BROADBAND OVER POWER LINES

A SEMINAR REPORT SUBMITTED TOWARDS THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

AKSHAY DHAR

C.R.NO. 377/07

U.R.NO. 725/07

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MAHANT BACHITTAR SINGH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY.

UNIVERSITY OF JAMMU

YEAR 2010
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With a sense of great pleasure and satisfaction I present this seminar report entitled as
―BROADBAND OVER POWER LINES‖. Completion of this report is no doubt a product of
invaluable support and contribution of a number of people.

I present my sincere gratitude to Mr. Ajay Sharma (HOD EE Deptt.) & Ms. Damandeep Kour
(Lect. EE Department) for providing us timely valuable guidance and suggestions. Without their
support this would not have been possible.

Akshay Dhar

C.R.NO. 377/07

U.R.NO. 725/07

I
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Seminar report entitled “BROADBAND OVER POWER LINES” is an
authentic record of my own work carried out as the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of degree of B.E (electrical engineering) at M.B.S. College of engineering and technology,
Jammu during June - July 2010

Akshay Dhar

C.R.NO. 377/07

U.R.NO. 725/07

Date:

Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of my knowledge and
belief.

Ms. Damandeep Kour

(Lecturer EE Deptt.)
I.T. Coordinator

Countersigned by

Mr. Ajay Sharma

HOD EE Deptt.

II
 ABSTRACT

Over the past few years advances in signal processing technology have enabled the advent of
modem chips that are able to overcome the transmission difficulties associated with sending
communications signals over electrical power lines. In the United States, this capability has been
termed ―Broadband over Power Lines‖ or BPL. There are two predominant types of BPL
communications configurations: Access BPL and In-Home BPL. Access BPL is comprised of
injectors (used to inject High Frequency (HF) signals onto medium or low voltage power lines),
extractors (used to retrieve these signals) and repeaters (used to regenerate signals to prevent
attenuation losses). In addition to taking advantage of the power line infrastructure, In-Home BPL
modems utilize the existing house wiring to provision a Local Area Network (LAN) that can be
used throughout the home. One of the largest commercial markets for BPL is the ability to provide
Internet Services by means of the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
protocols, which can support voice, data, and video services. Another significant benefit of BPL is
the ability to employ ―intelligent‖ power line networks that make use of Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) devices, dynamic provisioning, and other forms of modernized
electrical power networks. A SCADA system can save time and money by reducing the need for
service personnel to physically visit each site for inspection, data collection, and routine logging or
even to make adjustments. The benefits also include the ability for real-time monitoring, system
modifications, troubleshooting, increased equipment life, and automatic report generating.

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) monitors approximately 59,000 frequencies for
military, National Security & Emergency Preparedness (NS/EP), and other purposes. A key
concern associated with BPL is that coupling of HF signals onto unshielded wiring, such as that
used for outdoor power lines, may generate interference signals that could impact licensed services
such as amateur radio, or ―hums‖. Public safety agencies including fire, police, the Red Cross and
other agencies also depend on the use of the special propagation properties found only in the HF
radio spectrum. This Technical Information Bulletin (TIB) examines the architecture and considers
possible benefits and concerns of BPL technology with respect to the National Communications
System (NCS) and the communication requirements for NS/EP.

III
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1

2. Executive Summary 2

3. Broadband Access Alternatives 4

3.1 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) 4
3.1.2 Advantages of DSL 5
3.1.3 Limitations of DSL 6
3.1.4 DSL Variations 6

3.2 Fiber Technologies 11

3.3 Coaxial Cable 13
3.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Coaxial cable 14
3.4 Wireless 15
3.4.1 Wi-Fi 15
3.4.2 Wi-Max 17
3.4.3 Wi-Fi vs. Wi-Max 18

3.5 Satellite 19

3.6 Comparative Analysis of Access Alternatives 20

4. What is Broadband over Power Line (BPL)? 21

4.1 Definitions 21
5. History of Communications over Electric Lines 24

6. BPL Studies 26

6.1.1 NTIA Phase I Study 26

6.1.2 BBC Studies 27

6.1.3 Manassas, Virginia Study 28

6.1.4 ARRL Study 29

6.1.5 IEEE Report on USA Broadband Networking 30

7. Overview of Grid Structure and Topology 32

IV
8. BPL Deployment Options 37

9. How BPL Works 38

10. Industry Structure – Key Enabling Partners 42

11. Impetus for BPL as an Access Technology 44

11.1.1 Potential Benefits 44

11.1.2 Homeland Security and Network Benefits 46
11.1.3 Consumer Benefits 46

12. Implementation Challenges 47

12.1.1 Power Line Noise 47

12.1.2 RF Noise Issues 48
12.1.3 Electromagnetic Interference 48
12.1.4 Interference-Free BPL 49
12.1.5 Security Issues 50
12.1.6 Channel Attenuation 51

13. Conclusion 52

BIBILIOGRAPHY

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.No Fig.No. Name of Figure Page No.

1. 1(a) BPL Electromagnetic Model 1

2. 3(a) Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Network 5
3. 3(b) A Fiber Optic Cable 11
4. 3(c) Diagrammatic difference b/w a Co-axial &
an Optical Fiber Cable 12
5. 3(d) Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) Network 13
6. 3(e) A Wi-Fi Network 15
7. 3(f) How WiMax works 17
8. 3(g) Broadband via Satellite 19
9. 7(a) Basic Architecture of Power Generation
& Distribution 33
10. 7(b) From Generation to consumption; Power Grid
Hierarchy 34
11. 7(c) A typical BPL Architecture 36
12. 8(a) BPL Deployment Options 37
13. 9(a) An Overview of BPL System 38
14. 1 An Overview of Power Line System 40

15. 9(c) A BPL MODEM 41

16. 10(a) Industry Structure – Key Enabling Partners 43
17. 12(a) BPL in 800 MHz - 10 GHz range 50

VI
 LIST OF TABLES

S.No Table No. Name of Table Page No.

1. I DSL Technologies Comparison 10

2. II IEEE 802.11 WLAN Radio

Link Interfaces & Highlights 16

3. III Summary of WiMax (802.16)

Radio Links 18

4. IV Comparison of Wi-Fi &

WiMax Technologies 18

5. V Comparison of Various Access

Technologies 20

VII
 1) INTRODUCTION

Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) is a term used to describe the use of existing electrical lines to
provide the medium for a high speed communications network. BPL, also known as Power Line
Communications (PLC) is achieved by superimposing the voice or data signals onto the line carrier
signal using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.

There are two main categories of BPL: in-house and access. In-house BPL is broadband access within
a building or structure using the electric lines of the structure to provide the network infrastructure.
Home Plug (Home plug, 2005) is an alliance of several vendors of in-house BPL products which has
authored a standard for device compliance. Products conforming to the Home Plug standard have been
commercially available since 2002. For example, Linksys offers the PLEBR10 (Linksys, 2005), an
adapter which connects an existing router (which accepts the in-coming broadband from Cable or
DSL) to the electric lines of the house. Other computers in the building can then connect to the
network simply by attaching their computer's network card to an adapter (e.g. Linksys PLUSB10)
plugged into a wall outlet. Access BPL is the use of the electrical transmission lines to deliver
broadband to the home. Access BPL is considered a viable alternative to Cable or DSL to provide the
'final mile' of broadband to end users. A BPL coupler placed at the pole converts the transmission
medium from fiber (originating at the substation) to medium voltage power lines. Broadband signals
traverse the medium voltage power lines, bypassing transformers, with repeaters placed every mile
along the transmission path. At the final pole, a BPL wireless device can deliver the broadband to
home-installed BPL wireless receivers, or, the signal can be sent to the individual homes via the low-
voltage electrical lines and made available through any BPL wired receiver.

Figure 1(a): BPL Electromagnetic Model

1
 2) Executive Summary
Despite the spread of broadband technology in the last few years, there are significant areas of the
world that don't have access to high-speed Internet. When weighed against the relatively small number
of customers Internet providers would gain, the incremental expenditures of laying cable and building
the necessary infrastructure to provide DSL or cable in many areas, especially rural, is too great. But if
broadband could be served through power lines, there would be no need to build a new infrastructure.
Anywhere there is electricity there could be broadband. Technology to deliver high-speed data over the
existing electric power delivery network is closer to reality in the marketplace. Broadband over Power
line is positioned to offer an alternative means of providing high-speed internet access, Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP), and other broadband services, using medium – and low – voltage lines to
reach customers‘ homes and businesses. By combining the technological principles of radio, wireless
networking, and modems, developers have created a way to send data over power lines and into homes
at speeds between 500 kilobits and 3 megabits per second (equivalent to DSL and cable). By
modifying the current power grids with specialized equipment, the BPL developers could partner with
power companies and Internet service providers to bring broadband to everyone with access to
electricity. The technology evolution in the next few years is important from a perspective of future
competitive position of BPL as new networks are built and alternative technologies emerge. (See Table
3.5 for comparison of access technologies). Fiber and advanced wireless broadband are the new
alternative broadband access systems that are most likely to emerge in the next few years. These could
also become a part of an integrated BPL system. Federal policy support is also strengthening the
potential for BPL deployment. The FCC and others have hailed BPL as a potential ―third wire‖ that
may help increase the availability and affordability of broadband services in a market dominated by
digital subscriber line (DSL) and cable modem service. As part of the federal effort to remove barriers
to BPL implementation, the FCC issued a change to Part 15 rules for measures to mitigate radio
interference caused by broadband over power line. The FCC ruling on October 14, 2004 would
essentially help to overcome BPL‘s potential to cause interference with radio and telecommunications
signals. However, a number of jurisdictional and classification issues remain open. For example, are
the broadband services offered via BPL considered an information service or a telecommunications
service? This has implications since telecommunications services are subject to regulations under the
Telecommunications Act of 1996, most notably common carrier requirements. As of October 2004, the
FCC has two proceedings that address the issue of broadband regulatory classification: one deal with

