CHAPTER 6

The Romans were the first to use arches as major structural elements, employing
them, mainly in semicircular form, in bridge and aqueduct construction and for roof
supports, particularly the barrel vault. Their choice of the semicircular shape was
due to the ease with which such an arch could be set out. Generally these arches, as
we shall see, carried mainly compressive loads and were therefore constructed from
stone blocks, or voussoirs, where the joints were either dry or used weak mortar.
During the Middle Ages, Gothic arches, distinguished by their pointed apex, were
used to a large extent in the construction of the great European cathedrals. The
horizontal thrust developed at the supports, or springings, and caused by the
tendency of an arch to ‘flatten’ under load was frequently resisted by flying
buttresses. This type of arch was also used extensively in the 19th century.
In the 18th century masonry arches were used to support bridges over the large
number of canals that were built in that period. Many of these bridges survive to the
present day and carry loads unimagined by their designers.
Today arches are usually made of steel or of reinforced or prestressed concrete
and can support both tensile as well as compressive loads. They are used to support
bridge decks and roofs and vary in span from a few metres in a roof support system
to several hundred metres in bridges. A fine example of a steel arch bridge is the
Sydney harbour bridge in which the deck is supported by hangers suspended from
the arch (see Figs 1.6(a) and (b) for examples of bridge decks supported by arches).
Arches are constructed in a variety of forms. Their components may be straight or
curved, but generally fall into two categories. The first, which we shall consider in
this chapter, is the three-pinned arch which is statically determinate, whereas the
second, the two-pinned arch, is statically indeterminate and will be considered in
Chapter 16.
Initially we shall examine the manner in which arches carry loads.

6.1 The linear arch

There is a direct relationship between the action of a flexible cable in carrying loads
and the action of an arch. In Section 5.1 we determined the tensile forces in the
segments of lightweight cables carrying concentrated loads and saw that the
geometry of a cable changed under different loading systems; hence, for example,
the two geometries of the same cable in Figs 5.2(a) and (b).
120 Arches

Let us suppose that the cable in Fig. 5.2(a) is made up of three bars or links AC,
CD and DB hinged together at C and D and pinned to the supports at A and B. If the
loading remains unchanged the deflected shape of the three-link structure will be
identical to that of the cable in Fig. 5.2(a) and is shown in Fig. 6.l(a). Furthermore
the tension in a link will be exactly the same as the tension in the corresponding
segment of the cable. Now suppose that the three-link structure of Fig. 6.l(a) is
inverted as shown in Fig. 6.1 (b) and that the loads W, and W 2$-re applied as before.
In this situation the forces in the links will be identical in magnitude to those in
Fig. 6.1 (a) but will now be compressive as opposed to tensile; the structure shown in
Fig. 6.1 (b) is patently an arch.
The same argument can be applied to any cable and loading system so that the
internal forces in an arch may be deduced by analysing a cable having exactly the
same shape and carrying identical loads, a fact first realized by Robert Hooke in the
17th century. As in the example in Fig. 6.1 the internal forces in the arch will have
the same magnitude as the corresponding cable forces but will be compressive, not
tensile.
It is obvious from the above that the internal forces in the arch act along the axes
of the different components and that the arch is therefore not subjected to internal
shear forces and bending moments; an arch in which the internal forces are purely
axial is called a linear arch. We also deduce, from Section 5.2, that the internal
forces in an arch whose shape is that of a parabola and which cames a uniform
horizontally distributed load are purely axial. Further, it will now have become clear
why the internal members of a bowstring truss (Section 4.1) carrying loads of equal
magnitude along its upper chord joints carry zero force.
There is, however, a major difference between the behaviour of the two structures
in Figs 6.1 (a) and (b). A change in the values of the loads W, and Wz will merely
result in a change in the geometry of the structure in Fig. 6.l(a), whereas the
slightest changes in the values of W, and W 2in Fig. 6.1 (b) will result in the collapse
of the arch as a mechanism. In this particular case collapse could be prevented by
replacing the pinned joint at C (or D) by a rigid joint as shown in Fig. 6.2. The
forces in the members remain unchanged since the geometry of the structure is
unchanged, but the arch is now stable and has become a three-pinned arch which, as
we shall see, is statically determinate.

