GeoGuide2-Guide To Site Investigation

GEOGUIDE 2
GUIDE TO
SITE INVESTIGATION
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
GEOGUIDE 2
GUIDE TO
SITE INVESTIGATION
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
2
© The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Table of Contents
First published, September 1987
Reprinted, December 1990
Reprinted, December 1993
Reprinted, September 1996
Reprinted, October 2000
Prepared by:
Geotechnical Engineering Office,

Civil Engineering Department,
Civil Engineering Building,
101 Princess Margaret Road,
Homantin, Kowloon,
Hong Kong.
Table of Contents
This publication is available from:
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Table of Contents
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The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
FOREWORD
Table of Contents
This Geoguide p r e s e n t s a recommended s t a n d a r d of good practice f o r s i t e
investigation in Hong Kong, t h e need f o r which was formally recognized a s
early as July 1983 b y t h e Subcommittee of t h e Building Authority Working
P a r t y on Geotechnical Regulations. In i t s format a n d content, t h e Geoguide
follows closely t h e British S t a n d a r d BS 5930 : 1981. Code of Practice f o r Site
Investigations, b u t t h e recommendations in t h e British S t a n d a r d h a v e been
adapted t o s u i t local conditions a n d practices. I t should be used in
conjunction with t h e companion document, Guide t o Rock a n d Soil Descriptions
(Geoguide 3). These Geoguides expand upon, a n d largely replace, Chapter 2 of
t h e Geotechnical Manual f o r Slopes.
This Geoguide covers Sections 1 t o 7 of BS 5930, while Section 8 i s

dealt with in Geoguide 3. I t h a s been p r e p a r e d in such a way t h a t t h e
organization a n d format of t h e British S t a n d a r d have generally been p r e s e r v e d .
Where portions of BS 5930 h a v e been adopted in t h e t e x t without significant
Table of Contents
amendment, t h i s is clearly denoted b y t h e u s e of a n i M c typeface.
I t should be noted t h a t t h i s Geoguide gives guidance on good s i t e

investigation practice a n d , a s such, i t s recommendations a r e not mandatory. I t
i s recognized t h a t t h e practitioner will often need t o u s e alternative methods.
There will also b e improvements in s i t e investigation practice d u r i n g t h e life
of t h e document which will s u p e r s e d e some of i t s recommendations.
The Geoguide was p r e p a r e d in t h e Geotechnical Control Office ( G C O )

u n d e r t h e general direction of M r J.B. Massey. The main c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e
document were D r A. Cipullo, M r K.S. Smith a n d M r D.R. Greenway, with
significant contributions d u r i n g t h e final s t a g e s of preparation from
D r P.L.R. Pang a n d D r R.P. Martin. Mamy o t h e r members of t h e G C O made
valuable suggestions and contributions.
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To e n s u r e t h a t t h e Geoguide would be considered a c o n s e n s u s document
of t h e civil engineering profession i n Hong Kong, a d r a f t version was
circulated widely f o r comment in early 1987 t o contractors, consulting
e n g i n e e r s a n d Government Departments. Many organizations a n d individuals
made useful a n d constructive comments, which have been t a k e n i n t o account in
finalizing t h e Geoguide, a n d t h e i r contributions a r e gratefully acknowledged.
Practitioners a r e encouraged t o comment a t a n y time t o t h e Geotechnical

Control Office on t h e c o n t e n t s of t h i s Geoguide, s o t h a t improvements can be
made t o f u t u r e editions.
Table of Contents
E.W. Brand
Principal Government Geotechnical Engineer
September 1987
Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents
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5
CONTENTS
Page
No.
T I T L E PAGE 1
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
PART I : INTRODUCTION
1, SCOPE
2. TERMINOLOGY
PART I 1 : GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
3, PRIMARY OBJECTIVES OF S I T E INVESTIGATION
4, GENERAL PROCEDURES
4.1 EXTENT AND S E Q U E N C E OF INVESTIGATION
4.1.1 General
4.1.2 Adjacent Property
4.2 DESK STUDY
4.3 S I T E RECONNAISSANCE
4.4 DETAILED EXAMINATION AND SPECIAL S T U D I E S
4.5 CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE A P P R A I S A L
5. EARLIER USES OF THE SITE

5.1 GENERAL
5.2 TUNNELS
5.3 MINES AND QUARRIES
5.4 WASTE T I P S
5.5 OTHER EARLIER U S E S

Page
No.
5.6 ANCIENT MONUMENTS
6, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
6.1 GENERAL
6.2 T O P O G R A P H I C M A P S AND A E R I A L P H O T O G R A P H I C IMAGERY

6.2.1 M a p a n d Plan Scales
6.2.2 A e r i a l Photographic I m a g e r y
6.2.3 O r t h o p h o t o M a p s and Plans
6.3 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION

6.3.1 Identification and Interpretation of
Ground Features
6.3.2 E x a m p l e s o f A P I in H o n g K o n g
PART I 1 1 : PLANNING THE GROUND INVESTIGATION
7, INTRODUCTION TO GROUND INVESTIGATION