2
cable modem services and another addressing all wire line broadband Internet access services
generally.
If classified as an information services, BPL service would be free from many if not all common
carrier regulations except, contribution to the universal service fund (USF). Reliability and safety of
the power delivery system and provision of quality service are the main concerns for state
commissions. In addition, affiliate transaction policies and cross subsidization issues are major
concerns. State Commissions are obligated to prevent the unfair use of an asset developed with
ratepayer funds for the benefit of shareholders. They are also obligated to ensure that electric utilities
do not have an unfair advantage over competitors. Thus several solutions such as creation of
unregulated BPL subsidiaries or implementation of accounting rules that guard against cross
subsidization may be considered. The state regulators will also need to address rights of way, and
access to poles issues. For instance, some municipalities may seek to charge fees for BPL rights of
way. Pole attachment rules may also need to be addressed because of potential interference problems.
The technical feasibility, the FCC rulemaking mitigating interference and the announcements of the
commercial-scale tests of BPL have stimulated considerable interest in BPL among electric utilities,
with several now evaluating deployment of BPL. The market trials and commercial deployments will
reveal business case attractiveness of BPL compared to established DSL and cable services. However,
there is also interest in BPL‘s potential to serve as a communications system that can support the
network management of the power delivery system. The electric utilities will determine if the
combined benefits of a system allowing for consumer telecom services, other consumer services, and
core utility network communications help make the business model attractive for BPL. Utilities can
consider applying three basic simplified business case models:
 The Landlord Model – leasing the conduit and assets to a third party, probably with a
maintenance arrangement
 The Developer Model– a partnership or contract with an Internet service provider (ISP); the
utility builds and owns the infrastructure, and the ISP handles all aspects of marketing, selling
to and servicing the customer
 The Service Provider Model– utility manages the system, including serving as the Internet
service provider
Each utility will assess BPL according to its own business objectives, risk tolerance, and procedures.
The factors to evaluate are cost, market size and price, differentiating features of BPL, bundled
services and average revenue per user, and the utility applications. While broadband Internet access
may be the primary application that is the impetus for deployment of BPL networks, the range of
3
potential applications using such a communications network is enormous and needs to be considered as
the business model is developed.

3) Broadband Access Alternatives

Broadband access and services are delivered using a variety of technologies, network architectures and
transmission methods. The most significant broadband technologies include:

 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

 Fiber Technologies

 Coaxial Cable

 Wireless

 BPL (Broadband Over Power Lines)

The following is a brief description of each of the above referenced access technology.

3.1 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) - Broadband over faster copper

DSL is a very high-speed connection to Internet that uses the same wires as a regular telephone line. A
standard telephone installation in the India consists of a pair of copper wires. This pair of copper wires
has sufficient bandwidth for carrying both data and voice. Voice signals use only a fraction of the
available capacity on the wires. DSL exploits this remaining capacity to carry information on the wire
without affecting the line‘s ability to carry voice conversations. Standard phone service limits the
frequencies that the switches, telephones and other equipment can carry. Human voices, speaking in
normal conversational tones, can be carried in a frequency range of 400 to 3,400 Hertz (cycles per
second). In most cases, the wires themselves have the potential to handle frequencies of up to several -
million Hertz. Modern equipment that sends digital (rather than analog) data can safely use much more
of the telephone line‘s capacity, and DSL does just that. Many DSL technologies implement an
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) layer over the low-level bit stream layer to enable the adaptation
of a number of different technologies over the same link. DSL implementations may create bridged or
routed networks. In a bridged configuration, the group of subscriber computers effectively connects
into a single subnet.

4
 Figure 3(a): Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Network

3.1.2 Advantages of DSL

 Simultaneous use; Phone line can be used for voice calls and the Internet connection at the
same time

 A much higher speed when compared to regular modem (1.5 Mbps vs. 56 Kbps).

 Does not necessarily require new wiring, the existing phone line can be used.

 Providers generally include modem as part of the installation.

5
3.1.3 Limitations of DSL

 The quality of connection depends upon the proximity to the provider‘s central

 Office, closer the better

 Receiving data is faster than sending data over the internet

 DSL is not available everywhere

3.1.4 DSL Variations

There are several variations of DSL technology. Often the term xDSL, where x is a variable, is used to
discuss DSL in general.
1. Asymmetric DSL (ADSL): It is called ―asymmetric‖ because the download speed is greater than
the upload speed. ADSL works this way because most Internet users look at, or download, much more
information than they send, or upload.

2. High bit-rate DSL (HDSL): Providing transfer rates comparable to a T1 line (about 1.5 Mbps),
HDSL receives and sends data at the same speed, but it requires two lines that are separate from your
normal phone line.

3. ISDN DSL (ISDL): Geared primarily toward existing users of Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), ISDL is slower than most other forms of DSL, operating at fixed rate of 144 Kbps in both
directions. The advantage for ISDL customers is that they can use their existing equipment, but the
actual speed gain is typically only 16 Kbps (ISDN runs at 128 Kbps).

4. Multi-Rate Symmetric DSL (MSDSL): This is Symmetric DSL that is capable of more than one
transfer rate. The transfer rate is set by the service provider, typically based on the service (price) level.

5. Rate Adaptive DSL (RADSL): This is a popular variation of ADSL that allows the modem to
adjust the speed of the connection depending on the length and quality of the line.

6
6. Symmetric DSL (SDSL): Like HDSL, this version receives and sends data at the same speed.
While SDSL also requires a separate line from your phone, it uses only a single line instead of the two
used by HDSL.

7. Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL): An extremely fast connection, VDSL is asymmetric, but only
works over a short distance using standard copper phone wiring.

8. Voice-over DSL (VoDSL): A type of IP Telephony, VoDSL allows multiple phone lines to be
combined into a single phone line that also includes data-transmission capabilities.

Most homes and small business users are connected to an asymmetric DSL (ADSL) line. ADSL
divides up the available frequencies in a line on the assumption that most Internet users look at, or
download, much more information than they send, or upload. Under this assumption, if the connection
speed from the Internet to the user is three to four times faster than the connection from the user back
to the Internet, then the user will see the most benefit (most of the time). Precisely how much benefit a
user will see depends on how far the user is from the central office of the company providing the
ADSL service. ADSL is a distance-sensitive technology: As the connection‘s length increases, the
signal quality decreases and the connection speed goes down. The limit for ADSL service is 18,000
feet (5,460 meters), though for speed and quality of service many ADSL providers place a lower limit
on the distances for the service. At the extremes of the distance limits, ADSL customers may see
speeds far below the promised maximums, while customers nearer the central office have faster
connections and may see extremely high speeds in the future. ADSL technology can provide maximum
downstream (Internet to customer) speeds of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps) at a distance of about
6,000 feet (1,820 meters), and upstream speeds of up to 640 kilobits per second (Kbps). In practice, the
best speeds widely offered today are 1.5 Mbps downstream, with upstream speeds varying between 64
and 640 Kbps. Distance is a limitation for DSL but not for voice telephone calls. This is because the
voice signals are boosted (amplified) with small amplifiers called loading coils. These loading coils are
incompatible with ADSL signals, so a voice coil in the loop between a telephone and the telephone
company‘s central office will disqualify a user from receiving ADSL. Other factors that might
disqualify a user from receiving ADSL include:

7
Bridge taps - These are extensions, between the user and the central office, that extend service to
other customers. While the users would not notice these bridge taps in normal phone service, they
may take the total length of the circuit beyond the distance limits of the service provider.

Fiber-optic cables - ADSL signals cannot pass through the conversion from analog to digital and
back to analog that occurs if a portion of a telephone circuit comes through fiber-optic cables.

Distance - Even if you know where your central office is (don‘t be surprised if you don‘t—the
telephone companies don‘t advertise their locations), looking at a map is no indication of the
distance a signal must travel between your house and the office.

ADSL uses two pieces of equipment, one on the customer end and one at the provider end:
 At the customer‘s location, there is a DSL transceiver, which may also provide other services.
Most residential customers call their DSL transceiver a DSL modem. The engineers at the
telephone company or ISP call it an ATU-R, which stands for ADSL Transceiver Unit -
Remote. Regardless of what it is called, the transceiver is the point where data from the user‘s
computer or network is connected to the DSL line. The transceiver can connect to a customer‘s
equipment in several ways, though most residential installations use Universal Serial Bus
(USB) or 10 BaseT Ethernet connections. Most of the ADSL transceivers sold by ISPs and
telephone companies are simply transceivers, but the devices used by businesses may combine
network routers, network switches or other networking equipment in the same box.

 The DSL service provider has a DSL Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) to receive customer
connections. The DSLAM at the access provider is the equipment that makes DSL happen. A
DSLAM takes connections from many customers and aggregates them onto a single, high-
capacity connection to the Internet. DSLAMs are generally flexible and able to support
multiple types of DSL, as well as provide additional functions such as routing and dynamic IP
address assignment for customers.
VDSL (defined above) is seen by many as the next step in providing a complete home -
communications/ entertainment package. There are already some companies, such as U.S. West (part
of Qwest now), that offer VDSL service in selected areas. VDSL operates over the copper wires in
much the same way that ADSL does, but there are a couple of distinctions. VDSL can achieve
incredible speeds, as high as 52 Mbps downstream and 16 Mbps upstream. That is much faster than
ADSL, which provides up to 8 Mbps downstream and 800 Kbps (kilobits per second) upstream.

8
However, VDSL‘s is distance sensitive. It can only operate over the copper line for a short distance,
about 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Compared to a maximum speed of 8 to 10 Mbps for ADSL or cable
modem, it is clear that the move from current broadband technology to VDSL could be as significant
as the migration from a 56K modem to broadband. However, the key to VDSL is that the telephone
companies are replacing many of their main feeds with fiber-optic cable. In fact, many phone
companies are planning Fiber to the Curb (FTTC), which means that they will replace all existing
copper lines right up to the point where a phone line branches off to a house. At the least, most
companies expect to implement Fiber to the Neighborhood (FTTN). Instead of installing fiber-optic
cable along each street, FTTN has fiber going to the main junction box for a particular neighborhood.
By placing a VDSL transceiver in a home and a VDSL gateway in the junction box, the distance
limitation is overcome. The gateway takes care of the analog-digital-analog conversion problem that
disables ADSL over fiber-optic lines. It converts the data received from the transceiver into pulses of
light that can be transmitted over the fiber-optic system to the central office, where the data is routed to
the appropriate network to reach its final destination. When data is sent back to the computer, the
VDSL gateway converts the signal from the fiber-optic cable and sends it to the transceiver. There are
two competing consortiums pushing to standardize VDSL. Their proposed standards use carrier
technologies that are incompatible with one another. The VDSL Alliance, a partnership between
Alcatel, Texas Instruments and others, supports VDSL using a carrier system called Discrete
MultiTone (DMT). According to equipment manufacturers, most of the ADSL equipment installed
today uses DMT. The other VDSL group is called the VDSL Coalition. Led by Lucent and Broadcom,
the Coalition proposes a carrier system that uses a pair of technologies called Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM) and Carrier less Amplitude Phase (CAP). While, VDSL provides a significant
performance boost over any other version, for it to become widely available, it must first be
standardized. The following Table (I) lists the DSL variations and how they compare to each other.

