Professional Documents
Culture Documents
: Comfort
: Injury
: Vibration fatigue
: Accessibility
: Doors cofferdam double bottom manhole height should be a
particular height
DESIGN FOR ABANDONMENT
DISADVANTAGES
Cannot be used one of the kind
Prodn design
1. Design info to be made suitable for pdn process
2.design to be made according to material available and limitations &
suitability.
3.structural design to be given importance
4.optimum initialization of crane ,shop facilities
5.minimise material usage
6.good accessibility and ease of transport $ storage
7.components easy to assemble and erect
8.elimination or modification of structural component design difficult
9.bulbous bow to be made of many pieces
10.hull design to be optimised
11.min welding and cutting to be used
12. dished plates to be avoided
13.avanced outfitting procedures may be adopted
Welding stds
In Ship building, tolerances allowed are:
For main structural members: 0.15 t or mm whichever is less
For others:- 0.2 t or mm whichever is less.
In custom built products, the tolerances should be specified in the
contract
Root gap:
The root gap of the joint should be as per the welding. Procedure
qualification test. An increase or decrease in root should be rectified
by suitable methods like gas cutting. grinding, fitting backing strip,
building up of edges by welding, etc.
Bevel angle:
A reduction in bevel angle beyond specifications can lead to
penetration problems in welding. An increase in bevel angle will
increase the cost of fabrication by way of increased consumable
requirement, cost for correction of weld distortion etc.
Root face:
A reduction in thickness of root face will cause burning the plate
edges whereas an increase in thickness of root face can cause lack of
root fusion - Increased amount of back gouging/chipping can
sometimes cause weld distortion
Critical Path
PERT:
1. A probabilistic model with uncertainty in activity duration.
Expected time is calculated from t0,tm and tp.
2. An event oriented approach
3. PERT terminology uses words like network diagram, events and
slack.
4. The use of dummy activities is required for representing the
proper sequencing.
5. Pert basically does not demarcate between critical and non critical
activities.
6. It finds applications in projects where resources are always made
available as and when required.
7. Especially suitable in defense projects and R&D where activity
times cannot be reliably predicted.
CPM:
1.A deterministic model with well known activity times based upon
past experience. It assumes that ,the expected time is actually the
time taken.
2.An activity oriented system.
3.CPM terminology employs words like arrow diagram, nodes and float.
4.The use of dummy activities is not necessary. The arrow diagram
thus becomes slightly simpler.
5.CPM marks critical activities.
6.It is employed to those projects where minimum overall costs is of
primary importance. There is better utilization of resources.
7.Especially suitable for problems in industrial setting, plant
maintenance, civil construction projects etc.
Technique:
CPM employs the following steps for accomplishing a project
planning.
1. Break down the project into various activities systematically.
2. Label all activities.
3. Arrange all the activities in a logical sequence.
4. Construct the arrow diagram.
5. Number all the nodes and activities.
6. Find the time for each activity.
7. Mark the activity times on the arrow diagram.
8. Calculate the early and late, starting and finishing times.
9. Tabulate various times and mark EST and LFT on the arrow
diagram.
10. Calculate the total float for each activity.
11. Identify the critical activities and critical paths on the arrow
diagram.
12. Calculate the total project duration.
13. If it is intended to reduce the total project duration, crash the
critical activities of the network.
14. Optimise the cost.
15. Update the network.
16. Smooth the network resources.
PROCESS PLANNING:
It is the
: Systematic determination of methods by which a product (ship) is to
be manufactured, economically and on schedule.
: Function which establishes processes and process parameters to be
used to convert the raw materials into finished product.
PLANNING ACTIVITIES
The complex nature of ship building makes good planning and prod
control very important because ship building is a capital intensive
activity with large capital investment in plant and may therefore high
equipment utilization with high output is an essential requirement.
Also technique of advanced outfitting can not be successfully
implemented without a high level of plant output .good PPC also helps
in timely completion of work and maintenance of delivery schedule.
this is an important factor as far as the reputation of the ship
builder is concerned
in some respects planning and PC has become a little easier with the
introduction of flow production and the standardization of ships
being built computers have made the task of planning and PC also
easier and more effective the planning may be done in 3 stages, long
medium and short term at various levels inside the ship yard. The long
term plan contains the cardinal dates eg signing of the contract, keel
laying, launching, test and trials, delivery.
divided into...