7.1 OBJECTIVES
7.2 P L A N N I N G AND CONTROL
8, TYPES OF GROUND INVESTIGATION

8.1 S I T E S FOR NEW W O R K S
8.2 D E F E C T S OR F A I L U R E S O F E X I S T I N G F E A T U R E S OR WORKS
8.3 S A F E T Y O F E X I S T I N G F E A T U R E S AND W O R K S
8.3.1 E f f e c t o f N e w W o r k s upon E x i s t i n g
F e a t u r e s and W o r k s
8.3.2 T y p e s of E f f e c t s
8.3.3 Procedure
8.4 M A T E R I A L S FOR CONSTRUCTION P U R P O S E S
9, GEOLOGICAL MAPPING FOR GROUND INVESTIGATION
10, EXTENT OF THE GROUND INVESTIGATION

10.1 GENERAL
10.2 C H A R A C T E R AND V A R I A B I L I T Y O F T H E GROUND
10.3 NATURE O F THE PROJECT

10.3.1 General
Page
NO.
10.3.2 Slope a n d R e t a i n i n g W a l l C o n s t r u c t i o n
10.3.3 Foundations for Structures
10.4 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
10.5 LOCATION
10.6 SPACING
10.7 DEPTH O F EXPLORATION

10.7.1 General
10.7.2 F o u n d a t i o n s for Structures
10.7.3 Embankments
10.7.4 C u t Slopes
10.7.5 Pavements
10.7.6 Pipelines
10.7.7 Marine Works
10.7.8 Tunnels
11, SELECTION OF GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS

11.1 GENERAL
11.2 S I T E CONSIDERATIONS
12, EFFECT OF GROUND CONDITIONS ON INVESTIGATION METHODS

12.1 GENERAL
12.2 GRANULAR S O I L S CONTAINING B O U L D E R S , C O B B L E S

OR G R A V E L
12.3 GRANULAR S O I L S
12.4 INTERMEDIATE S O I L S
12.5 VERY S O F T T O S O F T COHESIVE S O I L S
12.6 FIRM TO S T I F F COHESIVE S O I L S
12.7 C O H E S I V E S O I L S CONTAINING B O U L D E R S . C O B B L E S
OR G R A V E L
12.8 FILL
12.9 ROCK
12.10 S O I L S D E R I V E D F R O M I N S I T U ROCK W E A T H E R I N G
12.11 D I S C O N T I N U I T I E S
12.12 C A V I T I E S
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NO.
13, AGGRESSIVE GROUND AND GROUNDWATER 65
13.1 GENERAL 65
13.2 INVESTIGATION O F POTENTIAL DETERIORATION O F CONCRETE 65
13.3 INVESTIGATION O F P O T E N T I A L CORROSION O F S T E E L 65
13.4 I N V E S T I G A T I O N O F F I L L CONTAINING I N D U S T R I A L W A S T E S 66
14, GROUND INVESTIGATIONS OVER WATER

14.1 GENERAL
14.2 S T A G E S AND P L A T F O R M S
14.3 FLOATING CRAFT
14.4 WORKING B E T W E E N T I D E L E V E L S
14.5 LOCATING BOREHOLE P O S I T I O N S
14.6 DETERMINATION O F REDUCED L E V E L S
14.7 D R I L L I N G , S A M P L I N G AND T E S T I N G
15. PERSONNEL FOR GROUND INVESTIGATION

15.1 GENERAL
15.2 P L A N N I N G AND D I R E C T I O N
15.3 SUPERVISION IN THE FIELD
15.4 LOGGING AND D E S C R I P T I O N O F GROUND C O N D I T I O N S
15.5 LABORATORY T E S T I N G
15.6 S P E C I A L I S T ADVICE
15.7 INTERPRETATION
15.8 OPERATIVES
16. REVIEW DURING CONSTRUCTION

16.1 GENERAL
16.2 PURPOSE
16.3 INFORMATION REQUIRED

Page
NO.
16.3.1 Soil and R o c k

16.3.2 Water
16.4 INSTRUMENTATION
PART I V : GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS
17, INTRODUCTION TO GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS
18, EXCAVATIONS AND BOREHOLES

18.1 S H A L L O W T R I A L P I T S AND S L O P E S U R F A C E S T R I P P I N G
18.2 D E E P T R I A L P I T S AND C A I S S O N S
18.3 H E A D I N G S OR A D I T S
18.4 HAND A U G E R BORING
18.5 L I G H T C A B L E P E R C U S S I O N BORING
18.6 MECHANICAL A U G E R S
18.7 ROTARY O P E N H O L E D R I L L I N G AND ROTARY C O R E D R I L L I N G