9
Table I: DSL Technologies Comparison

10
3.2 Fiber Technologies
In recent years, carriers have begun constructing entirely fiber optic cable transmission facilities that
run from a distribution frame (or its equivalent) in an incumbent local exchange carriers (ILEC‘s)
central office to the loop demarcation point at an end-user customer premise. These loops are referred
to as fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) loops. FTTH technology offers substantially more capacity than any
copper-based technology. For example,
Wav7 Optics provides a FTTH system
today using commercially available
equipment that delivers transmission
speeds up to 500 Mbps shared over a
maximum of 16 subscribers. This system
can also provide up to 500 Mbps
symmetrically to one subscriber if desired.
The speed an actual user will experience
depends upon the time of day and the
number of users online. A typical FTTH
system can deliver up to 870 MHz of cable
television video services (for high
definition television) or IP video services
along with multiple telephone lines and
current and next-generation data services Figure 3(b): A Fiber Optic Cable
at speeds in excess of 100 Mbps.

There are three basic types of architectures being used to provide FTTH. The most common
architecture used is Passive Optical Network (PON) technology. This technology allows multiple
homes to share a passive fiber network. In this type of network, the plant between the customer
premises and the head-end at the central office consists entirely of passive components – no electronics
are needed in the field. The other architectures being used are Home Run Fiber or Point-to-Point Fiber,
in which subscribers have a dedicated fiber strand, and active or powered nodes are used to manage
signal distribution, and hybrid PONs, which are a combination of home run and PON architecture.
Although FTTH technology is still in its infancy, the deployment of FTTH is growing significantly.
Also, the equipment costs for FTTH have decreased significantly. As of May 2004, carriers have
deployed FTTH technology to 128 communities in 32 states. Companies plan to deploy FTTH further

11
in the future. Competitive carriers are also building FTTH facilities. In addition to FTTH technologies,
some carriers are constructing fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC) facilities that do not run all the way to the
home, but run to a pedestal located within 500 feet of the subscriber premises. Copper lines are then
used for the connection between the pedestal and the network interface device at the customer‘s
premises. Because of the limited use of copper, FTTC technologies permit carriers to provide high-
speed data in addition to high definition video services.

Figure 2(c): Diagrammatic difference b/w a Coaxial & an Optical Fiber Cable

12
3.3 Coaxial Cable
For millions of people, television brings news, entertainment and educational programs into their
homes. Many people get their TV signal from cable television (CATV) because cable TV provides
better reception and more channels. Many people who have cable TV can now get a high-speed
connection to the Internet from their cable provider. Cable modems allow subscribers to access high-
speed data services over cable systems that are generally designed with hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC)
architecture. Cable modem service is primarily residential, but may also include some small business
service. Cable modems compete with technologies like Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber

Figure 3(d): Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) Network

Lines (ADSL).Following is a look at how a cable modem works and how 100 cable television channels
and websites can flow over a single coaxial cable. In a cable TV system, signals from the various
channels are each given a 6-MHz slice of the cable‘s available bandwidth and then sent down the cable
to your house. The coaxial cable used to carry cable television can carry hundreds of megahertz of
signals and therefore, a large number of channels. In some systems, coaxial cable is the only medium
used for distributing signals. In other systems, fiber-optic cable goes from the cable company to
different neighborhoods or areas. Then the fiber is terminated and the signals move onto coaxial cable

13
for distribution to individual houses. When a cable company offers Internet access over the cable,
Internet information can use the same cables because the cable modem system puts downstream data-
data sent from the Internet to an individual computer into a 6-MHz channel. On the cable, the data
looks just like a TV channel. So Internet downstream data takes up the same amount of cable space as
any single channel of programming. Upstream data; information sent from an individual back to the
Internet; requires even less of the cable‘s bandwidth, just 2 MHz, since the assumption is that most
people download far more information than they upload. Putting both upstream and downstream data
on the cable television system requires two types of equipment: a Cable Modem on the customer end
and a Cable Modem Termination System (CMTS) at the cable provider‘s end. Between these two types
of equipment, all the computer networking, security and management of Internet access over cable
television is put into place.

3.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Coaxial cable

If you are one of the first users to connect to the Internet through a particular cable channel, then you
may have nearly the entire bandwidth of the channel available for your use. The disadvantage of
coaxial cable however, is as new users, especially heavy-access users, are connected to the channel;
you will have to share that bandwidth, and may see your performance degrade as a result. It is possible
that, in times of heavy usage with many connected users, performance will be far below the theoretical
maximums. The cable company can resolve this particular performance issue by adding a new channel
and splitting the base of users. Another benefit of the cable modem for Internet access is that, unlike
ADSL, its performance does not depend on distance from the central cable office. A digital CATV
system is designed to provide digital signals at a particular quality to customer households. On the
upstream side, the burst modulator in cable modems is programmed with the distance from the head-
end, and provides the proper signal strength for accurate transmission. Cable industry has extended the
broadband services offering to at least 90 percent of homes passed by cable systems. The cable
industry expects that industry-wide facilities upgrades enabling the provision of broadband Internet
access to residential customers will be completed in the near future.

14
3.4 Wireless

3.4.1 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi, short for Wireless Fidelity, is a term that is used generically to refer to any product or service
using the 802.11 series standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) for wireless local area network connections. Wi-Fi networks operate on an unlicensed basis in
the 2.4 and 5 GHz radio bands and provide multiple data rates up to a maximum of 54 Mbps. The
bandwidth is shared among multiple users. Wi-Fi enabled wireless devices, such as laptop computers
or personal digital assistants (PDAs), can send and receive data from any location within signal reach
of a Wi-Fi equipped base station or access point (AP). Typically, mobile devices must be within
approximately 300 feet of a base station. The Wi-Fi technology features a creation of a ―wireless
cloud‖ that covers a hot-spot area. The specific dimensions of the coverage area vary based on
environmental and power specifications of the equipment in use. Typically, coverage radius is in the
range of 300-500 feet. Environmental conditions, like weather & line of site, can affect the ability to
reach target customers. With the expansion of Wi-Fi access to the Internet there has been a rapid
growth of hot-spots. Networks of hot-spots consisting of many access points have been constructed to
cover larger areas such as
airports. The IEEE 802.11
wireless LAN standards
describe four radio link
interfaces that operate in the
2.4 GHz or 5 GHz unlicensed
radio bands. Of all the
different Wireless LAN
interfaces, 802.11b has the
most popular appeal due to
the low number of technical
problems and lower hardware
costs. It is the only standard
with widespread popularity
and focused on residential Figure 3(e): A Wi-Fi Network
users.

15
Table II. IEEE 802.11 WLAN Radio Link Interfaces & Highlights

16
3.4.2 WiMax

Wireless Local Area Networks (LANs)

based on the IEEE 802.11 or Wi-Fi
standards have been quite successful,
and therefore the focus in wireless is
moving towards the wide area. While
Wi-Fi dominates in the local area, the
wide area market is still very much
open. The cellular carriers got into this
market first with their 2.5G/3G data
services, but they were positioned to
offer essentially add-on to voice service.
The real competition to cellular data
services may come from emerging data-
oriented technology, WiMax. WiMax, Figure 3(f): How WiMax works

short for Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access, refers to any broadband wireless access network based on the IEEE 802.16
standards. Internationally, a European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) initiative called
HIPERMAN addresses the same area as WiMax/802.16 and shares some of the same technology.
WiMax includes fixed systems employing a point-to-multipoint architecture operating between 2GHz
and 66 GHz. WiMax based broadband wireless access (BWA) or, also known as wireless DSL, will
offer data rates between 512 Kbps and 1 Mbps. The key will be to deliver low-cost, indoor, user
installable premises devices that will not have to be aligned with the base station i.e., the antenna in the
premises equipment would be integrated with the radio modem. WiMax is designed to deliver a metro
area broadband wireless access (BWA) service. The idea behind BWA is to provide a fixed location
wireless Internet access service to compete with cable modems and DSL. WiMax systems could
support users at ranges up to 30 miles and is intended as the basis of a carrier service.

17
 Table III. Summary of WiMax (802.16) Radio Links

3.4.3 Wi-Fi vs. WiMax

Wi-Fi and WiMax represent wireless applications from two completely different perspectives. Wi-Fi is a
local network technology designed to add mobility to private wired LANs. WiMax, on the other hand, is
designed to deliver a metro area broadband wireless access (BWA) service. The idea behind BWA is to
provide a fixed location wireless Internet access service to compete with cable modems and DSL. While
Wi-Fi supports transmission ranges up to a few hundred feet, WiMax systems could support users at ranges
up to 30 miles. While Wi-Fi is targeted at the end user, WiMax is intended as the basis of a carrier service.
Besides the difference in transmission range, there are a number of improvements in the radio link
technology that separate WiMax from Wi-Fi. Table (IV) presents a comparison of Wi-Fi and WiMax
Technologies:

Table IV. Comparison of Wi-Fi & Wi-Max Technologies

18
3.5 Satellite
Satellite Internet access is ideal for rural Internet users who want broadband access. Satellite Internet
does not use telephone lines or cable systems, but instead uses a satellite dish for two way (upload and
download) data communications. Upload speed is about one-tenth of the 500kbps download speed.
Cable and DSL have higher download speeds, but satellite systems are about 10 times faster than a
normal modem. Two-way satellite
Internet consists of approximately a
two-foot by three-foot dish, two
modems (uplink and downlink), and
coaxial cables between dish and
modem. The key installation planning
requirement is a clear view to the
south, since the orbiting satellites are
over the equator area. And, like
satellite TV, trees and heavy rains can
affect reception of the Internet signals.
Two-way satellite Internet uses Figure 3(g): Broadband via Satellite
Internet Protocol (IP) multicasting
technology, which means that a maximum of 5,000 channels of communication can simultaneously be
served by a single satellite. IP multicasting sends data from one point to many points (at the same time)
in a compressed format. Compression reduces the size of the data and the bandwidth. Usual dial-up
land-based terrestrial systems have bandwidth limitations that prevent multicasting of this magnitude.
The satellite data downlink is just like the usual terrestrial link, except the satellite transmits the data to
your computer via the same dish that would allow you to receive a Pay-Per-View television program.