1. STRATEGIC PLANNING
a. profit plan
b. sales plan
2. TECHNICAL PLANNING
a. principal extents (keel lying)
b.block definition
c.advanced outfitting
3.PRODUCTION PLANNING
a.Drawing schedule
b.Material plan
c.Welding plan
d.assembly plan
4.IMPLEMENTATION PLANNING
a.Shop schedule
b.Work par
Levels of planning
1.Basic planning
2.Detailed planning ..weight and size of unit. mode of outfitting
.material requisite plan
3.Working detailed plan ..Schedules (PERT CMM).Producton drawing
standard
4.work intensive planning .material issue
Effectiveness of planning
1 communication
2 satisfy owners & classification societies requirement
3 Minimise design change
4 preperation of standard
5 accuracy and work instruction plan
6 effective accuracy control measures
7 hull construction schedule preparation
8 Preparation of process lines
PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
Once the contract plans are released and basic planning is over, hull
construction planning group initiates detailed planning in two phases:
1)department level planning/scheduling
2)shop level planning/scheduling
Scheduling can be defined simply as the allocation of resources and time
for various production units to closely match with the project completion
dates and budget estimates. Basically it determines when and
where,what is to be done.
There are four distinct stages to this:
I)Basic scheduling
Ship building master scheduling-relates all cardinal dates for all
ships/projects to be built in a specific period.
II)Major scheduling
Made from erection master schedule.
It shows:
a)shortest practical period of erection
b)easiest erection sequence
c)duration required for fitting and aligning blocks
d)date for erection
e)daily m/h requirements for fitters and welders
IIb)Integrated schedule
1)i/p from o/f dpt,o/f shop master schedule
2)shop schedules are updated every two months together with IIa
Statical principles
1)nothing called absolute accuracy
2)variations from specified dimensions are always iminent
3)fundamental basis is the theory of probability
4)the dimensions vary from component to component due to inherent
machines characteristics,envt. conditions and workers expertise
5)any important continous probablity distribution is a normal
distribution or Guassian distribution
6)it is the plot of the variation observed in the product
ISM
The purpose of this Code is to provide an international standard for
the safe management and operation of ships and for pollution
prevention.
Recognizing that no two shipping companies or ship owners are the
same, and that ships operate under a wide range of different
conditions, the Code is based on general principles and objectives.
Objectives
1. The objectives of the Code are to ensure safety at sea, prevention
of human injury or loss of life, and avoidance of damage to the
environment, in particular to the marine environment and to property.
Application
The requirements of this Code may be applied to all ships.
Functional requirements for a safety management system
Requirements of safety management system of companies
1 a safety and environmental-protection policy;
2 instructions and procedures to ensure safe operation of ships and
protection of the environment in compliance with relevant
international and flag State legislation;
3 defined levels of authority and lines of communication between, and
amongst, shore and shipboard personnel;
4 procedures for reporting accidents and non-conformities with the
provisions of this Code;
5 procedures to prepare for and respond to emergency situations; and
6 procedures for internal audits and management reviews.
AutoCAD drafting
It is a tool for designing .Here 2d and 3d designing is possible 2d
design gives an outline of the structure which we are meant to
produce 3D will give the overall view of the product prototype can be
avoided. By using this tool a client is able to see his product before
construction & suggest improvements if needed it is more accurate &
more flexible is possible using this structural; analysis can be done so
that drawings can be generated in a small time using plotters
tribone modelling
CAD::
it includes tools to perform the overall technical definition of the
ship but does not include engineering details or acquisition or
fabrication studies
CAE::
it includes tasks to perform calculations & to develop design
documents and procurement specifications for main equipments and
materials
CAM::
it includes tools to obtain all the information necessary to procure
the remaining equipment & materials and to fabricate and erect the
ship.
The contract class and detail designs of commercial ships are
performed with CAD|CAE|CAM soft wares respectively
a. OVERVIEW
there are two different overview for the corporate planning &
production planning the corporate planning has the total yard
overview. The yard overview is essentially the sum of all individual
projects The product planing refer to only the individual construction
or repair jobs.
c.Objective
LEVEL OF PEOPLE
Application:
Advantages:-
1. High degree of control and supervision is possible.
2. Logical flow of materials and components within and between work
stations.
