1.
Levels of Organization of
Anatomy & Physiology
basic framework
Achmad Rizal
BioSPIN
1.Levels of Organization of
Organisms (2)
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3. Structure - Function
Relationships
A. Anatomy - study of structure
Physiology - study of function
B. Structure determines Function
Function determines Structure
C. Charles Darwin - "Origin of the
Species" (1858) - Changes in
structure affect function: basis of
evolution of all organisms
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Organisms (1)
A. atoms (elements of periodic table)
B. molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
nucleic acid)
C. cells (epithelial, bone, muscle, nervous)
D. tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular)
E. organ (stomach, heart, brain, lung)
F. organ system (muscular, skeletal, digestive,
nervous)
G. whole organism (each different species)
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2. Anatomy - the study of the
structures of an organism
A. Gross Anatomy - structures as seen by unaided eye
B. Developmental Anatomy - study of the anatomy of
the developing organism
1. Embryology - fertilization to third month of fetus
C. Histology ("tissues" "to study") - structures that can
be seen with the microscope such as cells and tissues
1. Cytology - study of cell structure/function
D. Systemic Anatomy - study of individual organ system
E. Regional Anatomy - study of structures in particular
area
F. Pathology ("disease" "to study") - study of changes in
structure due to disease/injury
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The
Language of Anatomy (1)
A. Summary of Common prefixes and suffixes (other file)
B. Anatomical Position
1. subject stands erect
2. upper limbs placed at sides with palms forward
3. feet flat on floor in natural forward direction
C. Directional Terms (practice using them in the lab!)
– SUPERIOR and INFERIOR describe vertical positions of structures.
– ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR. Fore and aft positioning of structures
are described with these two terms.
– CRANIAL and CAUDAL – both may be used instead of anterior and
posterior.
– DORSAL and VENTRAL – also used in place of anterior and
posterior.
– PROXIMAL and DISTAL describe the proximity of a structure to its
point of attachment on the body.
– MEDIAL and LATERAL – are used to describe surface relationships
respect to the median line of the body.
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The 4. Anatomical Terminology - The
Language of Anatomy (2a) Language of Anatomy (2b)
• D. Planes and Sections
1. sagittal - divides into right and left parts
a. midsagittal - right down the middle
b. parasagittal - away from the midline
2. frontal (coronal) - divides anterior &
posterior
3. horizontal (transverse) - divide superior
& inferior
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The 4. Anatomical Terminology - The

Language of Anatomy (3a) Language of Anatomy (3b)
E. Body Cavities
1. Dorsal Body Cavity Æ cranial cavity (brain) ,vertebral cavity
• Body Cavity
(spinal cord)
2. Ventral Body Cavity (viscera - organs found here)
a. thoracic cavity
i. pleural cavity (space separating the parietal pleura
and visceral pleura of lungs - like balloon pushed in with
fist)
ii. mediastinum - all contents of thoracic cavity except
the lungs (eg. heart)
b. abdominopelvic cavity

i. abdominal - stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder,

pancreas, small intestine
ii. pelvic - urinary bladder, cecum, appendix, sigmoid
colon, rectum, reproductive organs
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The

5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (1)
Language of Anatomy (4)
3.Other Body Cavities • Cell : simplest structural units into which a
a. oral cavity (mouth) complex multi-cellular organism can be divided
b. nasal cavity (sinuses for air passage) and still retain the functions characteristic of
c. orbital cavities (eyes)
life
d. middle ear cavities (in temporal bone) • Cell differentiation : process of transforming
an unspecialized cell into a specialized cell
e. synovial cavities (freely moveable joints)
• Differentiated cells with similar properties
aggregate to form tissue (nerve tissue, muscle
tissue, and so on)
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 5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (2)
• Combination of some tissue’s type
form organ (the heart, lungs, kidneys,
and so on)
• Some organs are linked together to
form organ systems.
• Cells are classified according broad
types of function they perform, four
categories emerge : (1)muscle cell
(2)nerve cell (3)epithelial cell
(4)connective-tissue cell
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5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (3)
• Muscle cell : specialized to generate the mechanical
force that produce force and movement
• Nerve cell : specialized to initiate and conduct electric
signals, often over long distance
• Epithelial cell : specialized or selective secretion and
absorption of ions and organic molecule
• Connective-tissue cell: connecting, anchoring, and
supporting the structure of body
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6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF
5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (4)
THE BODY (1)
• Types of cell based on their shape : (1)muscle cell – System Major organ/tissue Primary function
(skeletal), (2)smooth cell (3) cardiac cell
Circulatory Heart, blood vessel, blood Transport of blood,
• Tissue : 1)muscle tissue (2)nerve tissue (3)epithelial (some classification also throughout the
tissue (4)connective-tissue include lymphatic vessel and body’s tissue
• Organs are composed of the four kinds of tissues lymph in this system)
arranged in various proportion & pattern Respiratory Nose, pharynx, larynx, Exchange of carbon
trachea, bronchi, lung dioxide and oxygen:
• Organ system : collection of organ that together regulation of
perform overall function hydrogen ion
concentration