19
3.6 Comparative Analysis of Access Alternatives

The use of fast Internet connections has grown rapidly over the last few years. As more people buy
home computers and create home networks, the demand for broadband connections steadily increases.
Currently, Coaxial Cable (Cable Modems) and Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) dominate
the industry. While both of these technologies provide Internet connections that are many times faster
than a 56K modem, they still are not fast enough to support the integration of home services such as
digital television and Video-On-Demand.

Table V Comparison of Various Access Technologies

20
4. What is Broadband over Power Line (BPL)?

4.1 Definitions
Broadband over Power Line (BPL) is a technology that allows voice and Internet data to be transmitted
over utility power lines. BPL is also sometimes called Power-line Communications or PLC. Many
people use the terms PLC and BPL interchangeably. The FCC chose to use the term ―broadband over
power line‖ for consumer applications. In order to make use of BPL, subscribers use neither a phone,
cable nor a satellite connection. Instead, a subscriber installs a modem that plugs into an ordinary wall
outlet and pays a subscription fee similar to those paid for other types of Internet service.

On April 23, 2003, the FCC adopted a Notice of Inquiry (Inquiry), expressing enthusiasm about the
potential of the BPL technology to enable electric power lines to function as a third wire into the home,
and create competition with the copper telephone line and cable television coaxial cable line. The
Commission subsequently issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) in February 2004 based
on the comments received in response to the Inquiry. Both the Inquiry and NPRM discusses two types
of BPL: 1) Access BPL, and 2) In-house BPL.

Access BPL: - It is a technology that provides broadband access over medium voltage power lines.
Medium voltage power lines are the electric lines that you see at the top of electric utility poles beside
the roadways in areas that do not have underground electric service. Typically there are three electric
lines (called phases A, B and C), each carrying several thousand volts. One phase is usually enough to
power the houses on a residential street, two or even three phases can be joined together to power the
big electric motors in an industrial or commercial area. (You also may see a fourth wire that is the
ground wire.)

In-house BPL: - It is a home networking technology that uses the transmission standards developed
by the Home Plug Alliance 5. In-house BPL products can comply relatively easily with the radiated
emissions limits in Part 156 of the FCC‘s Rules, because the products connect directly with the low
voltage electric lines inside your home or office. In-home networking, while exciting and innovative, is
not a major policy concern for the FCC. What the FCC is really wrestling with is how to get broadband
Internet access over ―the last mile‖ to the home.

21
The Last Mile: - It is the portion of the network that connects end users, such as homes and business,
to high-speed services and the Internet. For residential broadband service customers who get cable
modem service, for example, the drop wire connecting the interface on a house to cable company‘s
network and the wire from the interface connecting to the wall plates in the home would all be part of
the last mile.

BPL modems: - They use silicon chips designed to send signals over electric power lines, much like
cable and DSL modems use silicon chips designed to send signals over cable and telephone lines.
Advances in processing power have enabled new BPL modem chips to overcome difficulties in
sending communications signals over the electric power lines.

Inductive couplers: - They are used to connect BPL modems to the medium voltage power lines. An
inductive coupler transfers the communications signal onto the power line by wrapping around the
line, without directly connecting to the line. A major challenge is how to deliver the signal from the
medium voltage line to the low voltage line that enters your house, because the transformer that lowers
the electric power from several thousand volts down to 220/110 is a potential barrier to the broadband
signal.

Router: - It is a device that acts as an interface between two networks and provides network
management functions.

Repeater: - It is a physical-layer hardware device used on a network to extend the length, topology, or
interconnectivity of the physical medium beyond that imposed by a single segment.

Concentrator/Injector: - It is a device that aggregates the end-user CPE data onto the MV (medium
voltage) grid. Injectors are tied to the Internet backbone via fiber of T1 lines and interface to the MV
power lines feeding the BPL service area.
Extractors: - It provides the interface between the MV power lines carrying BPL signals and the
households within the service area. BPL extractors are usually located at each LV distribution
transformer feeding a group of homes.

22
Carrier-Current System: - There are a number of types of BPL systems, using different approaches
and architecture. All are ―Carrier-Current‖ systems, a term used to describe systems that intentionally
conduct signals over electrical wiring or power lines.

Part 15 of the FCC’s Rules: - It governs interference issues between unlicensed devices, including
BPL modems, and other electronic devices. All electronic devices sold in the U.S. have to meet FCC
radio frequency (RF) emissions limits. When BPL modems are installed on underground electric lines,
the communications signal is shielded by the conduit and the earth and as a result is unlikely to cause
interference to other communications services. The FCC is more concerned about the interference
potential of BPL signals transmitted on exposed, overhead medium voltage power lines.

Munis: - These are municipally owned utilities that use the revenues from electricity sales toward
operation of the system and the improvement of services to the community. They answer to the
community and do not have to pay a dividend to shareholders.

Investor Owned Utilities (IOUs):- They are governed by a board of directors elected by stockholders.
IOUs exist to make a profit for their stockholders while serving the public.

Co-Op:- It is a third type of utility that is also known as electric membership corporations or
cooperatives, which are consumer-owned electric systems with customers primarily in rural areas. An
elected board of directors governs co-ops.

23
5. History of Communications over Electric Lines

Using electrical lines for communication is not new. Traditionally, the term ―power-line carrier‖, has
been used to refer to the use of electrical lines as a medium for communications. Electric companies
have deployed technologies such as SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) over power
lines to perform simple command/control functions at remote locations, such as substations, using the
electric transmissions lines as the conduit (Wikipedia). Electric company linesmen have also used the
transmission lines by tapping the wire with specialized radios for communicating with each other along
through the line. On a smaller scale, in-home intercom systems have been available for many years that
use the electric lines of the building to deliver audio data over the buildings electrical lines. Radio
Shack sells a Home Automation System (Radio Shack, 2005) where a timer-based controller, plugged
into a standard outlet, communicates over the home‘s electrical wires to appliance modules plugged
into other outlets to turn devices (e.g., lamps, fans, etc.) on or off. These historical uses of power-line
communication typically operated at low frequencies, generally below 600 kHz (OSHA, 2005).
Modulation techniques vary for traditional PLC, from FM to Wideband. In-house BPL4 is a home
networking technology that uses the transmission standards developed by the Home Plug Alliance 5.
In-house BPL products can comply relatively easily with the radiated emissions limits in Part 156 of
the FCC‘s Rules, because the products connect directly with the low voltage electric lines inside your
home or office. In-home networking, while exciting and innovative, is not a major policy concern for
the FCC. What the FCC is really wrestling with is how to get broadband Internet access over ―the last
mile‖ to the home. The Last Mile is the portion of the network that connects end users, such as homes
and business, to high-speed services and the Internet. For residential broadband service customers who
get cable modem service, for example, the drop wire connecting the interface on a house to cable
company‘s network and the wire from the interface connecting to the wall plates in the home would all
be part of the last mile. BPL modems use silicon chips designed to send signals over electric power
lines, much like cable and DSL modems use silicon chips designed to send signals over cable and
telephone lines. Advances in processing power have enabled new BPL modem chips to overcome
difficulties in sending communications signals over the electric power lines. Inductive couplers are
used to connect BPL modems to the medium voltage power lines. An inductive coupler transfers the
communications signal onto the power line by wrapping around the line, without directly connecting to
the line. A major challenge is how to deliver the signal from the medium voltage line to the low
voltage line that enters your house, because the transformer that lowers the electric power from several
thousand volts down to 220/110 is a potential barrier to the broadband signal. Router is a device that

24
acts as an interface between two networks and provides network management functions. Repeater is a
physical-layer hardware device used on a network to extend the length, topology, or interconnectivity
of the physical medium beyond that imposed by a single segment. Concentrator/Injector is a device
that aggregates the end-user CPE data onto the MV (medium voltage) grid. Injectors are tied to the
Internet backbone via fiber of T1 lines and interface to the MV power lines feeding the BPL service
area. Extractors provide the interface between the MV power lines carrying BPL signals and the
households within the service area. BPL extractors are usually located at each LV distribution
transformer feeding a group of homes. Carrier-Current System: There are a number of types of BPL
systems, using different approaches and architecture. All are ―Carrier-Current‖ systems, a term used to
describe systems that intentionally conduct signals over electrical wiring or power lines. Part 15 of the
FCC‘s Rules governs interference issues between unlicensed devices, including BPL modems, and
other electronic devices. All electronic devices sold in the U.S. have to meet FCC radio frequency (RF)
emissions limits. When BPL modems are installed on underground electric lines, the communications
signal is shielded by the conduit and the earth and as a result is unlikely to cause interference to other
communications services. The FCC is more concerned about the interference potential of BPL signals
transmitted on exposed, overhead medium voltage power lines. Munis are municipally owned utilities
that use the revenues from electricity sales toward operation of the system and the improvement of
services to the community. They answer to the community and do not have to pay a dividend to
shareholders. Investor Owned Utilities (IOUs) are governed by a board of directors elected by
stockholders. IOUs exist to make a profit for their stockholders while serving the public. Co-Op is a
third type of utility that is also known as electric membership corporations or cooperatives, which are
consumer-owned electric systems with customers primarily in rural areas. An elected board of
directors governs co-ops.

25
6. BPL Studies

A number of private corporations, governments, and other organizations have undertaken studies of the
effects of BPL technology. This section provides a non-exhaustive overview of several major studies
and findings.