3. QC methods can be applied conveniently
4. Scheduling and collection of work performance data is simple.
5. High degree of utilisation of infrastructural facilities.
6. Need for highly specialised tradesmen is reduced.
Disadvantages:
1. Less flexibility
2. Disruption in one part will shut down the system
3. Monotonous work.
BAR CHART:
(1 picture)
Gantt chart:
Gantt charts are a project planning tool that can be used to
represent the timing of tasks required to complete a project. Because
Gantt charts are simple to understand and easy to construct, they
are used by most project managers for all but the most complex
projects.
In a Gantt chart, each task takes up one row. Dates run along the top
in increments of days, weeks or months, depending on the total length
of the project. The expected time for each task is represented by a
horizontal bar whose left end marks the expected beginning of the
task and whose right end marks the expected completion date.
As the project progresses, the chart is updated by filling according
to the progress of work
This way, one can get a quick reading of project progress
In constructing a Gantt chart, keep the tasks to a manageable number
(not more than 15 or 20) so that the chart fits on a single page. More
complex projects may need subordinate charts
Machine chart
It displays :
:plans for future
:progress on present operations
:past achievements
:relationship of overall variables
:delays and causes
:work progress till any day.
It is of 2 types:
(I)Order control chart: Here time is listed in horizontal axis and
orders along vertical axis .
(1 picture)
(ii)Machine load chart: Here time is along horizontal axis and m/c
along vertical axis.
(1 picture)
GROUP TECHNOLOGY
IHOP:
The main components of this approach are
1)HBCM: where in hull parts, SA ,blocks are manufactured in
accordance. The principles of GT(family manufacturer) in org prod
lines(process lanes or work flows).The blocks are designed such that:
:for block assembly; They are assignable to or of the minimum no. of
work package groups considering similarities in problem area and need
to minimise variations in working times.
:for block erection; they are table configurations requiring temporary
support or reinforcement and hence minimum working time.
:for o/f and painting; sized so that maximum accessibility to all
regions is possible.
Characteristics:
: can be implemented in any type or size of org.
: independent of produce, commodity
: has international acceptance and recognition
: ensures consistent improvement in quality.
ISO 9000:
: Credibility passport for international standard
: Designing
: Developing
: Installation
: Production
: Servicing
Benefits:
: International recognition of ability, credibility, expertise
: Provides competitive edge
: Climate for consistent improvement in quality
: Reduces waste and repairs
: Maintains streamlined records, material handling, storage
: Maintains process quality
: Insures benefits
Limitations:
: Demand of resources for implementation
: Registration is expensive
: Requires upgrading and test facilities
: Cost is increased
Production control:
: for monitoring cost and schedule adherence
: responsible for issuing manhour budgets based on which progress
may be evaluated.
: monitoring can be based on the following three parameters:
1. Manhour expenditures:
: applies to all work process
: measure of manpower index
2. Production progress:
: uses different parameters like weight, length of weld, laid cable
length per unit time to determine the progress index
: based on it shifting work, over time, subcontract involvement may be
decided upon.
3. Productivity indices:
: utilises both m/p expended and also production progress parameters
: there are plotted relative to established standards of efficiency
based on past experience
: any curve above the efficiency reference above average rate of m/n
expend.
Lofting:
The full-size mold loft had a large, well-lighted, clear floor having a
smooth wood surface. The fairing of lines from the preliminary lines and
offsets were done using the full-size beam and depth of the ship but
having the length contracted to 1/4th -size due to space limitations.
After the lines had been faired, the body plan was laid down, the frame
lines were run in, and the final mold loft offsets were picked off.
Templates were made of different materials like basswood, plywood,
Masonite, and heavy waxed paper. The templates were marked with
necessary information such as plate edges, frame lines and check lines
for accuracy of the dimensions. This was transferred to the plate by
scribing or centre-punching.
Optical lofting:
This consists of drawing structural members 1/10 full size,
photographing the drawing on a glass negative to about 1/140 full size
and then projecting the negative image to a full size on a steel plate.
Optical lofting requires a much smaller working space than that
required for a full scale lofting. The high degree of accuracy requires
magnifying glasses, special vernier scales, etc. The body plan is drawn
with fine-line pens on a smooth, flat table, or on drafting film. The ink
drawings, most of which are tracings of portions of the lay downs, are
photographed on a glass negative which can then be used to project
layout information onto the plate.