18.7.1 General
18.7.2 Flushing Medium
18.7.3 Inclined D r i l l i n g
18.8 WASH B O R I N G AND O T H E R M E T H O D S

18.8.1 Wash Boring
18.8.2 O t h e r M e t h o d s of B o r i n g
18.9 B A C K F I L L I N G E X C A V A T I O N S AND B O R E H O L E S
19, SAMPLING THE GROUND

19.1 GENERAL
19.2 SAMPLE QUALITY
19.3 D I S T U R B E D S A M P L E S F R O M BORING T O O L S OR
EXCAVATING E Q U I P M E N T
19.4 OPEN-TUBE SAMPLERS

19.4.1 Principles of Design
19.4.2 Sampling Procedure
19.4.3 Thin-Walled S a m p l e r s
19.4.4 G e n e r a l P u r p o s e 100 mm D i a m e t e r
O p e n - T u b e Sampler
Page
NO.
19.4.5 Split Barrel S t a n d a r d Penetration Test

Sampler
19.5 THIN-WALLED STATIONARY PISTON SAMPLER
19.6 CONTINUOUS SOIL SAMPLING

19.6.1 General
19.6.2 The Delft Continuous Sampler
19.7 SAND SAMPLERS
19.8 R O T A R Y CORE SAMPLES
19.9 BLOCK SAMPLES
19.10 HANDLING AND LABELLING OF SAMPLES

19.10.1 General
19.10.2 Labelling
19.10.3 Disturbed Samples of Soil a n d Hand
Specimens of Rock
19.10.4 Samples Taken with a Tube Sampler
19.1.0.5 Rotary Core Extrusion a n d Preservation
19.10.6 Block Samples
20, GROUNDWATER
20.1 GENERAL
20.2 METHODS OF DETERMINING GROUNDWATER PRESSURES

20.2.1 Response Time
20.2.2 Observations in Boreholes a n d Excavations
20.2.3 Standpipe Piezometers
20.2.4 Hydraulic Piezometers
20.2.5 Electrical Piezometers
20.2.6 Pneumatic Piezometers
20.2.7 Installation of Piezometers
20.2.8 Varying Groundwater P r e s s u r e s
20.2.9 Soil Suction
20.3 GROUNDWATER SAMPLES
21, TESTS I N BOREHOLES

21.1 GENERAL
21.2 STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS

21.2.1 General Principles
21.2.2 Preparation f o r Testing
21.2.3 Advantages a n d Limitations
21.2.4 Results a n d Interpretation
Page
No.
21.3 VANE TESTS

21.3.1 General P r i n c i p l e s
21.3.2 A d v a n t a g e s a n d Limitations
21.4 PERMEABILITY TESTS

21.4.2 Preparations for t h e Test
21.4.3 Variable-head T e s t
21.4.4 Constant-head Test
21.4.5 A n a l y s i s of R e s u l t s
21.4.6 Formulae f o r Borehole Permeability T e s t s
21.4.7 A d v a n t a g e s a n d Limitations
21.5 PACKER (WATER ABSORPTION) TESTS

21.5.2 Packers
21.5.3 Application a n d M e a s u r e m e n t of P r e s s u r e
21.5.4 M e a s u r e m e n t of Flow
21.5.5 Execution of T e s t
21.6 PLATE TESTS

21.6.1 General
21.6.2 Limitations
21.6.3 Preparation
21.6.4 B e d d i n g of t h e P l a t e
21.6.5 Application a n d M e a s u r e m e n t of Load
21.6.6 M e a s u r e m e n t of Deflection
21.6.7 Execution of T e s t
21.6.8 U s e s of t h e T e s t
21.6.9 Supplementary Test
21.6.10 Horizontal P l a t e T e s t s
21.7 PRESSUREMETER TESTS

21.7.1 T e s t Description
21.7.2 E q u i p m e n t Calibration
21.7.3 Forming t h e T e s t P o c k e t
21.7.5 T e s t s i n Rock
21.8 BOREHOLE DISCONTINUITY SURVEYS

21.8.1 Impression Packer S u r v e y
21.8.2 Core O r i e n t a t o r s
22, FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING AND TESTING IN BOREHOLES 129
22.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 129
22.2 DETERMINATION OF THE GROUND PROFILE 129
22.3 ROUTINE DETERMINATION OF SOIL AND R O C K PROPERTIES 130
22.4 DOUBLE-HOLE SAMPLING 130

Page
No.
22.5 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
23, PROBING AND PENETRATION TESTING

23.1 GENERAL
23.2 DYNAMIC PROBING
23.3 STATIC PROBING O R CONE PENETRATION TESTING

23.3.1 General D e s c r i p t i o n
23.3.2 Mechanical Cone P e n e t r o m e t e r s
23.3.3 Electrical Cone P e n e t r o m e t e r s
23.3.4 General Recommendations
23.3.5 U s e s a n d Limitations of t h e T e s t
23.3.6 P r e s e n t a t i o n of R e s u l t s
23.4 STATIC-DYNAMIC PROBING
PART V : FIELD AND LABORATORY TESTS
24, FIELD TESTS