6.1.1 NTIA Phase I Study

The NTIA concluded a Phase I study of BPL and completed, but not released, a Phase II study in
January 2006. Phase I studied interference risks to radio reception in the immediate vicinity of BPL
and made mitigating recommendations to the FCC. The NTIA also summarized technical and
operating parameters of Federal Government frequency assignments in the 1.7-80 MHz range in the
Phase I report. This information was intended to help operators of BPL systems in the development of
BPL frequency plans. The NTIA then defined representative radio systems for consideration in
interference analyses: (1) a land vehicular receiver; (2) a ship borne receiver; (3) a receiver using a roof
top antenna (e.g., a base or fixed-service station); and (4) an aircraft receiver in flight. Federal
communications require protection on frequencies amounting to about 5.4% of the 1.7-80 MHz
frequency range. The NTIA performed measurements at three different BPL deployment sites in order
to characterize the BPL fundamental emissions. The NTIA measurements indicated that the BPL
electric field does not generally decay monotonically with distance from the BPL source as the
measurement antenna was positioned near to and moving along the length of the power line. As the
measurement antenna was moved away from the BPL energized power line, the radiated field strength
decreased with increasing distance, but the decrease was not always monotonic. That is a number of
local peaks were observed at some locations. In some cases, the BPL signal was observed to decay
with distance away from the power line at a rate slower than would be predicted by space wave loss
from a point source. Present at one measurement location where a large number of BPL devices were
deployed on multiple three-phase and single-phase MV power lines, appreciable BPL signal levels
(i.e., at least 5 dB higher than ambient noise) were observed beyond 500 meters from the nearest BPL
energized power lines. Finally, NTIA‘s measurements show that the radiated power from the BPL
energized power lines was consistently higher when the measurement antenna was placed at a greater
height (e.g., 10 meter vs. 2 meter). Based on the results of these tests, the NTIA recommended that the
FCC refine Part 15 compliance measurement guidelines to ensure that the peak field strength of any
unintentional BPL emissions is measured.
26
The NTIA suggested several means by which BPL interference can be prevented or eliminated should
it occur. Mandatory registration of certain parameters of planned and deployed BPL systems to enable
radio operators to advise BPL operators of anticipated interference problems and suspected actual
interference; thus, registration could substantially facilitate prevention and mitigation of interference.
The NTIA also recommended that BPL devices should be capable of frequency agility (notching
and/or retuning) and power reduction for elimination of interference. Further, the NTIA recommended
that BPL developers consider several interference prevention and mitigation measures, including: (1)
routine use of the minimum output power needed from each BPL device; (2) avoidance of locally used
radio frequencies; (3) differential-mode signal injection oriented to minimize radiation; (4) use of
filters and terminations to extinguish BPL signals on power lines where they are not needed; and (5)
judicious choice of BPL signal frequencies to decrease radiation.

6.1.2 BBC Studies

The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) employs a staff of Research & Development engineers,
scientists, and mathematicians for the purpose of keeping BBC at the forefront of technology. During
the period from 1999 to 2005, the BBC produced a series of White Papers covering various aspects of
BPL. The BBC was early to identify BPL as a technology that could support censorship by being
employed to keep unwanted foreign shortwave signals from reaching citizens in various parts of the
world.

In October 1999, the BBC produced a study titled: ―Protection of ‗sensitive‘ receiving sites, xviii‖
which included aeronautical/marine safety, monitoring, surveillance, and radio astronomy. The study
concluded that the size of an ―exclusion zone‖ (e.g., BPL-free area) must be chosen by the operators of
the exclusion zones themselves. It identified that a 50-100 km exclusion zone may be required in some
cases. The study concluded that ground wave propagation presents the greatest threat to sensitive
receiving sites but this risk could be controlled by choosing a sufficiently large exclusion zone. The
study also concluded that the threat of sky-wave interference from wide-spread deployment of BPL
systems has no apparent solution. In July 2000, a BBC study titled ―The Threat to New Radio Systems
from Distributed Wired-Communication Installations‖ xix concluded that many radio users stand to
suffer serious disruption of their services if BPL communications systems were allowed to be widely
deployed. The BBC stated that the problem ―has an international dimension‖ because interference can
be caused at very considerable distances from the source and any ―local‖ permission to ‗use‘ a part of
the HF band for wired systems would deny it to others elsewhere for licensed radio. The BBC also said

27
that BPL will hamper subsequent re-planning of the HF band for radio users and new radio systems. A
BBC research and development study published in June 2005, titled ―Co-existence of Power Line
Telecommunications and Radio Services – a possibility?‖ xx, concluded that if HF bands are manually
notched that both cost and delay in processing complaints is a concern. However, the BBC postulated
that a system employing dynamic notching based on voltages on the power lines during quiet periods
could be used to distinguish the parts of the spectrum that should not be used by BPL. Unfortunately,
the study concluded that dynamic notches may not be deep enough to satisfy the requirements of
amateur radio and that some permanent frequency notches may be needed. BBC recommended that the
BPL industry needs to resolve this through voluntary standards before major deployments of the
technology occurs. It was noted that the World Radio Conference needs the flexibility to be able to
adjust world frequency allocation tables and thus permanent notches might not provide sufficient
flexibility for that purpose.

Currently, the BBC is developing a BPL modem that makes use of the fact that the short-wave
frequencies for broadcast radio change throughout the day as ionospheric conditions dictate. The BBC
modem detects which frequency bands are in use at any one time - and filters them out. This
technology is not part of any BPL system currently in trial deployment.

6.1.3 Manassas, Virginia Study

In July 2006 an FCC accredited testing laboratory (Product Safety Engineering, Inc.) produced a report
on the BPL system deployed by the city of Manassas, Virginia. The testing was conducted in response
to a complaint filed with the FCC by several local American Radio Relay League (ARRL) radio
operators who asserted that the BPL system is generating unlawful interference. Relevant portions of
the ANSI C63.4-2003 ―American National Standard for Methods of Measurement of Radio-Noise
Emissions from Low-Voltage Electrical and Electronic Equipment in the Range of 9 kHz to 40 GHz‖
were employed by the testing laboratory representatives. In addition to the laboratory testing activities,
Main.Net (the manufacturer of the Manassas BPL system) set the power level for overhead equipment
at 4; the equipment range being 1-7 with 7 being the highest. Additionally, coupling adjustments and
other alignments to optimize signal propagation and minimize signal leakage were made by Main.Net.
The laboratory testing included measurements at five overhead and five underground locations, which
included both low and medium voltage lines. The test data indicated compliance with FCC Part 15
regulations with frequency notching turned off. With notch filters turned on, the system rendered
attenuation of 29.7 dB to 31 dB below FCC Part 15 limits.

28
Regretfully, ARRL representatives were unavailable to participate with PSE in evaluating the
Equipment under Test (EUT). Subsequently, ARRL operators have voiced criticism regarding the test
procedures and results documented by PSE. The ARRL operators have again called upon the FCC to
shut down the Manassas BPL system because of interference to amateur radio frequencies.
Additionally, ARRL has called upon the FCC to conduct unannounced independent testing of the
Manassas BPL system. The resolution of these kinds of BPL testing issues for the early adopters of the
technology will benefit all of the parties involved.

6.1.4 ARRL Study

The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) sponsored a study xxi, published by MetaVox
Incorporated in March of 2004, of BPL systems located in the vicinities of both Allentown,
Pennsylvania and Manassas, Virginia. This was prior to the FCC Report and Order on BPL issued in
October 2004. The FCC testing standards require that frequencies below 30 MHz measurements
should not be made in the near field. More specifically, as stated on page 15, measurement results from
closer than 30 meters must be extrapolated for compliance with the Part 15 rules.

In comments to the FCC dated July 7, 2003, the ARRL study observed that ―Making measurements at
distances closer than 30 meters and extrapolating at 40 dB/decade can easily result in an
underestimation of the actual maximum field at 30 meters distance, by over 20 dB in some cases.‖
Furthermore, ―the ARRL analysis data for the large radiator systems of overhead power lines resulted
in no cases approaching 40 dB per distance decade. The ARRL analysis yields the extrapolation factor
of 15 dB per distance decade for the 3 to 30 meter distance ratio for a typical case on 14 MHz with the
strongest magnetic field at 3 meters in distance from the radiator system. Another case on 3.5 MHz
yielded the factor of 24 dB per distance decade.‖ Measurements made by MetaVox for the ARRL also
suggested that the 40 dB/decade extrapolation factor may not be suitable for use in compliance testing
on BPL systems.

The study also documented difficulties that were encountered in making measurements at the FCC
specified measurement distance of 10 meters and elaborated that controversies in methods for
extrapolation of data for distance between antenna position and conductors of the system make
comparison with the FCC limits difficult.

29
6.1.5 IEEE Report on USA Broadband Networking

In April 2005, the IEEE Committee on Communications and Information Policy (CCIP) published a
white paper titled, ―Providing Ubiquitous Gigabit Networks in The United States, xxii‖ which
advocates that to remain competitive the US needs ―gigabit-per-second (Gb/s)‖ networks instead of
―broadband‖ networks. The IEEE recommended the creation of a new generation of broadband wired
and wireless networks as a national priority, to be facilitated by legislative and regulatory action, and
achieved through mobilization of resources by users and incumbent suppliers alike. The CCIP noted
that the existing US infrastructure includes broadband upgrades to copper local loops (for example,
DSL and T-1s), data modems and cable networks, and fixed and mobile broadband wireless systems.
The CCIP also noted that all of the aforementioned facilities are lower in cost, but also lower in
capability, than optical fiber. Even considering that rapid technological progress is being made across
the board, the fact remains that wire-based alternatives cannot reach the Gb/s speeds future
applications will require. The paper discusses that gigabit networks, in contrast to current broadband
networks, provide symmetric data transport capable of gigabit-per-second (Gb/s) speeds and beyond.
The IEEE paper noted that the FCC used the terms, ―advanced telecommunications capability and
advanced services‖ to describe broadband services and facilities with an upstream (customer-to-
provider) and downstream (provider-to-customer) transmission speed of more than 200 kilobits per
second (kbps).‖ The IEEE asserted that ―this definition is clearly inadequate.‖ Further, the IEEE
identified that the FCC concludes, ―…that advanced telecommunications capability is indeed being
deployed on a reasonable and timely basis to all Americans.‖ The IEEE white paper ―emphatically‖
rejected this FCC conclusion. The IEEE paper concluded that ―on the contrary, broadband deployment
in the United States seriously lags in satisfying the needs of the world‘s strongest economy.‖ The IEEE
asserts that the US economy is based on knowledge — its creation, dissemination, and application. A
knowledge economy uniquely creates new wealth through invention and innovation. Development
depends on research that depends on access to the entire body of existing knowledge and the rapid
exchange of new knowledge throughout the economy and the society. Modern research typically
retrieves, creates and exchanges massive information files at gigabit rates. After the research, many
follow-on functions benefit from gigabit networks, including computer-aided design; integration of
design, manufacturing, sales, and distribution; and collaboration among all through high quality video
conferencing. Economies of scale occur through fiber, in part because the cost of transporting one
more unit of use (that is, its marginal cost) becomes very small by virtue of its huge capacity. For

30
example, future access to a menu of 100 simultaneous video channels at the high definition (HD)
digital rate of 20 Mb/s per channel for a diverse audience of end users requires 2 Gb/s capacity. The
infrastructure necessary to support facile interaction among the members themselves of such a broad
audience demands even greater capacity ― a capacity easily available through fiber. Data, music, and
voice can be added, once such an infrastructure is deployed because these elements have relatively
small bandwidth requirements.