NC tapes can be prepared by using 1/10 scale information and a
digitizer. A digitizer is a manually operated device for converting points
along any line into numerical data for use in the preparation of NC tapes.
This method of preparing tapes is much hazardous than the method that
employs direct computer-aided lofting through numerical detailing.
a. Fairing of lines:
The programming for this module fairs the lines of the vessel from
offsets taken from preliminary lines and generates a database. Normally
20 stations are used and the the computer fairs the lines between the
stations. It should be noted that the preliminary lines should be
accurate.
If only a preliminary type of lines were desired, the computer can
produce input from very rough input, but the output lines would not be
considered satisfactory for accurate hull surface development.
The resulting mathematical curves are faired using an iteration
process. if necessary, the position of the station data points may have to
be moved slightly by a skilled operator using the programming to ease
the strain, or curvature, in the beam a minimum amount.
Before computer fairing begins, the controlling boundary of the hull
as required by the program must be determined. These bounds usually
involve bow and stern ending points, side and bottom tangents, and deck
lines. After each step in the fairing process, a drawing of stations and
diagonals can be requested by the user to ensure that the program and
the method of using it are functioning properly. On completion of fairing,
lines drawing can be prepared. The final frame and waterline offsets are
then routinely tabulated as part of the computer output.
One of the advantages of a computerised lines program is that a
variety of hulls can be developed from one basic hull.
b. Body plan:
To define traces of decks, longitudinals, girders, and seam sight
edges, the draftsman must specify a number of points on the associated
trace along the length of the ship.
Material list
The lists that are available are such that bulk of planning data on such
list is immediately available for reuse.
Basic Components:
it consists of three basic components:
1. prog of instructions
2. controller unit or the machine control unit.
3. machine tool or other controlled process.
NC procedure:
following steps must be accomplished:
1. Process planning:
work part drawing must be interpreted in terms of manufacturing
process to be used. it concerns making the route sheet sequence of the
operation to be done.
2. Part programming:
programming the process for job completion is done next. There are
two ways to program the NC. They are:
Manual part programming
Computer aided part programming
3. Tape preparation:
A punched tape is prepared from the part programmer's NC process
plan.
4. Tape verification:
For this the program is run and tool movements plotted on paper. At
times it may require 3-4 trials before the tape is correct and ready to
use.
5. Production:
Actual use of NC tape.
Application of NC:
Milling
Drilling and related processes.
Boring
Turning
Grinding
Sawing
Advantages of NC:
1. Reduced non productive time:
Reduces no of setups, less time in setting up, reduced work piece
handling time, automatic tool changes etc.
2. Reduced fixturing:
NC fixtures are simpler and cheaper to fabricate.
3. Reduced manufacturing lead time:
Since jobs are set up quickly with NC and fewer setups required,
lead time is reduced.
4. Greater manufacturing flexibility:
It is easy to adapt to ED changes, alterations of production
schedules, change over in jobs etc. with NC
5. Improved QC:
Produces parts with greater accuracy, reduced scrap and lower
inspection requirements.
6. Reduced inventory
7. Reduced floor space requirement.
Disadvantages of NC:
1. Higher investment cost.
2. Higher maintenance cost.
3. Finding and/or NC personnel.
Pallets
it is the basis for the control of work and main communication link -can
be viewed as empty buckets filled with various software and hardware
items. each of it includes info including work instruction schedules work
locations material lists resources including materials tools facilities and
manpower .Each pallet is defined filled with necessary info and
resources and delivered to proper work sites at proper time. Work is
then performed and the resulting interim product is produced ..
:Various pallet coding systems have been developed to facilitate the use
of pallet concept by design material control and production..
2) Outfit designs advice hull str group of o/f requirements for
penetration and reinforcements in structure Also o/f production process
communicate with hull const Prodn engineers about requirements for o/f
on-block or on-board
Plant location:
The location n of the plant has a direct influence on the cost as of
production and on the effectiveness of marketing. Since a company
remains in that location for many years, errors in decision making in the
plant location will lead to long term problems. Plant location is of vital
importance in production-system design. It affects the cost of shipping
raw materials and finished products, costs of operations, including
labour, taxes, construction, land, utilities, power and many other factors.
It affects expansion potential. These effects, in some situations, can
spell the difference between success and failure companies over the long
run.