Fig. 6.1 Equivalence of cable and arch structures

 The linear arch 121

Fig. 6.2 Linear three-pinned arch

If now the pinned joint at D was replaced by a rigid joint, the forces in the
members would remain the same, but the arch has become a mu-pinned arch. In this
case, because of the tension cable equivalence, the arch is statically determinate. It is
important to realize. however, that the above arguments only apply for the set of
loads W, and W 2which produce the particular shape of cable shown in Fig. 6.1 (a).
If the loads were repositioned or changed in magnitude, the two-pinned arch would
become statically indeterminate and would probably cease to be a linear arch so that
bending moments and shear forces would be induced. The three-pinned arch of
Fig. 6.2 would also become non-linear if the loads were repositioned or changed in
magnitude.
In the above we have ignored the effect on the geometry of the arch caused by the
shortening of the members. The effect of this on the three-pinned arch is negligible
since the pins can accommodate the small changes in angle between the members
which this causes. This is not the case in a two-pinned arch or in an arch with no pins
at all (in effect a portal frame) so that bending moments and shear forces are
induced. However, so long as the loads ( W , and W zin this case) remain unchanged
in magnitude and position, the corresponding stresses are ‘secondary’ and will have
little effect on the axial forces.
The linear arch, in which the internal forces are purely axial, is important for the
structural designer since the linear arch shape gives the smallest stresses. If,
however, the thrust line is not axial, bending stresses are induced and these can cause
tension on the inner or outer faces (the inrrados and exrr-trados) of the arch. In a
masonry arch in which the joints are either dry or made using a weak mortar, this can
lead to cracking and possible failure. Furthermore, if the thrust line lies outside the
faces of the arch, instability leading to collapse can also occur. We shall deduce in
Section 9.2 that for no tension to be developed in a rectangular cross-section, the
compressive force on the section must lie within the middle third of the section.
In small-span arch bridges, these factors are not of great importance since the
greatest loads on the arch come from vehicular traffic. These loads vary with the size
of the vehicle and its position on the bridge, so that it is generally impossible for the
designer to achieve a linear arch. On the other hand, in large-span arch bridges, the
self-weight of the arch forms the major portion of the load the arch has to carry. In
Section 5.2 we saw that a cable under its own weight takes up the shape of a
catenary. It follows that the ideal shape for an arch of constant thickness is an
inverted catenary. However, in the analysis of the three-pinned arch we shall assume
a general case in which shear forces and bending moments, as well as axial forces,
are present.
122 Arches

6.2 The three-pinned arch

A three-pinned arch would be used in situations where there is a possibility of
support displacement; this, in a two-pinned arch, would induce additional stresses. In
the analysis of a three-pinned arch the first step, generally, is to determine the
support reactions.

Support reactions - supports on same horizontal level

Consider the arch shown in Fig. 6.3. It cames an inclined concentrated load, W, at a
given point D, a horizontal distance a from the support point A. The equation of the
shape of the arch will generally be known so that the position of specified points on
the arch, say D, can be obtained. We shall suppose that the third pin is positioned at
the crown, C, of the arch, although this need not necessarily be the case; the height
or rise of the arch is h.
The supports at A and B are pinned but ileither can be a roller support or the arch
would collapse. Therefore, in addition to the two vertical components of the
reactions at A and B, there will be horizontal components RA,H and RB.H. Thus there
are four unknown components of reaction but only three equations of overall
equilibrium (Eqs (2.10)) so that an additional equation is required. This is obtained
from the fact that the third pin at C is unable to transmit bending moments although,
obviously, it is able to transmit shear forces.
Thus, from the overall vertical equilibrium of the arch in Fig. 6.3, we have
RA.v+ RB.V - W cos a = 0 (6.1)
and from the horizontal equilibrium
RA.H - RB.H - W sin a = 0 (6.2)
Now taking moments about, say, B,
R,.,L - W cos a ( L- a ) - W sin a hD= 0 (6.3)

Fig. 6.3 Three-pinned arch

 The three-pinned arch 123

The internal moment at C is zero so that we can take moments about C of forces to
the left or right of C. A slightly simpler expression results by considering forces to
the left of C; thus
L
RA.v - - RA.H h = 0 (6.4)
2
Equations (6.1)-(6.4) enable the four components of reaction to be found; the
normal force, shear force and bending moment at any point in the arch follow.
Example 6.1 Calculate the normal force, shear force and bending moment at the
point X in the semicircular arch shown in Fig. 6.4.
In this example we can find either vertical component of reaction directly by
taking moments about one of the support points. Hence, taking moments about B,
say,
R,.,x 12-60(6cos30"+6)-100(6sin30"+6)=0
which gives R A , , = 131.0 kN
Now resolving forces vertically: RB,v + RA,v - 60 - 1 0 0 = 0
which, on substituting for RA.v, gives
R9.V = 29.0 kN
Since no horizontal loads are present, we see by inspection that
RA,H = RB.H