A further example of the future requirements for Gb/s networks can be observed from the research and
development efforts underway on Internet2. Internet2 is a US based high-speed network consortium of
over 200 university, commercial, and government partners. The main purpose of Internet2 is to
develop and deploy advanced network applications and technologies, which facilitate education,
research and non-commercial applications, using multicasting, digital libraries, virtual laboratories, etc.
All of these applications require high-speed transmission of large amounts of data, highly enhancing
collaboration and information-sharing among members. Internet was built using fiber-optic
transmission technology with speeds typically ranging from 2 Gb/s – 10 Gb/s symmetrical.
Advancements are being made with BPL technologies that are resulting in higher theoretical and
practical speed limits being achieved. Reports of futuristic BPL systems supporting speeds of 1 Gb/s
have been published. Nevertheless, the IEEE report raises important questions about whether or not a
BPL infrastructure could support Internet application requirements

31
7. Overview of Grid Structure and Topology

While the details of electric power grid structures and topologies differ from country to country, a
power grid basically consists of power plants or generators, transmission substations, transmission
lines, power substations with transformers to change voltage levels, and distribution lines that
collectively generate and carry the electricity from power plants all the way to wall plugs. Power plants
are basically spinning electricity generators. Spinning can be performed by a steam turbine, and steam
can be created by burning fossil fuel or from a nuclear reactor. A generator‘s output is three-phase
alternating current (AC) power at voltage levels in the thousands. The three single phases are
synchronized and offset by 120 degrees. Three-phase current is chosen because single phase AC goes
through a full cycle (from zero to peak to zero to other peak and back to zero) at the line rate, which is
60 times per second in the US and 50 in the other parts of the world. With three synchronized phases,
on the other hand, one of the three phases is nearing a peak at any given instant. More phases could be
used, but this implies more wires and higher cost; three seems to be a good compromise between cost
and performance. Power P, transferred over lines and delivered to customers, is equal to the product of
voltage V and current I (P = IV). Power loss in the line grows with the square of the current, that is, P
loss = R line • I2, where R line is the line resistance and depends on the line material and increases with
the length of the line. For a given generated P and a given R line, to reduce P loss, current I must be
made as small as possible. This means that the line voltage must be made as large as possible,
especially for long-distance transmissions. Transmission substations located next to power plants use
large transformers to step up generator output from thousands of volts to hundreds of thousands of
volts (typically between 155,000 and 765,000 volts), thus allowing megawatts of power transmission
over distances of 300 miles or more. At power substations, voltages are stepped down and lines are
branched out to cover larger areas. This is performed successively, transforming and branching out
from extremely high voltage (EHV, typically 155 to 765 kV) to high voltage (HV, typically 45 to 155
kV), and then from HV to medium voltage (MV, typically 2 to 45 kV), and finally from MV to low
voltage (LV, typically 100 to 600 V) for delivery to homes or businesses.

32
Figure 7(a): Basic Architecture of Power Generation & Distribution

33
The result is a tree-structured power distribution hierarchy. Basically, EHV and HV are used to
transmit AC electric power, and MV and LV are used to distribute it. See Figure 2.

Figure 7(b): From Generation to consumption; Power Grid hierarchy

The structures needed to support EHV and HV lines are typically tall, massive towers. MV and LV
lines, on the other hand, are typically mounted on street poles. In the US, street poles are typically 10
meters high, located 50 meters apart, and support three wires that carry the three separate phases, plus
a neutral (possibly grounded) wire. A network of MV lines is usually referred to as the primary
distribution; a network of LV lines is the secondary distribution. In the US, at the primary distribution
level, most power lines are aerial or overhead. At the secondary distribution level, particularly in newer
urban areas, most lines run underground. Overhead lines are more susceptible than underground lines
to producing radiation interference and to picking up interference. But underground lines are used less
due to the prohibitive cost of burying cables. In the US, MV lines typically run between 15 and 50 km.
As mentioned, levels and structures of branching, network architectures, and voltage levels vary from
country to country. For instance, in the US, typically fewer than a dozen homes are served by a single
MV/LV transformer, whereas in Japan this number is about 30 and in Europe it is several hundred.
This affects not only the communications characteristics, but also the economic viability of a BPL
system. (BPL business models are examined later in this paper.) Altering the Power Grid to Allow
BPL EHV and HV lines are usually too noisy to transmit broadband communications signals; only MV
and LV lines are used for BPL. MV lines are usually less branched than LV lines, making point-to-

34
point connections possible. MV networks allow communication over longer distances because of their
weaker signal attenuation and lower noise level. To use power lines for broadband communications,
the broadband signal must be injected into and extracted from the lines through couplers. LV couplers
may be capacitive or inductive, depending on distribution system topology, performance requirements,
and cost. In capacitive coupling, a capacitor is responsible for the actual coupling, and the signal is
modulated onto the network‘s voltage waveform. In inductive coupling, an inductor is used to couple
the signal onto the network‘s current waveform. Inductive couplers are known to be rather lossy, but
since they require no physical connection to the network, they are safer to install on energized lines
than capacitive couplers. MV couplers are typically inductive. It is important that couplers be easy-to-
install passive devices with low failure rates that can be used outdoors and installed on energized lines.

Line noise, limitations on the amount of signal power that can be injected into power lines without
causing unacceptable interference for other spectrum users, and signal attenuation as the signal
traverses the line make it necessary to regenerate or repeat the signal periodically. This can be done by
using MV couplers to couple the broadband signal off of the MV line so that it can be regenerated if
necessary and amplified before being fed back onto the MV line through another coupler. Repeaters,
on the other hand, could add latency (especially if the signal is regenerated) and could also create
single points of failure, because a single bad repeater can bring down an entire communications line.
Transformers, which are intended to pass low frequencies near 50 or 60 Hz, appear as open circuits for
the passage of higher frequency signals and typically attenuate and distort the weak broadband signal
beyond reconstruction and usability. This implies that BPL signals going between MV and LV lines
need to bypass the transformers. Typically, the bypass box can also have built-in repeating
functionality at a small incremental cost. The recent capability to effectively and safely bypass
transformers has been instrumental to the success and deployment of BPL. A point-of-presence (POP)
is needed to connect the BPL network to a backhaul network such as the Internet, a public switched
telephone network (PSTN), or a mobile network. The connection is made through a backhaul network
box coupled to an MV distribution line, typically next to a power substation where multiple MV lines
are connected. The backhaul network box is typically a bidirectional device that converts data formats,
aggregates and concentrates uplink data streams, provides routing functionality, helps allocate
bandwidth and resources, generates billing and charging data, and provides various backhaul Ethernet
interfaces to fiber optic or wireless connections. Figure 3 illustrates a typical BPL architecture.

35
 Figure 7(c): A typical BPL Architecture

A BPL network, like any other communications network, also requires a network management system
(NMS) or operations support system (OSS) to observe and manage network resources and perform
billing and other back-end tasks.

36
8. BPL Deployment Options

The MV and LV line portions of the BPL are usually referred to as the access BPL, while the portion
inside a home or office using the inside wiring is called the in-house BPL. BPL can be deployed either
as end-to-end BPL or as hybrid BPL, using one of the three options illustrated in Figure 4. An end-to-
end BPL system uses both access BPL and in-house BPL, i.e., power lines are used all the way from
the power substation to the end user. Two of the three BPL deployment options involve the access BPL
portion of an end-to-end system: the BPL signal can either (1) bypass the MV/LV transformer (as does
CURRENT Technologies® equipment) or (2) go through the transformer (as does Main Net
Communications equipment).

Figure 8(a): BPL Deployment Options

The third BPL deployment option is hybrid BPL. In this option, typically only the MV lines are used,
and a fixed wireless network replaces the LV lines and in-house BPL (Amperion™ takes this
approach). In hybrid BPL, the bypass box does not couple the broadband signal to/from the LV line
but converts it to/from a wireless format and delivers it to the wireless access point (AP) also located
on the pole. For end-to-end BPL, bypass boxes and LV couplers must be installed on all LV lines, and
in-house BPL modems are required. For hybrid BPL, bypass boxes with wireless conversion boards,
wireless APs, and existing standard wireless user modems are required, but LV transformer bypasses
and LV couplers are not. Also associated with hybrid BPL are the usual existing issues regarding
wireless performance in unlicensed spectrum and the current state of wireless quality of service (QoS),
security.
37
9. How BPL Works

At a high-level, a Power line Telecom network consists of three key segments, the backbone, the
middle mile, and the last mile as shown below in Figure:

Figure 9(a): An Overview of BPL System

The BPL vendors are primarily seeking to address the ―last mile‖ segment all the way into ―the home‖
market. From the end user‘s perspective, BPL technology works by sending high-speed data along
medium or low voltage power lines into the customer‘s home. The signal traverses the network over
medium and low voltage lines either through the transformers or by-passes the transformer using
bridges or couplers. The technology transports data, voice and video at broadband speeds to the end-
user‘s connection. The user only needs to plug an electrical cord from the ―BPL modem‖ into any
electrical outlet then plug an Ethernet or USB cable into the Ethernet card or USB interface on their
PC. Any Internet Service Provider (ISP) can interface with the BPL network and provide high speed
Internet access. The data signal can also interconnect with wireless, fiber or other media for backhaul
and last mile completion. The actual hardware used for the deployment varies by manufacturer but

38
typically feature some common characteristics. By combining the technological principles of radio,
wireless networking, and modems, developers have created a way to send data over power lines and
into homes at speeds equivalent to those of DSL and cable. By modifying the current power grids with
specialized equipment, the BPL developers could partner with power companies and Internet service
providers (ISPs) to bring broadband to everyone with access to electricity. The Internet is a huge
network of networks that are connected through cables, computers, and wired and wireless devices
worldwide. Typically, large ISPs lease fiber-optic lines from the phone company to carry the data
around the Internet and eventually to another medium (phone, DSL or cable line) and into the homes.
Trillions of bytes of data a day are transferred on fiber optic lines because they are a stable way to
transmit data without interfering with other types of transmissions.