The following are the factors which influence the selection of plant
location:
1. Regional considerations
2. Community
3. Site selection
1. Regional considerations:
a. The location of markets:
In a plant location decision, locating plants near markets for their
products and services,
is ideal.
Factors considered should be:
- Transportation cost
- Perishability
- Bulkiness
- Heaviness
- Fragility
b. The location of materials:
The various inputs of production systems are raw materials,
supplies, semi-finished goods,
parts, equipments and tools. Location of these materials is important
for plant location
decisions.
c. Transportation facilities:
Adequate transportation facilities are essential for the economical
operations of
production systems of transportation facilities available are:
Rating plan: In this, weights are assigned to each of the factors that
should be considered. For this, first a list must be made of the
important factors that have a say in the decision, the factors are rated
by giving points to the individual factors. The factor deemed most
important is given the highest weight and each of the other a lesser
amount.
Disadvantages
P.W.B.S:
:Developed in U.S.A in 1920's and applied in ship building in the 80's
:The classification scheme to subdivide works in accordance with
interim product view is called product oriented work break down
structure
In this type of system parts and subassemblies are grouped by
common permanent characteristics and classified by both design and
manufacturing attribute .The classification system typically specifies
parameters such as forms, dimensions, tolerance, material and types
and complexity of machinery operation.
For example the "cargo hold block" : steel, piping, electrical and deck
Advantages
1.Effective information handling
2.Methods such as advanced outfitting can be implemented
effectively
3.Reduction in time production since no sequential activity
4.Improves the working condition
5.Well defined zone or stages and responsibility sharing
6.No cross communication .Main communication between closed
product
7. Since similar products are grouped together, some advantages of
mass production can be achieved
2.Zone
Geographical division of product
e.g::cargo hold, engine room, superstructure
or their subdivision or combination
e.g::structural block or outfit unit
3.Problem area
4.Stage
A division of production process by sequence,
e.g:substeps of fabrication, subassembly,erections e.t.c
Robotic weld
The utilization of industrial robots for weld processes, with specific
emphasis on gas metal arc welding (GMAW) has been a practice for
some time .Industrial robots can positively impact the welding
process by providing the following major improvements to the manual
process:
1) Production increase
2) Reduction of direct labor
3) Improvement of weld parameter and process control
4) Removal of the operator from a sometimes tedious and potentially
hazardous environment.
The critical factors for the success of a robot arc welding system
can be summarized as follows:
1) Intelligent choice of family part selection.
2) Concentration on refinement of manufacturing practices prior to
the arc welding requirement.
3) Production and utilization of high integrity, machine tool quality
Class A fixtures.
4) Detailed and documented evaluation of required weld parameters
for a specific process.
5) Judicious use of part and material handling equipment.
6) Proper system control for maximum operator efficiency.
Market investigation
Type of ships
1.categorised to MULTIPURPOSE & SPECIALISED Ships
2.range of DWT
Max and min size of main dimensions
4.trade route restrictions
Trade analysis
1.Type of cargo
2.vol of cargo
3. Details of ship owners & companies
trend in requirements of new ships
STAGE II
Preliminary design investigation or skew design and costing
done to find the type of ship required to fit market requirements
FDG does this job and it fids the future aspects of ship building
like
1. quantum of cargo
2.Type of cargo
3.any other function to be performed other than carrying cargo or in
addition to carrying to cargo
eg:carrying passengers, fishing tugs, naval ships, cable carrying ships,
dredgers
STAGE IV PLANNING
a)Nature of the activity,its linkage with the activity before and after
b)Time schedule - time for each activity to happen
STAGE VI PRODUCTION
The most important element in this stage is control which is done by
the production manager
STAGE VII
Completion of the ship, test,trials and delivery to the owner.
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
1)Market analysis
2)Preliminary design
3)Finalisationand acceptance of tenders and documents
4)Detail design
5)Planning
6)Production
7)Completion of ship
8)Guarantee
PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
Once the contract plans are released and basic planning is over,hull
construction planning group initiates detailed planning in two phases:
1)department level planning/scheduling
2)shop level planning/scheduling
Scheduling can be defined simply as the allocation of resources and time
for various production units to closely match with the project completion
dates and budget estimates.Basically it determines when and where,what
is to be done.There are four distinct stages to this:
I)Basic scheduling
Ship building master scheduling-relates all cardinal dates for all
ships/projects to be built in a specific period.