24.1 GENERAL
24.2 R O C K STRENGTH INDEX TESTS

24.2.1 P o i n t Load S t r e n g t h
24.2.2 S c h m i d t Hammer Rebound Value
24.3 INFILTRATION TESTS
25, PUMPING TESTS

25.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
25.2 GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS
25.3 TEST SITE
25.4 PUMPED WELLS
25.5 OBSERVATION WELLS
25.6 TEST PROCEDURES
25.7 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
26, DISCONTINUITY SURVEYS

26.1 GENERAL
Page
No.
26.2 DISCONTINUITY ROUGHNESS SURVEYS
27, FIELD DENSITY TESTS

27.1 GENERAL P R I N C I P L E S
27.2 SAND R E P L A C E M E N T M E T H O D
27.3 CORE C U T T E R M E T H O D
27.4 W E I G H T I N W A T E R METHOD
27.5 WATER D I S P L A C E M E N T M E T H O D
27.6 RUBBER BALLOON METHOD
27.7 NUCLEAR METHODS
27.8 WATER R E P L A C E M E N T M E T H O D FOR ROCK F I L L
28, INSITU STRESS MEASUREMENTS

28.1 GENERAL
28.2 S T R E S S M E A S U R E M E N T S I N ROCK
28.3 S T R E S S MEASUREMENTS IN S O I L S
29, BEARING TESTS

29.1 V E R T I C A L LOADING T E S T S
29.1.2 Limitations of t h e T e s t
29.1.3 S i t e Preparation
29.1.4 Test Arrangement
29.1.5 Measurements
29.1.6 Test Methods
29.1.7 Analysis of Results
29.1.8 Interpretation o f R e s u l t s
29.2 HORIZONTAL AND I N C L I N E D LOADING T E S T S
29.3 P R E S S U R I Z E D CHAMBER T E S T S
29.4 I N S I T U CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) T E S T S

29.4.1 General
29.4.2 Test Method
29.4.3 L i m i t a t i o n s and U s e o f T e s t
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No.
30. I N S I T U DIRECT SHEAR TESTS

30.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION
30.3 TEST ARRANGEMENT
30.4 MEASUREMENTS
30.5 TEST METHODS
31, LARGE-SCALE F I E L D T R I A L S
31.1 GENERAL
31.2 METHODS OF INSTRUMENTATION
31.3 TRIAL EMBANKMENTS AND EXCAVATIONS
31.4 CONSTRUCTION TRIALS
32. BACK ANALYSIS

32.1 GENERAL
32.2 FAILURES
32.3 OTHER CASES
33. GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING

33.1 GENERAL
33.2 LAND GEOPHYSICS

33.2.1 Resistivity
33.2.2 Gravimetric
33.2.3 Magnetic
33.2.4 Seismic
33.3 MARINE GEOPHYSICS

33.3.1 General
33.3.2 Echo-Sounding
33.3.3 C o n t i n u o u s S e i s m i c Reflection P r o f i l i n g
33.3.4 Side Scan Sonar
33.4 BOREHOLE LOGGING
33.5 CORROSION TESTING

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NO.
34, PRINCIPLES OF LABORATORY TESTING 183
35. SAMPLE STORAGE AND INSPECTION F A C I L I T I E S

35.1 HANDLING AND LABELLING
35.2 STORAGE OF SAMPLES
35.3 INSPECTION FACILITIES
36, VISUAL EXAMINATION

36.1 GENERAL
36.2 SOIL
36.3 ROCK
36.4 PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDS
37, TESTS ON SOIL

37.1 GENERAL
37.2 SAMPLE QUALITY
37.3 SAMPLE SIZE
37.4 TEST CONDITIONS
37.5 RELEVANCE OF TEST RESULTS
38, TESTS ON ROCK
PART V I : REPORTS AND INTERPRETATION
39, FIELD REPORTS
40, S I T E INVESTIGATION REPORT

40.1 GENERAL
40.2 DESCRIPTIVE REPORT

40.2.1 R e p o r t as R e c o r d
40.2.2 Introduction
40.2.3 Description of Site
40.2.4 Geology
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No.
40.2.5 Field Work

40.2.6 Borehole Logs
40.2.7 Incidence a n d Behaviour of Groundwater
40.2.8 Location of Boreholes
40.2.9 Laboratory Test Results a n d Sample Descriptions
40.3 ENGINEERING INTERPRETATION

40.3.1 Matters t o be Covered
40.3.2 Data on which Interpretation i s Based
40.3.3 Presentation of Borehole Data
40.3.4 Design
40.3.5 Construction Expedients
40.3.6 Sources of Materials
40.3.7 Failures
40.3.8 Calculations
40.3.9 References
REFERENCES
TABLES
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES
FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES
PLATES
LIST OF PLATES
PLATES
APPEND ICES
APPENDIX A : INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR DESK STUDY
APPENDIX B : SOURCES OF INFORMATION
APPENDIX C : NOTES ON SITE RECONNAISSANCE
APPENDIX D : INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION
APPENDIX E : SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