The idea of using AC (alternating current) power to transfer data is not new. By bundling radio
frequency (RF) energy on the same line with an electric current, data can be transmitted without the
need for a separate data line. Because the electric current and RF vibrate at different frequencies, the
two don‘t interfere with each other. Electric companies have used this technology for years to monitor
the performance of power grids. There are even networking solutions available today that transfer data
using the electrical wiring in a home or business. But this data is fairly simple and the transmission
speed is relatively slow. There are several different approaches to overcoming the hurdles presented
when transmitting data through power lines. The power lines are just one component of electric
companies' power grids. In addition to lines, power grids use generators, substations, transformers and
other distributors that carry electricity from the power plant all the way to a plug in the wall. When
power leaves the power plant, it hits a transmission substation and is then distributed to high voltage
transmission lines. When transmitting broadband, these high-voltage lines represent the first hurdle.

39
 Figure 3: An Overview of Power Line System

The power flowing down high-voltage lines is between 155,000 to 765,000 volts. That amount of
power is unsuitable for data transmission. It's too "noisy." Both electricity and the RF used to transmit
data vibrate at certain frequencies. In order for data to transmit cleanly from point to point, it must
have a dedicated band of the radio spectrum at which to vibrate without interference from other
sources. Hundreds of thousands of volts of electricity don't vibrate at a consistent frequency. That
amount of power jumps all over the spectrum. As it spikes and hums along, it creates all kinds of
interference. If it spikes at a frequency that is the same as the RF used to transmit data, then it will
cancel out that signal and the data transmission will be dropped or damaged en route. BPL bypasses
this problem by avoiding high-voltage power lines all together. The system drops the data off of
traditional fiber-optic lines downstream, onto the much more manageable 7,200 volts of medium-
voltage power lines. Once dropped onto the medium-voltage lines, the data can only travel so far
before it degrades. To counter this, special devices are installed on the lines to act as repeaters. The
repeaters take in the data and repeat it in a new transmission, amplifying it for the next leg of the
journey. In one model of BPL, two other devices ride power poles to distribute Internet traffic. The
Coupler allows the data on the line to bypass transformers, and the Bridge, a device that facilitates
carrying the signal into the homes.
40
The transformer's job is to reduce the 7,200 volts down to the 240-volt standard that makes up normal
household electrical service. There is no way for low-power data signals to pass through a transformer,
so you need a coupler to provide a data path around the transformer. With the coupler, data can move
easily from the 7,200-volt line to the 240-volt line and into the house without any degradation. The last
mile is the final step that carries Internet into the subscriber's home or office.

In the various approaches to last-mile solutions for BPL, some companies carry the signal in with the
electricity on the power line, while others put wireless links on the poles and send the data wirelessly
into homes. The Bridge facilitates both. The signal is received by a power line modem that plugs into
the wall. The modem sends the signal to your computer. BPL modems use silicon chipsets specially
designed to handle the work load of pulling data out of an electric current. Using specially developed
modulation techniques and adaptive algorithms, BPL modems are capable of handling power line noise
on a wide spectrum. As shown in Figure 4.2.3, a BPL modem is plug and play and is roughly the size
of a common power adapter. It plugs into a common wall socket, and an Ethernet cable running to your
computer finishes the connection. Wireless versions are also available.

Figure 9(c): A BPL MODEM

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10. Industry Structure – Key Enabling Partners
Electric utilities may not necessarily want to enter the communications business. In fact, they may
want to leave that part of BPL to a partner, perhaps an ISP, a Competitive Local Exchange Carrier
(CLEC), or a long distance company looking for an alternative last mile path to their customers.
Current focus of most electric utilities is using BPL for an intelligent electric distribution grid. Power
companies have often employed low-speed power line communication for their own internal use—to
monitor and control equipment in the power grid. This could result in lower electric power costs, less
pollution and greater reliability and security, essentially, a more intelligent electric power grid. The
Broadband services enabling partners may be in one or more of the delivery segments (Figure 5.1.1) or
roles:

The last mile: This is the portion of the network that connects end users, such as homes and business,
to high-speed services and the Internet. For residential broadband service customers who get cable
modem service, for example, the drop wire connecting the interface on a house to cable company‘s
network and the wire from the interface connecting to the wall plates in the home would all be part of
the last mile.

The middle mile: This portion of the network consists of high-speed fiber backbones and other
―middle-mile pipes‖ that connect computers to networks, connect those networks into the complex that
constitutes the Internet, and deliver traffic among ISPs, content providers, online service companies,
and other customers.

Internet service providers (ISPs): These are companies that receive and translate internet bound data
and help customers obtain online information from the Internet. Content providers: This part of
broadband consists of companies that provide information, goods, and services available to consumers
through the Internet. These characteristics and distinctions are based on network functionality and the
fact that each of these categories has its own economic properties with distinct regulatory issues.
Currently there is a dearth of competition in the provision of middle -mile services, which means
existing providers can discriminate against their customers. Content providers, on the other hand, raise
competitive issues in terms of their ability or willingness to engage in exclusive contracts for the
carrying of their content, as well as posing challenges in the area of consumer protection and free
speech. The last mile and the middle mile are most relevant because they relate to the wires portion of
the electricity network, the industry‘s easiest entry into the broadband industry.

42
 Figure 10(a): Industry Structure – Key Enabling Partners

A partnership between a utility and an external third party service provider offers strategic value as
each player can focus on what it does best. Utilities have operated as monopolies and, while good at
building infrastructure they lack experience in competitive environment. On the other hand, ISPs
operate in a very competitive environment. The key success factors include effectively marketing to
customers, cost effective customer acquisition and a high quality customer service. Current broadband
environment is expected to become very competitive with both cable modem providers and DSL
providers aggressively marketing their services and other alternate providers looking at entering the
market. Customer service appears to be a key differentiator with most of the consumers. A partnership
with an ISP (or a local CLEC) might leverage key strengths: Then utility could focus on network
management while the ISP could focus on marketing. The opportunity to work together could also
involve shared investment

43
11) Impetus for BPL as an Access Technology
Most stakeholders in BPL industry suggest that BPL could offer a number of significant benefits in the
delivery of broadband services to homes and businesses. A number of BPL proponents submit that this
technology could increase the availability of broadband and improve the competitiveness of the
broadband services market. Many players believe that Access BPL could facilitate the ubiquitous
availability of broadband services and bring valuable new services to consumers, stimulate economic
activity, improve national productivity, and advance economic opportunity for the American public.
The ubiquitous nature of BPL is expected to create the opportunity for providing new and innovative
services to virtually any location serviced with electric outlets. The National Telecommunications and
Information Administration (NTIA) states that BPL holds great promise as a new source of innovation
and competition in the broadband marketplace. It believes that BPL has the potential to open new
avenues of Internet access, to enable new and expanded services for utility companies, and to create a
new platform for further advances in communications technology.

11.1.1 Potential Benefits

Benefits to Service Providers

From a service provider‘s point of view, BPL could provide large cost savings. The first, and by far the
most important, factor is that the transmission medium, i.e., the power lines, is already in place. There
is no need to purchase spectrum or to hang, dig, or lay new wires, because most of the required
infrastructure already exists. There is also no need for the difficult, expensive, and time-consuming site
acquisition, permitting, and licensing tasks needed for a typical deployment. Given the omnipresence
of power lines, BPL also holds the promise of being able to provide genuinely ubiquitous coverage.
These factors imply potential cost and time savings that could level the BPL deployment playing field
a bit more compared with DSL and cable, both of which have significant deployment head starts.

Benefits to Electric Utilities

 For the electric utility companies, BPL‘s benefits are twofold:

 It can create new sources of revenue from an existing investment, and

 It can help create a smart grid for the utility companies that would enable
enhanced utility applications such as:

44
  System monitoring from any point on the electric grid.

 Load shifting and balancing.

 Optimized asset utilization and management.

 Performance of preventive maintenance and improvement of service reliability and Customer

satisfaction by avoiding power outages and emergencies

 Advanced supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)

 Fault detection, fault analysis, and adaptive self-healing.

 Automatic outage detection, restoration detection, and verification.

 BPL-enabled electricity meters that enable time-of-day and real-time pricing through
automated meter reading (AMR) with remote disconnect (and reconnect) and theft detection.

 Real-time video surveillance of the sensitive national power infrastructure (e.g., grid and
substations)

Benefits to End Users

 End users can benefit from BPL deployment because:

 BPL could create competition and thus help reduce end-user service prices.

 In some places, BPL may be the only viable choice (e.g., in rural areas), although satellite
based service may also be of interest in these areas.

 BPL could be used for smart appliances, connected and controlled through a PC and remotely.
While these devices could possibly be controlled through a DSL or a cable modem connection,
BPL may provide a more integrated (neater) solution.

 BPL may provide a more ubiquitous and reliable service coverage area. The explosive growth
of the Internet and the recent deregulation of telecommunications in the US and Europe have
led to the renewed interest in BPL. Extensive research on BPL channel modeling and a
considerable amount of interference analysis have taken place. Concurrently, there have been a
large number of field trials and measurements to validate various models, along with advances
in signal processing such as the newer adaptive modulation and coding techniques and faster,

45
 cheaper processors and electronics. Nonetheless, despite its renewed attractiveness, BPL must
overcome implementation challenges as well as regulatory concerns before it can become a
viable avenue of broadband access. The next sections of this paper examine in more detail the
key implementation challenges and regulatory concerns facing BPL.

11.1.2 Homeland Security and Network Benefits

In the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks, government officials and security experts have identified
the need for the United States to possess communications network redundancy. By providing a third
broadband technology, the nation would gain some of that needed redundancy. Also, with the development
of voice-over-internet protocol (VoIP) there would be a network redundancy for voice communications as
well.
The second benefit is the ability of BPL technology to improve the provision of electric power service and
therefore advance homeland security. The BPL technology could also be used to assist the utility
companies by adding intelligent capabilities to the electric grid, thereby improving efficiency in activities
such as energy management, power outage notification and automated meter reading. As per United Power
Line Council (UPLC), Access BPL would allow electric utilities to better monitor and control electric
system operations and thereby improve the reliability of their service and reduce costs to consumers. Under
the Mission Essential Voluntary Assets (MEVA) guidelines, utilities are responsible for ensuring secure
infrastructure power for federal facilities, including military bases, and state, city and local government.
BPL will also enhance security and enable other security applications such as video surveillance consistent
with the MEVA guidelines.