Finally, taking moments of forces to the right of C about C (this is a little simpler
than considering forces to the left of C) we have
RE." x 6 - Rs.v x 6 = 0
from which R9.H = 29.0 kN = R A . n

Fig. 6.4 Three-pinned arch of Ex. 6.1

124 Arches

The normal force at the point X is obtained by resolving the forces to one side of X
in a direction tangential to the arch at X. Thus, considering forces to the left of X
and taking tensile forces as positive,
N x= -RA,v cos 45" - RA.H sin 45" + 60 cos 45"
so that Nx = -70.7 1<N
and is compressive.
The shear force at X is found by resolving the forces to one side of X in a
direction perpendicular to the tangent at X. We shall take a positive shear force as
acting radially outwards when it is to the left of a section. Thus, considering forces
to the left of X
Sx= RA.v sin 45" - RA.Hcos 45" - 60 sin 45"
which gives Sx = +29-7 kN
Now taking moments about X for forces to the left of X and regarding a positive
moment as causing tension on the underside of the arch, we have
M x= RA,v (6 - 6 cos 45") - RA,H x 6 sin 45" - 60 (6 cos 30" - 6 cos 45")
Whence M , = +50.0 kNm
Note that in Ex. 6.1 the sign conventions adopted for normal force, shear force and
bending moment are the same as those specified in Chapter 3.

Support reactions - supports on different levels

In the three-pinned arch shown in Fig. 6.5 the support at B is a known height, he,
above A. Let us suppose that the equation of the shape of the arch is known so that
all dimensions may be calculated. Now, resolving forces vertically gives
RA.v + RB.v - W cos a = 0 (6.5)
and horizontally we have
RA,H - R6.H - W sin a = 0 (6.6)
Also, taking moments about B, say,
RA.vL - RA.Hh, - W cos a ( L - a ) - W sin a ( h , - h,) = 0 (6.7)
Note that, unlike the previous case, the horizontal component of the reaction at A is
included in the overall moment equation (Eq. (6.7)).
Finally we can take moments of all the forces to the left or right of C about C
since the internal moment at C is zero. In this case the overall moment equation
(Eq. (6.7)) includes both components, RA.,,and RA,",of the support reaction at A.
Thus, if we now consider moments about C of forces to the left of C, we shall
obtain a moment equation in terms of RA.,, and RA.H.This equation, with Eq. (6.7),
provides two simultaneous equations which may be solved for RA.,, and R A , H .
Alternatively if, when we were considering the overall moment equilibrium of the
arch, we had taken moments about A, Eq. (6.7) would have been expressed in terms
 The three-pinned arch 125

Fig. 6.5 Three-pinned arch with supports at different levels

of RB.v and RB,H. Then we would obtain the fourth equation by taking moments
about C of the forces to the right of C and the two simultaneous equations would be
in terms of RB,v and RB.H. Theoretically this approach is not necessary but it leads to
a simpler solution. Thus, referring to Fig. 6.5
RA.VC - RA,Hh = O (6.8)
The solution of Eqs (6.7) and (6.8) gives RA,v and RA,H, then RB," and RB." follow
from Eqs (6.5) and (6.6), respectively.
Example 6.2 The parabolic arch shown in Fig. 6.6 cames a uniform horizontally
distributed load of intensity 10 kN/m over the portion AC of its span. Calculate the
values of the normal force, shear force and bending moment at the point D.

Fig. 6.6 Parabolic arch of Ex. 6.2

126 Arches

Initially we must determine the equation of the arch so that the heights of B and D
may be calculated. The simplest approach is to choose the origin of axes at C so that
the equation of the parabola may be written in the form
y=h' (i)
in which k is a constant. At A, y = 7 m when x = - 15 m. Hence, from Eq. (i)
7 = k x (-15)'
whence k = 0-0311
and Eq. (i) becomes
y=0-0311~' (ii)
Then yB=0.0311 x (10)'=3.11 m
Hence h B = 7 - 3 - 1 1= 3 - 8 9 m
Also yD= 0.031 1 x (-7-5)' = 1-75m
so that h D =7 - 1'75 = 5.25 m
Taking moments about A for the overall equilibrium of the arch we have
RB.vx 25 + RB,Hx 3.89 - 10 x 15 x 7.5 = 0
which simplifies to
RB,v+0*16RB,H-45*0=0 (iii)
Now taking moments about C for the forces to the right of C we obtain
RB.v x 10 - R B . H x 3.1 1 = 0

