TERM PAPEr

MEC 201
TOPIC: Write a report on property called
hardness.what does it depend upon ,how
it increase or decrease it.In what
application it is important.what is the
disadvantage of hardness?how is
hardness measure?

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

RAUSHAN SUDHANSHU MR.ASHISH

K.G.SARAN

10901326
K4901
K4901B42
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:-
I take this opportunity to present my votes of thanks to all those guidepost who
really acted as lightening pillars to enlighten our way throughout this
project that has led to successful and satisfactory completion of this
study.

We are really grateful to our HOD for providing us with an opportunity to

undertake this project in this university and providing us with all the
facilities. We are highly thankful to our subject teacher Mr. Ashish
K.G.Saran for his active support, valuable time and advice, whole-
hearted guidance, sincere cooperation and pains-taking involvement
during the study and in completing the assignment of preparing the said
project within the time stipulated.

Lastly, We are thankful to all those, particularly the various friends , who have
been instrumental in creating proper, healthy and conductive environment
and including new and fresh innovative ideas for us during the project,
their help, it would have been extremely difficult for us to prepare the
project in a time bound framework.
Contents :-

• Introuduction .

• Hardness Measuring

• Dependence of hardness

• Mohr scale of hardness

• Applications

• Advantage of hardness

• Testing of Hardness & Measuring method

• References
 Introduction:-

What is Hardness?
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist
plastic deformation, usually by penetration. However, the term
hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching,
abrasion or cutting.

The Metals Handbook defines hardness as "Resistance of

metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However,
the term may also refer to stiffness or temper or to resistance
to scratching, abrasion, or cutting.
It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability to resist
being permanently, deformed (bent, broken, or have its shape
changed), when a load is applied. The greater the hardness of
the metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation.In
mineralogy the property of matter commonly described as the
resistance of a substance to being scratched by another
substance.
In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a material
to resist plastic deformation.
The dictionary of Metallurgy defines the indentation
hardness as the resistance of a material to indentation. This is
the usual type of hardness test, in which a pointed or rounded
indenter is pressed into a surface under a substantially static
load.
Hardness is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to
various kinds of permanent shape change when a force is
applied. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by
strong intermolecular bonds, however the behavior of solid
materials under force is complex, therefore there are different
measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation
hardness, and rebound hardness.

Typically defined as resistance to indentation under specific

conditions, the hardness of an elastomer is more accurately
thought of as two related properties: inherent hardness and
processed hardness. As a result of chemical structure, each
elastomer has its own inherent hardness. This inherent
hardness can be modificompoundingvulcanizationHardness in
molded rubber articles (processed hardness) is a factor of
cross-link density (and the amount of fillers). The more cross-
linking a given material undergoes during vulcanization, the
harder the final molded part will be. When judging the potential
effectiveness of a molded seal, processed hardness is one of
the most common criteria in the rubber industries.

Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist

plastic deformation, usually by penetration. However, the term
hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching,
abrasion or cutting.

Measurement of Hardness:-
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by
precise definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass,
length and time. A hardness property value is the result of a
defined measurement procedure.

Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by

resistance to scratching or cutting. An example would be
material B scratches material C, but not material A.
Alternatively, material A scratches material B slightly and
scratches material C heavily. Relative hardness of minerals can
be assessed by reference to the Mohs Scale that ranks the
ability of materials to resist scratching by another material.
Similar methods of relative hardness assessment are still
commonly used today. An example is the file test where a file
tempered to a desired hardness is rubbed on the test material
surface. If the file slides without biting or marking the surface,
the test material would be considered harder than the file. If
the file bites or marks the surface, the test material would be
considered softer than the file.

The above relative hardness tests are limited in practical use

and do not provide accurate numeric data or scales particularly
for modern day metals and materials. The usual method to
achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an
indentation left by an indenter of a specific shape, with a
specific force applied for a specific time. There are three
principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship
between hardness and the size of the impression, these being
Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell. For practical and calibration
reasons, each of these methods is divided into a range of
scales, defined by a combination of applied load and indenter
geometry.

What depend upon hardness:-

1-How does a water treatment system remove hardness?
Hardness is removed by a process called "ion exchange."
Hardness-causing particles and debris are positively charged.
The water runs through the resin system, which has millions of
negatively charged sites. As the water flows past these sites,
calcium, rock, iron and magnesium attach to the sites and are
"bumped off.

2-Does granite can have pits?

Natural stone Granite have pits that are the part of stones
structure. But pits can be minimized by applying sealer to the
surface of counter top.