11.1.3 Consumer Benefits

The supporters of BPL expect it to improve the competitiveness of the market for broadband services.
It offers the long sought third wire (other two being telephone and cable) for last-mile delivery of
broadband communication services to residences and small businesses. The United Power Line
Council (UPLC) believes that BPL offers a unique opportunity in the broadband marketplace and that
there is widespread interest in BPL among utilities. In the areas already served by other broadband
providers, BPL will increase competition, which in turn will bring better service and lower prices for
consumers.

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12. Implementation Challenges

The Nature of the Power Grid The most obvious challenges to implementing BPL arise from the fact
that power line grids were originally developed to transmit electrical power (high voltage AC at low
frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz) from a small number of sources (the generators) to a large number of sinks
(the end customers).

Power grids were neither designed nor devised for communications purposes. Even though the interest
in using power lines for communications is not new, their early use for data transmission was mainly
for simple, low-data-rate (a few kilobits per second) remote monitoring and meter reading applications
at a low frequency (typically only up to a few hundred kilohertz). The main challenges to BPL arising
from the nature of the power grid have been the extremely harsh, unpredictable, time-and-location-
variable characteristics of the power line channel, and potential interference concerns (in both
directions) . Because power lines are not twisted and have no shielding, they can produce
electromagnetic radiation that is easily detected by radio receivers. For the same reasons, power lines
can also easily pick up nearby radio frequency signals. Thus, addressing mutual interference is not
only a challenge, but becomes a valid regulatory concern. A related challenge facing BPL centers
around data sensitivity. To prevent interception of sensitive data by unintended and unauthorized
receivers, data encryption is a must. The fact that the power line grid is a shared medium and BPL is a
contention-based system creates additional challenges. Because all users share the available channel
capacity or bandwidth, as the number of users goes up, per-user throughput goes down. In the US,
there are typically 50 homes per substation. An average available throughput of 50 Mbps implies
roughly an average of 1 Mbps per user, a speed on par with the current average speeds delivered by
DSL or cable modem. However, BPL is thought to be distance limited, similar to DSL. Thus, the
distance between the customer‘s home and the supplying substation is a factor in the bit rate available
to the user. Channel Characteristics and Capacity.

12.1.1 Power Line Noise

In general, a power line channel is a very harsh and noisy transmission medium. The noise on the line
is typically time, location, and frequency dependent. Time-variable behavior is due mainly to the
dynamically changing nature of the load connected to the power lines. Line branching, the number and
types of branches, the lengths of line segments, the types of power line equipment connected (such as
capacitor banks and transformers), and the kinds of loads connected all affect channel characteristics.
Furthermore, impedance mismatches caused by un terminated stubs and line branches cause signal
47
reflections and create a frequency-dependent fading channel, much like the multi paths typically seen
in mobile wireless communication channels. MV and LV lines have very different noise
characteristics. The MV grid is usually less branched than the LV grid, and LV lines are typically
terminated at time-varying consumer electrical appliances. Noise on the LV grid is typically the sum of
background noise, impulsive noise, and synchronous/nonsynchronous (with the power line frequency)
colored noise, generated primarily by electrical appliances; this noise is certainly not an additive white
Gaussian noise (AWGN). On the MV grid, the on/off switching of the capacitor banks used to correct
the power factor typically causes high noise peaks. At the same time, background noise and narrow-
band noise are dominant on MV lines. The background noise is environmental noise that is highly
dependent on weather, location, and elevation. The narrow-band noise is caused by RF interferers such
as amateur or shortwave (SW) radios and varies randomly across location and time. Noise levels on
MV lines are typically as much as 20 to 30 dB higher than on LV lines in the frequency range of 1 to
20 MHz

12.1.2 RF Noise Issues

The introduction of BPL raises issues related to the determination of RF noise sources. Since 1951, the
International Telecommunications Union-Radio communications (ITU-R) sector has periodically
published the results of an ongoing study of the sources of RF noise in Recommendation P.372-8
titled: ―Radio Noise.‖ The ITU-R has identified that radio noise external to a radio receiving system
can be caused by a variety of different factors including:

 Radiation from lightning discharges (atmospheric noise due to lightning)

 Unintended radiation from electrical machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, power
transmission lines, or from internal combustion engine ignition (man-made noise)
 Emissions from atmospheric gases and hydrometeors
 The ground, or other obstructions, within the antenna beam
 Radiation from celestial radio sources such as sunspots

12.1.3 Electromagnetic Interference

The components of BPL interference include: (1) Sky Wave (3-30 MHz); (2) Space Wave (0.1-30
MHz); and (3) Ground Wave (0.1-3MHz). Ground waves and sky waves raise the possibility of
interference being caused to radio services at distances of tens or even hundreds of kilometers due to

48
the cumulative effect of a large number of BPL systems. International shortwave broadcasts (e.g.,
Voice of America, BBC World News) are also threatened by the potential for increase in the noise
floor. The ability to achieve satisfactory communications depends on the ratio between the wanted
signal and the noise. The noise consists of four components: (1) internally generated receiver noise; (2)
atmospheric; (3) man-made; and (4) galactic or cosmic. The usual ITU-R standard for non-safety-of-
life radio communication data services is an Interference-to-Noise (I/N) ratio of –6 dB, which has the
effect of raising the noise level no more than 1 dB.

The creation of electromagnetic interference is an obstacle that BPL needs to overcome in order to
flourish as a successful technology. Around the world BPL installations are being tested to verify that
their radiation levels do not exceed authorized limits. In the United States, the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) has completed, but not released, a study
of the cumulative effects of BPL system deployments in major cities around the world on the users of
HF spectrum.

12.1.4 Interference-Free BPL

At least two BPL system manufacturers appear to have directly addressed HF interference concerns
during the design phase of their architectures. This section provides a brief introduction to these
systems.

1) Motorola Power line LV

Motorola has designed a hybrid BPL delivery system that combines a wireless network infrastructure
with customer delivery over LV power lines. The basic design is founded on the use of wireless access
point clusters, which use unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (NII) frequencies. A point-to-
point backhaul unit connects the wireless network infrastructure to the Internet over a range of up to 20
miles. The system only requires a 3.6 Mb/s Internet feed to support up to six access point systems,
which means that the bandwidth is divided among up to 1,200 subscribers. A bridge is used to transfer
the internet connection from the wireless distribution system onto LV power lines for delivery to
customer homes, which use the existing in-home electrical wiring as a LAN. The Motorola system
reduces HF band interference by restricting the application of RF to LV power lines only. No MV lines
are used. The system also makes use of notches.

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 2) Corridor Systems Motorola Power line LV

Corridor Systems has designed a BPL system that operates entirely above the HF radio spectrum and is
offered as an ―interference free‖ BPL system. Corridor Systems BPL equipment operates in the range
from 800 MHz – 10 GHz. The system utilizes off-the-shelf commodity RF chipsets to provide a low-
cost solution with high-performance delivery of information across MV power lines. Corridor‘s system
uses a transmission technique that transmits energy over a single conductor of an existing MV power
line at frequencies above the HF band, thus avoiding it interference issues. Information carrying energy
is coupled on and off the conductor by identical launch devices (see Figure 16 below) on each end of
the conductor. The energy, which may extend from VHF through the microwave portions of the
spectrum, is launched as a traveling wave mode around the conductor. This mode exhibits the three
characteristics:

(1) Very low-loss over distance;

(2) Propagation speeds near the speed of light; and

(3) Low radiation.

12.1.5 Security Issues

Data transmitted over a BPL system needs to be Figure 12(a): BPL in 800 MHz - 10 GHz
range
encrypted if interception by other users on the same
power network is to be avoided. BPL Access systems
use a shared communication medium where multiple (e.g., 5 or more) homes are associated with a
single-power transformer. BPL signal propagation operates in a LAN-like manner that makes detection
and interception of neighboring transmissions simple. A BPL system can also suffer interruption or
degradation of service by the operation of local HF-transmitting stations in a manner that produces
results that are similar to a denial of service attack. Security requirements are currently being addressed
by standards committees in the IEEE and other standards organizations. Security specifications
produced by the Home Plug Power line Alliance provide for the use of either 56-bit Data Encryption
Standard (DES) or 128-bit Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).

50
12.1.6 Channel Attenuation

Power lines have been modeled in the literature by using either statistical approaches based on
extensive measurements or deterministic approaches based on multi conductor transmission line
(MTL) theory and numerical analysis. Carson‘s earlier MTL model allowed for ground impedance but
did not include ground admittance, which cannot be ignored in higher frequencies and/or under poor
conductive ground plane conditions. The subsequent MTL models include ground admittance. A
simple matched uniform MV line segment with no connected device or junctions could have as little as
1 dB/km ohmic absorption or attenuation loss. For a complex overhead MV network, on the other
hand, the amplitude of the channel frequency response (or, equivalently, the channel attenuation) in the
frequency range of 10 kHz to 100 MHz shows highly frequency-dependent attenuations of as high as
40 dB/km caused by reflections from abrupt discontinuities and mismatched impedances . LV network
losses are typically higher than MV network losses and could be as high as 100 dB/km.

51
 CONCLUSION

Even though the importance and direct socio economic impact of access to broadband services are
well understood, currently only 4 percent of the Earth‘s population has access to some type of
broadband services, typically via DSL or cable modem. BPL offers a new, potentially powerful
alternative means of providing high-speed Internet services, VoIP, and other broadband services to
homes and businesses by using existing MV and LV power lines. Because roughly 60 percent of
Earth‘s inhabitants have access to power lines, BPL could play a significant role in bridging the
existing digital divide. But the success of BPL, like that of any new technology in its infancy,
depends on more than strong theoretical results or successful field testing. It also depends greatly
on the appropriate business models and deployment plans. As the regulatory uncertainties and
interference issues surrounding BPL dissipate, and with the success of many field trials and early
commercial deployments, the release of various standards, and the growing availability of
reasonably priced standardized and reliable equipment, the road to BPL is becoming increasingly
well paved and broadband over power lines seems to be well energized. Indeed, BPL‘s future looks
very bright.

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