INTRODUCTION
PART I
[BLANK PAGE]
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1, SCOPE
Table of Contents
This Geoguide deals with t h e investigation of sites in Hong Kong f o r t h e
p u r p o s e s of assessing t h e i r suitability f o r civil engineering a n d building works.
a n d of acquiring knowledge of s i t e characteristics t h a t affect t h e design a n d
construction of s u c h works a n d t h e s e c u r i t y of a d j a c e n t properties. I t is
essentially BS 5930 : 1981, Code of Practice f o r Site Investigations
(BSI, 1981a), modified a s considered desirable f o r use in Hong Kong.
While t h e basic structure a n d philosophy of BSI (1981a) has been

maintained in t h i s Geoguide, topics of particular importance in Hong Kong have
been supplemented o r rewritten in t h e l i g h t of local conditions a n d experience.
Other sections of BSI (1981a) have been repeated herein without significant
amendment, a n d t h i s has been denoted by a n 12al1'c script. Less r e l e v a n t o r
r a r e l y - u s e d portions of BSI (1981a) have been incorporated only by reference,
or have been specifically deleted.
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In t h i s Geoguide, a s i n BSI (1981a). t h e expression "site investigation"
h a s been used in i t s wider sense. I t i s often used elsewhere in a narrow s e n s e
t o describe what h a s been termed herein "ground investigation". The use of
soil a n d rock a s construction materials is t r e a t e d only briefly: f u r t h e r
information on t h i s is given i n BSI (1981b).
From Part I1 onwards. this Ceoguide is divided as follows .-

Part I/. Part /I deals with those matters of a technical, legal
or environmental character that should be taken into account
in selecting the site for i n determining whether a proposed
site is suitable) and in preparing the design of the works.
Part I/I. Part 111 discusses general aspects and planning of

ground in vestl'gahon, including the influence of general
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condihons and ground condihbns on the selection of methods
of in vestigation.
P a r t s IV a n d V. P a r t s IV a n d V discuss methods of g r o u n d
investigation, sub-divided a s follows : P a r t IV deals with
excavation, boring. sampling, probing a n d tests i n boreholes;
P a r t V deals with field tests a n d laboratory tests on samples.
Part V/. Part V/ deals with the preparation of field reports

and borebole logs, the interpretation of the data obtahed
from the hvescigafhn and the preparahon of the final site
investigation report.
The l a s t section of BSI (1981a), which deals with t h e description of soils

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a n d r o c k s , is not covered in t h i s Geoguide. A companion document. Geoguide 3 :

Guide t o Rock a n d Soil Descriptions ( G C O . 1988), has been devoted entirely to
t h i s topic, a n d t h e r e a d e r should r e f e r t o i t f o r guidance on t h e description a n d
classification of Hong Kong r o c k s a n d soils.
I t may b e noted t h a t t h e r e are some imbalances in treatment of t h e

various topics, with, i n some cases. more comprehensive coverage given t o
methods t h a t a r e less f r e q u e n t l y used. Because i t would not be possible t o
include full coverage of all available s i t e investigation techniques, methods t h a t
a r e well documented elsewhere in t h e l i t e r a t u r e receive a b b r e v i a t e d coverage in
this Geoguide.
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This Geoguide represents a standard of good practice and therefore takes
t h e form of recommendations. Compliance with it does not confer immunity
from relevant statutory and legal requirements. The recommendations given
a r e intended only a s guidance and should not be taken a s mandatory. In this
respect, it should be realized t h a t improvements to many of t h e methods will
continue to evolve.
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2, TERMINOLOGY
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A few commonly-used descriptive terms f o r geological materials a n d
t y p e s of g r o u n d investigation a r e often i n t e r p r e t e d in different ways a n d
t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e definition. I n t h i s Geoguide, t h e terminology given in t h e
following p a r a g r a p h s has been adopted.
"Rock" r e f e r s t o all solid material of natural geological origin t h a t cannot

be broken down b y hand. "Soil" r e f e r s t o any naturally -formed e a r t h material
o r fill t h a t can be broken down b y hand a n d includes rock which has weathered
insitu t o t h e condition of a n engineering soil. F u r t h e r guidance on t h e u s e of
t h e s e terms is given in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
Excluding a n y boulders o r cobbles, a "fine-grained soil" or a "fine soil"
i s o n e t h a t contains a b o u t 35% or more of fine material (silt a n d clay size
particles). A "coarse-grained soil" o r a "coarse soil" contains less t h a n 35% of
fine material a n d more t h a n 65% of coarse material ( g r a v e l a n d s a n d size
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particles). F u r t h e r guidance is given in Geoguide 3.
A "cohesive soil" is o n e which, usually b y v i r t u e of its fines content.