II)Major scheduling
Made from erection master schedule.It shows:
a)shortest practical period of erection
b)easiest erection sequence
c)duration required for fitting and aligning blocks
d)date for erection
e)daily m/h requirements for fitters and welders
IIb)Integrated schedule
1)i/p from o/f dpt,o/f shop master schedule
2)shop schedules are updated every two months together with IIa
Accuracy control
the use of statical principles to monitor,control and continously improve
ship building design details,planning and work methods to maximize
productivity.It also provides a quantitative feed back loop b/w
production,planning,design and engineering
Statical principles
1)nothing called absolute accuracy
2)variations from specified dimensionds are always iminent
3)fundamental basis is the theory of probability
4)the dimensions vary from component to component due to inherent
machines characteristics,envt. conditions and workers expertise
5)any important continous probablity distribution is a normal distribution
or Guassian distribution
6)it is the plot of the variation observed in the product.
Shell expansion:
it is a 2d drawing showing the arrangement of plates stiffner, butt
seams and fillets. All vertical dimensions in this drawing are taken around
the girth of the vessel rather than being a direct vertical projection.
This technique illustrates both the side plating and bottom plating as a
continuous whole. This also shows numbering of plates and lettering of
plate strake (R,A,B,....). For reference purpose, the strker run out as a
girth decreases fore and aft.
Shell is expanded in the transverse plane. The girth of the main
deck, tween decks, double bottom, etc is taken at each station and
ordinate are plotted to get the profile and the shell expansion. Bulkheads
are fitted vertically and after that strakes are decided. The plate in
each strake is numbered from aft to forward. The girth of the ship
decreases towards the ends and so the width of the plate must be
decreased. To save making the plate too narrow at the ends, a number of
pairs of adjacent strakes are run into one. The strakes are taken from
midship drawing and the primary members are also plotted. The max size
of the plate is 10X2.5 m and the other checks that are done are the
minimum distance between the butt welds(150mm) minimum distance
between any other two welds are100mm. Butt and seam at the position of
stiffening members should be avoided.
STANDARDISATION:
Standardisation means producing maximum variety of products from
minimum variety of materials, path, tools and process.
Standardisation is one way wich leads to economical
products.Standardisation usually means that non standard products will
not be except when a customer orders them to be made.
Standardisation is the process of establishing standards or units of
means by which extent of quality, quantity, value ,performance etc may
be compared and measured.
ROLL OF STANDARDISATION IN SHIP DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION:
1)Product standardisation
2)Process standardisation
Standardisation by series production:
Design:
:Once a ship having produced for the sister ship, few specifications,
drawings and parts list have to be prepared and issued.
:Thus more time is available to develop new designs or to improve
established designs.
:better resources utilisation is possible.
:allocation of work to available talent. ie a naval architect can specialise
in bow design ,propeller design or resistance calculation etc.
b)Increase in productivity
:Experience gained while building first vessel can be used on the
subsequent identical vessel.
Other advantages:
1)Scope for improved methods and layouts.
2)Opportunities for more efficient design.
3)Greatly reduces pre:production planning activities.
4)Well proven design and methods improve planing and control.
5)Fewer delays arise from waiting for materials, instruction tools etc.
6)Accurate delivery promises.
7)Holding stocks of standard items.
8)Storage and post location can be improved.
9)Better inspection and quality control is possible.
10)Quality standards can be easily defined.
11)In the case of replacing of a ship, if standard items are used, it can
be easily replaced or repaired.
PROCESS STANDARDISATION:
1)Manufacturing process
:welding(welding manual)
:painting scheme
:use of standard machines.Eg::CNC, plasma cutting.
2)Process standards::Eg:: ISO 9000, 9001, EN 14000 etc.
If process are good ,product is guaranteed to be good.
3)Series ship production.
DISADVANTAGES OF STANDARDISATION:
1)Reduction in choice of ships to be build.
2)Changes in owners requirement(type of ship)seriously affect a shipyard
producing a standard type of ship.
3)Difficult to introduce new models because of less flexible production
facilities and due to high cost of specialised production equipment.
4)Favour for large famous shipyards.
5)Standards are set to resist changes and thin standardisation may
become a path to progress
2)PROCESS
i)ISO ii)ISM iii)EN 14000
ISO is divide into 9000 and 9001