Whence RB,V - 0.31 1R B , H = 0

The simultaneous solution of Eqs (iii) and (iv) gives
RB." = 29.7 kN, R B . H = 95.5 kN
From the horizontal equilibrium of the arch we have
RA,H = R B , H = 95.5 W
and from the vertical equilibrium
RA,v + RB,v - 10 x 15 = 0
which gives RA.,,= 120.3 kN
To calculate the normal force and shear force at the point D we require the slope of
the arch at D. From Eq. (ii)

Hence
(3 =2 x 0.03 11 x (-7.5) = -0.4665 = -tan a

a = 25.0"
A three-pinned parabolic arch carrying a uniform horizontally distributed load 127

Now resolving forces to the left (or right) of D in a direction parallel to the tangent
at D we obtain the normal force at D. Hence
cos 25-0" + 10 x 7-5 sin 25.0"
ND= -RA.v sin 25.0" - l?A,H
which gives N D = - 105.7 kN (compression)
The shear force at D is then
SD= RA,vCOS 25.0"- RA." sin 25.0"- 10 x 7-5 COS 25.0"
so that SD= +0.7 kN
Finally the bending moment at D is
7.5
MD = RA.v x 7.5 - RA,H x 5-25 - 10 x 7.5 x -
2
from which M D =+119.6 kNm

6.3 A three-pinned parabolic arch carrying a uniform

horizontally distributed load
In Section 5.2 we saw that a flexible cable carrying a uniform horizontally
distributed load took up the shape of a parabola. It follows that a three-pinned
parabolic arch carrying the same loading would experience zero shear force and
bending moment at all sections. We shall now investigate the bending moment in the
symmetrical three-pinned arch shown in Fig. 6.7.
The vertical components of the support reactions are, from symmetry,
WL
RA.V = RB.V = -
2
Also, in the absence of any horizontal loads
RA,H= RB,H

Fig. 6.7 Parabolic arch carrying a uniform horizontally distributed load

128 Arches

Now taking moments of forces to the left of C about C,

WL?
which gives RA,H = -
8h
With the origin of axes at A, the equation of the parabolic shape of the parabola
may be shown to be
4h
y = - (Lx - x 2 )
L2
The bending moment at any point P ( x , y ) in the arch is given by

or, substituting for RA." and RA." and for y in terms of x ,

2
WL w L 2 4h 2 wx
M p = -x - -- ( L x - X ) - -
2 8h L 2 2
Simplifying this expression

as expected.
The shear force may also be shown to be zero at all sections of the arch.

6.4 Bending moment diagram for a three-pinned arch

Consider the arch shown in Fig. 6.8; we shall suppose that the equation of the arch
referred to the xy axes is known. The load W is applied at a given point D ( x D , y D )
and the support reactions may be calculated by the methods previously described.
The bending moment, M p ,, at any point P , ( x , y ) between A and D is given by
MP, = RA.Vx- RA.Hy (6.9)
and the bending moment, ME.at the point P2 ( x , y ) between D and B is
MP2= RA.Vx- w(x-xD)- RA,Hy (6.10)
Now let us consider a simply supported beam AB having the same span as the arch
and canying a load, W , at the same horizontal distance, x D , from the left-hand
support (Fig. 6.9(a)). The vertical reactions, R A and R B will have the same
magnitude as the vertical components of the support reactions in the arch. Thus the
bending moment at any point between A and D and a distance x from A is
MA, = RAx = RA,VX (6.1 1)
 Bending moment diagram for a three-pinned arch 129

Fig. 6.8 Determination of the bending moment diagram for a three-pinned arch

Fig. 6.9 Bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam (tension on
undersurface of beam)