will form a c o h e r e n t mass. Conversely a " g r a n u l a r soil" o r a "cohesionless
soil" will not form a c o h e r e n t mass. These simple terms are useful in t h e
classification of materials d u r i n g g r o u n d investigation f o r t h e p u r p o s e of
choosing a suitable method f o r sampling t h e g r o u n d . A fine soil i s generally
cohesive.
The "matrix" of a composite soil r e f e r s t o t h e fine-grained material

enclosing, o r filling t h e spaces between, t h e l a r g e r g r a i n s o r particles i n t h e
soil.
"Boring" is a method of advancing a cased o r uncased hole (viz a

"borehole") in t h e g r o u n d a n d includes a u g e r boring, percussion boring a n d
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r o t a r y drilling , in which a drill bit i s rotated into t h e g r o u n d f o r t h e p u r p o s e
of forming t h e hole. Although t h e term "drillhole" is commonly used in Hong
Kong because of t h e popular u s e of t h e r o t a r y c o r e drilling method in g r o u n d
investigations, t h e general term "borehole" i s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s Geoguide
f o r simplicity, whether t h e hole is bored, a u g e r e d o r drilled.
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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
PART I 1
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3, PRIMARY OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATION
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Investigatrbn of the site fk an essentrtralprelimnary to the constructlbn
of a// u'vil engineering and building works. and the objectrives h making such
investrgatrons are as follows :
/a1 Suitability. To assess the general suitabfXty of the site
and environs for the proposed works.
/b1 Des~gn. To enable an adequate and economic design to
be prepared incfud~ngthe design of temporary works.
fc1 Construction. To plan the best method of construction;
to foresee and provide aganst d~Yficulties and delays that
may arise during construction due to ground and other
l o d conditrbns; in appropriate cases, to explore sources
of indigenous mater%ds for use in constructrbn /see
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Sectron 8.4); and to se/ect sites for the dfkpod of waste
or surplus materials.
/dl Effect of Changes. To determine the changes that may
arise in the ground and environmental conditrons, eeither
naturdy or a s a result of the works, and the effect of
such changes on the works, on aaacent works, and on
the environment in general.
/e1 Choice of Site. Where alternatives emkt, to advise on
the relative suitabh!ity of dXferent sites, or different
parts of the same site.
In additon, site hvestigatrons may be necessary in reportrng upon the
safety of existrng features and works /see Sectrbn 8.31, for the design of
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exte~wons, vertrical or hor~zontal,to emstrng works, and for invesligating
cases where failure has occurred /see Sectron 8.21.
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4, GENERAL PROCEDURES
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4.1 EXTENT AND SEQUENCE OF INVESTIGATION
4.1. I General
The extent o f the hvestigation depends primarily upon the magnitude
and nature o f the proposed works and the nature of the site.
A site ~nvestigationwifl norma//y proceed in stages, as fo/laws :desk
study; site reconnaissance; detailed examination for design, including ground
in vesogation, topographic and hydrographic survey and spec12 studies; follow-
up investigatJons during constructJon (Figure 1). This may be fohwed by
appraisal of performance. Some o f the stages may overlap, or be taken out of
sequence; for example, the site reconnaissance may well take place before
completion o f the desk study.
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The costs o f a site investigation are low in refatJon to the overall cost
o f a project and may be further reduced b y intelligent forward planning.
Discussion at an e&y stage with a speciaht contractor wifl help to formdate
an efficient and economic plan. The technicaf requirements o f the
investigation shoufa' be the overriding factor in the selection o f investigatory
methods, rather than the]> cost.
A s far as possibfe, assembly o f the desk study hformation shoufd be
complete, a t least h respect of t h e aspects refated to ground condizbns,
before ground i n vestJgatJon begins. A preliminary ground in vestigathn may be
desirable to determine the extent and nature o f the main ground investigation.
The extent of the ground investigation is discussed in Chapter 10.
For regional s t u d i e s o r s i t e investigation of projects covering l a r g e
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areas, e.g. road, t u n n e l o r transmission line routes, techniques s u c h as
engineering geological a n d geomorphological mapping, t e r r a i n classification a n d
hazard analysis may b e useful t o delineate critical a r e a s s o t h a t detailed
investigations can be concentrated in a r e a s where t h e y are most r e q u i r e d
(Brand e t al. 1982; Griffiths & Marsh. 1984; Hansen. 1982).
4.1.2 Adjacent P r o p e r t y
Because of t h e d e n s e u r b a n development in Hong Kong, construction

activities can often affect a d j a c e n t property. I t is t h e r e f o r e essential t h a t
investigations should cover all f a c t o r s t h a t may affect a d j a c e n t p r o p e r t y .
including f e a t u r e s s u c h a s slopes a n d retaining walls (see Chapter 7 a n d
Section 8.3). Where possible, r e c o r d s of ground levels, groundwater levels a n d
r e l e v a n t particulars of a d j a c e n t properties should be made before, d u r i n g a n d
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a f t e r construction. Where damage t o existing s t r u c t u r e s i s a possibility,

