feb 1 64.75 78.28 71.19 83.48 119.98
13-Feb 2 65.4 78.94 71.84 84.27 171.08
NaCl –
75.36% 16-Feb 3 65.89 79.25 72.38 84.74 121.95
RH 18-Feb 2 66.08 79.43 72.65 84.96 122.38
@23oC 23-Feb 5 66.4 79.63 73.1 85.3 123.05
Group A
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t Weight
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
NaBr – 06-Feb 2 63.61 77.03 70.24 82.3 118.23
58.2%R
H
@23oC 10-Feb 4 64.23 77.53 70.78 82.79 119.15
Group A
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t Weight
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
25-Feb 2 67.73 81.43 73.82 86.69 124.53
KNO3 –
94.00% 06-Mar 9 69.79 83.76 75.97 89.23 128.09
RH 09-Mar 3 69.99 84.13 76.35 89.56 128.75
@23oC 11-Mar 2 70.15 84.4 76.6 89.77 129.14
Group B
Salt Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Solutio Between Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
n Date Weighing 1 2 3 4 5
K2CO3 06-Feb 2 58.67 72.97 68.68 76.38 120.4
–
43.16%
RH@2
3oC 10-Feb 4 59.08 73.38 69.12 76.74 119.89
Group B
Group B
Salt Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Solutio Between Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
n Date Weighing 1 2 3 4 5
Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weig Weig
Time t t t ht ht
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Samp Samp
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 le 4 le 5
K2CO3 – 11-Feb 1 60.85 72.3 66.4 78.44 113.5
9
Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weig Weig
Time t t t ht ht
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Samp Samp
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 le 4 le 5
118.1
25-Feb 2 62.33 73.57 67.21 80 6
117.3
06-Mar 9 62.93 74.15 67.84 80.66 6
117.4
NaBr – 09-Mar 3 62.96 74.14 67.89 80.71 8
58.2%RH 117.5
@23oC 11-Mar 2 63.07 74.25 67.96 80.79 8
Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t t
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
118.6
13-Mar 2 63.77 75.16 68.43 81.62 9
119.5
16-Mar 3 64.35 75.66 68.9 82.25 8
119.9
17-Mar 1 64.59 75.89 69.14 82.5 7
120.1
NaCl – 18-Mar 1 64.68 75.96 69.26 82.6 2
75.36%R 120.2
H@23oC 19-Mar 1 64.72 76 69.34 82.69 7
Group C
Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
Time t t t t t
Salt Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
Solution Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
David Bailey Page 65 of 77 Advanced Study
University of Nottingham Dissertation
122.4
22-Mar 3 67.71 77.82 70.51 84.51 4
KNO3 – 123.2
94.00%R 24-Mar 2 67.6 78.16 70.87 85 2
H@23oC 31-Mar 7 68.5 79.5 72.3 86.6 126
Group B
Relativ Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
e Time t t t t Weight
Humidit Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sample
y Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 5
Dry
Weight 55.76 69.61 65.92 72.77 111.7
14-
58.20% Apr 61.6 76.6 72.3 80.3 123
23-
43.16% Apr 9 61 76.1 71.7 79.5 122.3
28-
43.16% Apr 5 61 75.8 71.6 79.4 121.8
Group C
Relativ Weigh Weigh Weigh Weigh
e Time t t t t Weight
Humidit Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sample
y Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 5
Dry
Weight 58.15 69.17 63.24 75.02 109.19
02-
94% Apr 68.7 79.8 72.7 87 126.7
14-
75.26% Apr 12 67.2 78.5 71.7 85.6 124.9
23-
58.20% Apr 9 65.9 77.4 70.7 84.5 122.7
28-