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6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF 6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF

THE BODY (2) THE BODY (3)
System Major organ/tissue Primary function
System Major organ/tissue Primary function
Digestive Mouth, pharynx, Digestion, and Musculoskelet Cartilage, bone, Support, protection,
esophagus, stomach, absorption of organic ligament, tendons, and movement of the
al
intestines, salivary glands, nutrients, salts, and joint, skeletal muscle body; production of
pancreas, liver, water blood cell
gallbladder
Immune White blood cell, Defense against
Urinary Kidney, ureter, bladder, Regulation of plasma lymph vessel and node, foreign invaders,
urethra through controlled spleen, thymus, and return of extra
excretion of salt, other lymphoid tissue cellular fluid to
water, and organic blood, formation of
waste blood cell
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 6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF
THE BODY (4)
System Major organ/tissue Primary function
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, Regulation and
peripheral nerves and coordination of many
ganglia, special sense activities in the body,
organ detection of change in the
internal & external
environment, state of
consciousness, learning,
cognition
Integumentary Skin Protection again injury &
dehydration, defense again
foreign invaders, regulation
of temperature
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6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF
THE BODY (5)
System Major organ/tissue
Reproductiv Male : testes, penis and
e associated duct and gland
Female : ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, vagina, mammary glands
All gland secreting hormones,
Endocrine
pancreas, testes, ovaries,
hypothalamus, kidney, pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal
intestinal, thymus, heart, pineal
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Primary function
Male : production of sperm.
Transfer of sperm to female
Female : production of eggs,
provision of nutritive
environment for the developing
embryo & fetus, nutrition of the
infant
Regulation & coordination
many activities in the body
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7. THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT 8. Homeostatic Control

& HOMEOSTATIS Mechanisms
• Internal environment : environment • Nervous and Endocrine system
surrounding the cell Æ extracellular fluid
– Nervous system
• Homeostatis : concept that the • Electrical signals - impulses
composition of the internal environment
– Endocrine system
is maintained relatively constant
• Hormones transported in blood to target cells
• Homeostatic control system : collection
of body component that functions to • Receptor
maintain a physical or chemical property – Monitors the environment
of internal environment relatively – Detects changes
constant • Stimuli – changes in the environment
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9. Negative Feedback 10. Positive Feedback

Mechanisms Mechanisms
• The response enhances or exaggerates the
• Opposes (limits the intensity) or eliminates
original stimulus
the original stimulus
• Positive means that the change occurs in
• Negative means that the variable changes in a
the direction of the original stimulus
direction opposite to the initial change
• Rarely used to promote homeostasis
• Negative feedback maintains body functions
within a range • Examples
– Childbirth – pressure receptors; effector
• Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body
muscles of uterus; contraction to push baby
involved negative feedback through birth canal
• Mechanisms ignore minor variations but – Blood clotting – increase in number of
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maintain homeostasis within a range platelets sticking to the broken blood vessel

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11. Homeostatic Imbalance
• Homeostatic imbalance
– Sick
– Disease
Exp : hypothermia, fever
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12. BODY-FLUID
COMPARTEMENT (2)
• Control Center
– Integration center
– Determines the set point within the range
– Analyzes the information
– Determines the response
• Effector
– Provides the response
• Muscles contract or relax
• Glands secrete or stop secreting
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13. Medical Imaging Techniques (1)
A. Classic X-ray : radiography (radiograph)
- good for dense structures (bones and tumors)
B. Computed Tomography (CT) or Computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT) Scanning
- employs X-ray technology to create clearer image
- tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, gallstones, etc.
C. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)
- employs X-ray technology to see organ
action/motion
- measures physiology of heart, lungs, vessels; can
indicate abnormality/deformity in structure; tissue
damage
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12. BODY-FLUID
COMPARTEMENT (1)
• Body fluid are enclosed in compartment
• The extracellular fluid is composed of
blood plasma (higher protein, 20%) and
interstitial fluid (fluid between cellÆ
80%)
• The composition of compartments
reflect the activities of barriers
separating intracellular fluid and
extracellular fluid
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12. BODY-FLUID
COMPARTEMENT (3)
Fluid compartement of body, volume are for normal 70 kg man
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13. Medical Imaging Techniques (2)
D. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- uses magnetic properties of molecules, not X-rays
- presence of cancer cells, chemical disease of brain, spinal
cord disorders, blood flow problems, injury after stroke,
measure effects of drugs on tissues
- used chiefly on soft tissues such as brain & heart
E. Ultrasound (US)
- uses high frequency sound waves
- gall stones, pelvic organs, blood flow, fetal development
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13. Medical Imaging Techniques (3)
F. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- uses radioisotopes such as Carbon-11, Nitrogen-13
- effects of drugs, site of molecules, cancer cells
- very good at studying glucose absorption by neurons
in the brain during certain tasks

G. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)

- takes X-ray picture before and after administration
of contrast substance to the vessels
- used to study vessels of the brain and heart to help
prevent strokes and heart attacks

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