a d e q u a t e photographic r e c o r d s should be obtained.
Adjacent buildings, s t r u c t u r e s a n d buried services, including pipes

conveying water, g a s o r sewage, should be specifically considered, a s t h e y may
b e affected by vibrations, g r o u n d settlement o r movement, o r c h a n g e s in
groundwater levels d u r i n g a n d a f t e r construction activities on t h e site.
Hospitals a n d o t h e r buildings containing sensitive i n s t r u m e n t s o r a p p a r a t u s
should b e given special consideration.
Special permission o r approval m u s t be obtained when t h e s i t e i s above o r
near t h e Mass Transit Railway Corporation's t u n n e l s o r s t r u c t u r e s . o r is within
t h e Mid-levels Scheduled Area ( s e e Appendices A a n d B; s e e also Chapter 7).
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The approximate locations of t h e s e two f e a t u r e s a r e shown in Figure 2.
4.2 DESK STUDY
As a f i r s t s t a g e in a s i t e investigation, a desk s t u d y is necessary a n d

AppendixA indicates t h e t y p e s of information t h a t may b e r e q u i r e d . Much
information a b o u t a s i t e may already b e available in existing r e c o r d s . A
summary of t h e important s o u r c e s of information is given in Appendix B.
A new geological s u r v e y is c u r r e n t l y underway in Hong Kong t o replace

t h e existing 1:50 000 scale geological maps and memoir (Allen & S t e p h e n s , 1971):
new 1:20 000 scale geological maps will become available between 1986 a n d 1991
(Figure 3). The new geological s u r v e y u s e s different nomenclature f o r certain
major rock divisions a n d rock t y p e s (Addison. 1986; GCO. 1988; S t r a n g e & Shaw.
1986); t h i s should b e used w h e r e v e r possible.
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An important s o u r c e of basic geotechnical information is t h e Geotechnical
Area S t u d y Programme (GASP) publications available from t h e Government
Publications Centre. Systematic t e r r a i n evaluation has been u n d e r t a k e n at a
scale of 1:20 000 covering t h e e n t i r e Territory (Brand et al. 1982). These
publications generally contain Engineering Geology. Terrain Classification,
Erosion. Landform a n d Physical Constraint Maps. Selected a r e a s of t h e
Territory have also been evaluated a t t h e 'district' scale of 1:2 500. b u t t h e s e
have not been published. The GASP programme a n d t h e a r e a s covered by t h e
GASP publications a r e shown i n Figure 4, a n d examples of some of t h e 1:20 000
maps a r e given in Figure 5.
The Geotechnical Information Unit also contains numerous r e c o r d s of

boreholes from t h r o u g h o u t t h e Territory, a s well a s useful r e c o r d s of landslides.
rainfall a n d piezometric data. a n d laboratory t e s t r e s u l t s o n soil a n d rock
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samples. Relevant d a t a can be easily accessed by geographical location of t h e
site. F u r t h e r details of t h e Geotechnical Information Unit a r e given in
Appendix B.
A useful bibliography on t h e geology a n d geotechnical engineering of

Hong Kong is also available (Brand, 1992). Local maps a n d plans a r e easily
obtained (Table 1). a n d as-built r e c o r d s of p r i v a t e developments a r e retained b y
t h e Buildings Ordinance Office o r t h e Public Records Office ( s e e AppendixB).
Valuable information may often be obtained from aerial photographs. a s
discussed in Chapter 6.
4.3 SITE RECONNAISSANCE

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A t a n early stage. a thorough visual examination should b e made of t h e