58.20% Apr 5 65.6 77.2 70.4 84 122.1
Group B
Relativ
e Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Humidi Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
ty Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
Group C
Relativ
e Time Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Humidi Between Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl Sampl
ty Date Weighing e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
Dry
04-Feb Weight 58.15 69.17 63.24 75.02 109.19
33% 10-Feb 6 60.45 71.95 66.25 78.01 113.03
43.16
% 23-Feb 13 61.81 73 66.9 79.37 115.41
58.20
% 11-Mar 16 63.07 74.25 67.96 80.79 117.58
75.26
% 19-Mar 8 64.72 76 69.34 82.69 120.27
94% 31-Mar 12 68.5 79.5 72.3 86.6 126
Table 17: Absorption moisture content as a percentage of dry weight for all 5 samples
Group A: Moisture content as a percentage of dry weight
Relative
Humidit Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
y 1 2 3 4 5
33% 5.49% 4.04% 5.05% 4.79% 4.84%
43.16% 7.00% 5.78% 5.83% 5.94% 5.62%
58.20% 9.42% 7.68% 7.72% 7.69% 7.38%
75.26% 13.12% 10.60% 11.25% 10.95% 10.90%
94% 19.51% 17.22% 16.57% 16.77% 16.38%
Table 18: Desorption moisture content as a percentage of dry weight for all 5 samples
Desorption: Moisture content as a percentage of dry weight
Relativ
e
Humidi Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
ty 1 2 3 4 5
94% 17.83% 15.52% 14.95% 15.63% 15.48%
75.26
% 15.56% 13.49% 13.38% 14.10% 14.39%
58.20 11.90% 10.97% 10.74% 11.49% 11.24%
David Bailey Page 71 of 77 Advanced Study
University of Nottingham Dissertation
%
43.16
% 9.72% 9.04% 8.87% 9.19% 9.27%
33% 9.03% 7.92% 8.20% 8.22% 8.15%
Table 19: Time to reach equilibrium for all samples at varying RH levels
Absorption-Time to reach equilibrium
(days)
Chipbo Plywo
RH Pine MDF Oak ard od
33% 8 6 11.5 6 9.5
Desorption-
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Days Days Days Days Days
to to to to to
Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water Reac Water
h absorb h absorb h absorb h absorb h absorb
Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g) Equi. ed (g)
50.5 10.26 49 10.91 65 9.71 49.5 11.71 80.5 17.12
44.5 8.95 30 9.48 32 8.69 37 10.56 32.5 15.92
25 6.85 16 7.71 20 6.97 23 8.61 19.5 12.44
15 5.60 9 6.35 11 5.76 12 6.88 9.5 10.25
7 5.19 5 5.56 4.5 5.33 4 6.16 5.5 9.01
Ra 461.51
cv 1
K1 5.57022652
0.74190249
K2 8
W 249.16897
ms 0.3996588
-
2.26835854
n 3
2.25108509
i 7
h 2806.45298
φ m Eb Dbt
0.0649 366158
0.329 51 99 2.43681E-12
0.0803 360082
0.4316 16 63 3.11886E-12
0.1059 351243
0.582 21 58 4.4658E-12
0.1462 339125
0.7536 88 79 7.30518E-12
0.2239 313253
0.94 33 98 2.08908E-11
58.20 Avera
32.90% 43.16% % 75.36% 94% ge
Type ρ0 Gm Gm Gm Gm Gm Gm
Pine 472 0.460 0.457 0.452 0.445 0.432 0.449
MDF 576 0.558 0.553 0.547 0.536 0.517 0.542
Oak 660 0.636 0.630 0.622 0.608 0.584 0.616
Chipboar
d 616 0.595 0.590 0.582 0.571 0.549 0.577
Plywood 888 0.845 0.835 0.820 0.797 0.755 0.810
α 6 ρ0 S
0.02053359 8.19E-
φs 1 472 07
6.71E-
cp 1006 576 07
5.86E-
ρa 1.19356 660 07
6.28E-
dφ/du 616 07
3.768896 4.35E-
997 888 07
Gd Dv
David Bailey Page 76 of 77 Advanced Study
University of Nottingham Dissertation
1.3999
Mw 18 68 1.41675E-09
1.3704
Da 2.5651E-05 9 1.44723E-09
1.3240
h 2.80645298 27 1.49801E-09
1.2568
2806.45298 52 1.57808E-09
1.1451
ρw 1000 03 1.73208E-09
R 8314.3