MOHS' SCALE OF HARDNESS:-

 The Mohs' hardness scale was developed in 1822 by Frederich
Mohs. This scale is a chart of relative hardness of the various
minerals (1 - softest to 10 - hardest). Since hardness depends
upon the crystallographic direction (ultimately on the strength
of the bonds between atoms in a crystal), there can be
variations in hardness depending upon the direction in which
one measures this property. One of the most striking examples
of this is kyanite, which has a hardness of 5.5 parallel to the 1
direction ( c-axis), while it has a hardness of 7.0 parallel to the
100 direction ( a-axis). Talc (1), the softest mineral on the Mohs
scale has a hardness greater than gypsum (2) in the direction
that is perpendicular to the cleavage. Diamonds (10) also show
a variation in hardness (the octahedral faces are harder than
the cube faces). For further information see articles from the
American Mineralogist on microhardness, the Knoop tester, and
diamonds.

Applications:-
The main use of high speed steels continues to be in the
manufacture of various cutting tools: drills, taps, milling
cutters, tool bits, gear cutters, saw blades, etc., although usage
for punches and dies is increasing.

High speed steels also found a market in fine hand tools where
their relatively good toughness at high hardness, coupled with
high abrasion resistance and fine, made them suitable for low
speed applications requiring a durable keen (sharp) edge, such
as files, chisels, hand plane blades, and high quality kitchen
and pocket knives.

Advantage of hardness:-
1-advantage of hardness testing in contrast to tensile testing
*Each reveals a useful property of metal (steel, etc.). Tensile
strength indicates load carrying ability while hardness testing
indicates results of heat treatment (soft is ductile and hard is
more brittle). Often only the surface of a metal is treated for
hardness and hardness is also related to crack propagation
under certain circumstances.

*Another advantage of hardness testing is that it can be

performed on lighter and less expensive equipment than tensile
testing. It usually involves simply indenting a specimen with a
diamond indenter as opposed to the large equipment required
for tensile testing.

What are the defects and advantages of hard water?Removal of

hardness of water?
I don't know of any advantages of having a hard water.
Disadvantages are easier to come by. In normal use hard water
will not allow soap to make suds, this makes washing machines
and dishwashers less effective. So you will have to add more
soap to do the same job, this will cost more money to do the
same job as a softer water. Hard water also has some long term
problems. It can cause scaling on the inside of your pipes and
faucets. The scaling will build up over time and reduce the
inside diameter of your pipes. This can cause blockage or low
pressure from your showers and faucets. It will also cause
water heaters to fail sooner, raising the cost of replacement.
Since most hardness is caused by the minerals calcium and
magnesium they can be removed with a couple of different
processes. A water softener works on the principle of cation or
ion exchange in which ions of the hardness minerals are
exchanged for sodium or potassium ions, effectively reducing
the concentration of hardness minerals to tolerable levels.
Some softeners use zeolites but most use sodium chloride, also
known as table salt. Hardness can also be reduced with a lime-
soda ash. The addition of lime causes a reaction in which the
hardness minerals precipitate out of solution and can then be
removed through filtration.

Use Pencil Hardness to Your Advantage:-

When starting the preliminary drawings for any project it is best
to keep the lines light and sketchy. A 2H pencil hardness is
ideal for this.
This is one thing I have definitely learned over the years that
has greatly impacted my design and the process of which I
work. When I was in high school there was a fellow artist's work
that I admired for the skill and and overall style his pieces
possessed. While watching him work one day I noticed he only
used two or maybe three different pencils on his pieces: a 2B
pencil and an Ebony pencil. These pencils are on the softer side
of the spectrum when it comes to pencil hardness.

Hardness Testing & measure method:-

1-Rockwell Hardness Test

2-Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test

3-Brinell Hardness Test

4-Vickers Hardness Test

5-Microhardness Test

6-Mohs Hardness Test

7-Scleroscope and other hardness testing

methods

Hardness Conversion or Equivalents:-

Hardness conversion between different methods and scales
cannot be made mathematically exact for a wide range of
materials. Different loads, different shape of indenters,
homogeneity of specimen, cold working properties and elastic
properties all complicate the problem. All tables and charts
should be considered as giving approximate equivalents,
particularly when converting to a method or scale which is not
physically possible for the particular test material and thus
cannot be verified. An example would be converting HV/10 or
HR-15N value on a thin coating to the HRC equivalent.