Also the bending moment at any point between D and B a distance x from A is
MD,= RAX - w ( X - XD) = R A , , X - w ( X - XD) (6.12)
giving the bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 6.9(b). Comparing Eqs (6.1 1)
and (6.12) with Eqs (6.9) and (6.10), respectively, we see that Eq. (6.9) may be
written
Mm = M A D - R A . H Y (6.13)
and Eq. (6.10) may be written
MP2 = MDB - RA,Hy (6.14)
Thus the complete bending moment diagram for the arch may be regarded as the sum
of a ‘simply supported beam’ bending moment diagram and an ‘arch’ bending
130 Arches

moment diagram in which the ‘arch’ diagram has the same shape as the arch itself,
since its ordinates are equal to a constant multiplied by y . The two bending moment
diagrams may be superimposed as shown in Fig. 6.10 to give the complete bending
moment diagram for the arch. Note that the curve of the arch forms the baseline of
the bending moment diagram and that the bending moment at the crown of the arch
where the third pin is located is zero.
In the above it was assumed that the mathematical equation of the curve of the
arch is known. However, in a situation where, say, only a scale drawing of the curve
of the arch is available, a semigraphical procedure may be adopted if the loads are
vertical. The ‘arch’ bending moment at the crown C of the arch is RAHhas shown in
Fig. 6.10. The magnitude of this bending moment may be calculated so that the scale
of the bending moment diagram is then fixed by the rise (at C) of the arch in the
scale drawing. Also this bending moment is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
to the ‘simply supported beam’ bending moment at this point. Other values of
‘simply supported beam’ bending moment may be calculated at, say, load positions
and plotted on the complete bending moment diagram to the already determined
scale. The diagram is then completed, enabling values of bending moment to be
scaled off as required.
In the arch of Fig. 6.8 a simple construction may be used to produce the
complete bending moment diagram. In this case the arch shape is drawn as in
Fig. 6.10 and this, as we have seen, fixes the scale of the bending moment
diagram. Then, since the final bending moment at C is zero and is also zero at A
and B , a line drawn from A through C to meet the vertical through the point of
application of the load at E represents the ‘simply supported beam’ bending

Fig. 6.10 Complete bending moment diagram for a three-pinned arch

 Problems 131

Fig. 6.1 1 Bending moment diagram for a three-pinned arch carrying two loads

moment diagram between A and D. The bending moment diagram is then

completed by drawing in the line EB.
This construction is only possible when the arch cames a single load. In the case
of an arch carrying two or more loads as in Fig. 6.1 1, the ‘simply supported beam’
bending moments must be calculated at D and F and their values plotted to the same
scale as the ‘arch’ bending moment diagram. Clearly the bending moment at C
remains zero.
We shall consider the statically indeterminate two-pinned arch in Chapter 16.

Problems
P.6.1 Determine the position and calculate the value of the maximum bending
moment in the loaded half of the semicircular three-pinned arch shown in Fig. P.6.1.
Ans. 6-59m from A,84.2 kNm (sagging).

Fig. P.6.1

P.6.2 Figure Pk.2 shows a three-pinned arch of radius 12 m. Calculate the

normal force, shear force and bending moment at the point D.
Ans. 14.4 kN (compression), 5-5 kN, 21-9kNm (hogging).
132 Arches

Fig. P.6.2

P.6.3 The three-pinned arch shown in Fig. P.6.3 is parabolic in shape. If the arch
cames a uniform horizontally distributed load of intensity 40 kN/m over the part
CB, calculate the bending moment at D.
Ans. 140.5 kNm (sagging).

Fig. P.6.3

P.6.4 In the three-pinned arch ACB shown in Fig. P.6.4 the portion AC has the
shape of a parabola with its origin at C , while CB is straight. The portion AC cames
a uniform horizontally distributed load of intensity 30 kN/m, while the portion CB
cames a uniform horizontally distributed load of intensity 18 kN/m. Calculate the
normal force, shear force and bending moment at the point D.
Aus. 91.2 kN (compression), 8.9 kN, 210.0 kNm (sagging).

Fig. P.6.4
 Problems 133

P.6.5 Draw normal force, shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
loaded half of the three-pinned arch shown in Fig. P.6.5.
Ans. NBD= 26-5 kN, NDE= 19.5 kN, N E F = N , = 15 kN (all compression).
S B D = -5.3 kN, S D E = +1.8 kN, Sw= -2.5 kN, S K = +7*5 kN.

M, = 11.3 kN m, M E= 7.5 kN m, MF= 11.3 kN m (sagging).

Fig. P.6.5

P.6.6 Calculate the components of the support reactions at A and D in the three-
pinned arch shown in Fig. P.6.6and hence draw the bending moment diagram for the
member DC; draw the diagram on the tension side of the member. All members are
1.5 m long.
Am. RA,v= 6.3 kN, RA,H= 11.12 kN, R D . v = 21-43 kN, R D . H = 3.88 kN.
MD= 0, M, = 5.82 kN m (tension on left of CD).

Fig. P.6.6