Property of hardness:-

1.-Tensile Strength:-
To better understand tensile strength, first recall that there
are intermolecular forces (known as van der Waals forces)
helping to hold long polymer chains in place. These forces
are at their weakest when, due to structural irregularities,
themolecules cannot fit closely together, resulting in a non-
regimented, amorphous structure. Some polymers,
however, have their constituent molecules aligned in very
regular patterns. The combination of this regularity and the
intermolecular forces may be enough to “fit” the chains
into a rigid, crystalline pattern. Tensile strength largely
depends on an elastomer’s ability to partially strain
crystallize when stretched. With greater crystallization
comes increased strength and resistance to stress. Natural
rubber is an example of an elastomer with a very regular
chain structure that strain crystallizes. As a result, natural
rubber has high tensile strength. Of course, the temporary
nature of strain crystallization allows natural rubber to
regain its original shape once the stress is removed. An
elastomer with inherently poor tensile strength, such
asstyrene butadiene, can be improved through the addition
of highly particulate reinforcing agents.

2-Tear Resistance:-
Tear resistance can be gauged via the same ASTM D 412
apparatus used in the testing of tensile strength, modulus,
andelongation. As described in ASTM D 624, different
specimen types can be used to measure both tear initiation
 (resistance to the start of a tear and tear propagation
(resistance to the spread of a tear . Either way, the sample
is placed in the tester’s grips, which then exert a uniform
pulling force until the point of rupture. This force may then
be divided by the specimen’s thickness to arrive at the tear
resistance for that particular sample. Three separate
samples are typically tested and an average calculated.
.

3-Compression Set:-
Compression set is the end result of a progressive stress
relaxation, which is the steady decline in sealing force that
results when an elastomer is compressed over a period of
time. In terms of the life of a seal, stress relaxation is like
dying, whereas compression set is like death.
Though it is very difficult to accurately quantify stress
relaxation, compression set is easy to measure. ASTM D
395 details compression set testing for rubber that will be
compressed in air or liquid media. Two methods are
described (“A” for constant force; “B” for
constant deflection), but the basic methodology is
substantially the same. Testing generally involves use of
cylindrical disk compression set test buttons (0.49" thick by
1.14" diameter). In lieu of buttons, die-cut plied (stacked)
samples (0.070" thick by 1.14" diameter) may be
substituted. The buttons or plied samples are placed
between steel plates. In method A the plates are then
forced together using either a calibrated spring or a pre-
defined external force , a bolt-tightened device and steel
spacers are used. Either way, compression (normally 25%
of original thickness) is held for a given time (e.g. 22 hours)
at a specific temperature (e.g. 100° C), these last two
variables based on anticipated serviceconditions.

4-Abrasion Resistance:-
 Measured as a loss percentage based on original
weight,abrasion resistance is the resistance of a
rubber compound to wearing away by contact with a
moving abrasive surface. Whereas the cutting or nicking of
a seal’s surface is an instantaneous event, abrasive
rubbing or scraping is much more of a progressive
phenomenon that develops over time. Seals in motion are
most susceptible to abrasion. Hardcompounds tend to
exhibit less abrasive wear than soft compounds, but use of
a harder compound can also increasefriction in dynamic
seals, and increased friction generates seal-
degrading heat.
Because of the many potential variables (including heat
fluctuation and surface contamination), abrasion resistance
is hard to accurately measure. Testing typically involves
the uniform application of an abrasive material (such as
sandpaper) to the surface of a sample. ASTM standards
describe three different abraders: D 1630 relies on a
National Bureau of Standards (NBS) abrader ; D 2228 uses
a Pico abrader (see Figure 22); and D 3389 (also known as
Taber Abrasion) employs a double-head abrader and a
rotary platform. Regardless of the specific test method, the
relative amount of sample material that is lost due to
abrasion is a good indication of abrasion resistance.

5-Resilience:-

As detailed in ASTM D 2632, resilience (also known as

rebound) refers to a compound’s ability to regain its
original size and shape after temporary deformation.
Resilience testing typically involves the dropping of a small
weight onto a test specimen (such as a compression set
buttonThe extent to which the weight bounces back is then
noted as a percentage of the initial drop height. A highly
resilient material (one that can rapidly regain its
dimensions) might engender a 70% rebound value, but
values in the range of 40 to 50% are more typical for the
majority of elastomers tested. Thoughcompounding may
 improve an elastomer in this area, it can also detract from
good resilience, which is largely an inherent property. As a
general rule, resilience is most critical indynamic seals.

References:-
1-www.sciencedirect.com

2-www.wikipidia.org

3-^ Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with

Hardness for Steels , E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 /
December 2008
4-^ G.L. Kehl, The Principles of Metallographic Laboratory
Practice, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book
5-^ H.M. Rockwell & S.P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Tester," US
Patent 1 294 171, Feb 1919.
6-^ S.P. Rockwell, "The Testing of Metals for Hardness,
Transactions of the American Society for Steel Treating,