site. The e x t e n t t o which g r o u n d a d j a c e n t t o t h e s i t e should also be examined is.
in general, a matter of judgement ( s e e Section 4.1.2). In t h e intensely-
developed u r b a n a r e a s of Hong Kong, i t will usually b e necessary t o inspect
existing slopes a n d retaining walls within a n d s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s i t e a n d adjacent
properties d u r i n g t h e s i t e reconnaissance s t a g e . Appendix C gives a summary
of t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r s i t e reconnaissance a n d t h e main points t o be considered
b u t should not be r e g a r d e d as necessarily covering all requirements.
Nearby cut sfopes can reveal soil and rock types and their stablzty
characteristics, as can old excavations and quarries. Shilarly, in the vicinity
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there may be embankments or bu~idings and other structures having a
settfement history because of the presence of compress~Bleor unstable soih.
Other important evidence that might be obtained from an inspection is the
presence of underground excavations, such a s basements and tunnefs. The
beha viour of structures simiar to those intended shoufa' also pro vide useful
hformatJon, and the absence of such structures may be significant, a s may be
also the presence of a vacant site zn the midst of otherwise intensive
de vehpment.
Exampfes of earlier uses of the site that may affect new construct~on
works are given in Chapter 5.
4.4 DETAILED EXAMINA TION AND SPECIAL STUDIES
For most projects, the design and planning of construction will require a
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detaded examination of the site and its surround~ngs/see afso Append~kD).
Such requirements may necessitate a detailed land survey /see Append~xD.ZI, or
an investigation of liabifity to flooding. The hvestigation of ground conditions
is dealt with in Parts IZI and IK Other requirements may entail studies of
special subjects such a s hydrography /see Appendix D. 3); micrometeorofogy /see
Append~kD. 4); sources of mater~als (see Appendix D. 5); disposal of waste
materials /see Appendix 0.6); or other en vironmental considerations.
Tbe poss~B~Xty of disused tunnels affecting the site should also be
considered (see Section 5.21.
In areas where underground cavities are suspected (Culshaw & Waltham,
1987). it may be necessary to carry out a special study to assess the suitability
of the site for development (see Section 7.1 ).
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4.5 CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Construction and performance appraisal are discussed in Chapter 16. Table of Contents
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31
5, EARLIER USES OF THE SITE
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5.1 GENERAL
If a site has been used for other purposes in the past, this can have a
significant effect on the present intended use. A careful visual inspechon of a
site and the vegetation i t sustains may reveal clues suggesting interference
with the natural subsoil conditons at some t h e in the past. Examples are
given in Sectlbns 5.2 to 5.6.
Due t o t h e relatively s h o r t history of development in Hong Kong, many
instances of previous u s e of a s i t e can be discovered b y a n inspection of early
maps, aerial photographs a n d o t h e r historical r e c o r d s (see Appendices A a n d
B).
5.2 TUNNELS
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The presence of n e a r b y t u n n e l s may have a profound effect on t h e
intended use of t h e site, a n d should b e fully considered. In addition t o
t u n n e l s in active u s e f o r w a t e r supply, sewage conveyance, r o a d s a n d railways,
u n d e r g r o u n d s h e l t e r s a n d disused t u n n e l s (of a v e r a g e dimensions 2 m high a n d
3 m wide) exist in places t h r o u g h o u t t h e Territory as a r e s u l t of previous
wartime activities.
5.3 MINES AND QUARRIES
A relatively minor amount of e i t h e r opencast o r u n d e r g r o u n d mining has

been u n d e r t a k e n i n Hong Kong, b u t q u a r r y i n g f o r rock p r o d u c t s has been
extensive at some locations, as have borrow a r e a operations. Where t h i s h a s
o c c u r r e d , detailed consideration must be given t o i t s influence on affected
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sites.
5.4 WASTE TIPS
Waste tips, used f o r t h e disposal of domestic r e f u s e , i n d u s t r i a l waste a n d

o t h e r r e f u s e , may b e found in places t h r o u g h o u t t h e Territory. The location
of p a s t o r p r e s e n t 'controlled tips' o p e r a t e d b y Government a r e documented,
b u t o t h e r t i p s may also exist. Harmful i n d u s t r i a l wastes may also b e
encountered. The u s e of waste t i p s i t e s f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s must consider fully
t h e effects of combustible gas, toxic leachate a n d g r o u n d settlement.
Furthermore, sites i n t h e proximity of waste t i p s may also b e s u b j e c t t o t h e
effects of laterally migrating combustible gas a n d leachate.
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5.5 OTHER EARLIER USES
Much of t h e low-lying land of Hong Kong has b e e n ' extended b y

successive s t a g e s of reclamation in t h e p a s t 80 t o 90 years. Former seawalls
a n d o t h e r o b s t r u c t i o n s may t h e r e f o r e be encountered beneath t h e s e a r e a s . The
fill materials used have been variable, often containing l a r g e boulders a n d
building debris. The fill is often underlain b y soft compressible marine
sediments.
Natural slopes a n d boulders, a n d older c u t a n d fill slopes a n d retaining
walls, a r e often prone to landslides a n d o t h e r forms of instability. I t is of
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paramount importance t h a t all slope f e a t u r e s on o r adjacent t o t h e s i t e should
b e examined f o r areas of past, c u r r e n t o r potential instability at a n early s t a g e
i n t h e s i t e investigation.
5.6 ANCIENT MONUMENTS
A l i s t of gazetted historical s i t e s is maintained b y t h e Antiquities a n d

Monuments Office of t h e Government Secretariat, a n d a permit is r e q u i r e d
before commencement of a n y work within a gazetted historical site. I t is
advisable t o consult t h e Antiquities a n d Monuments Office before e n t e r i n g a n y
historical site, e v e n ungazetted sites. During s i t e investigation, a n y discovery
of antiquities or supposed antiquities should b e r e p o r t e d t o t h e Antiquities a n d
Monuments Office (see Appendices A a n d B).
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33
6, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
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6.1 GENERAL
Aerial photographs can b e used in t h e preparation and revision of maps

a n d plans, a n d t h e y can a s s i s t in t h e identification a n d general assessment of
n a t u r a l a n d man-made f e a t u r e s , including geology, geomorphology, hydrology
a n d vegetation. on o r in relation to a site. They a r e particularly useful in t h e
assessment of s i t e history (i.e. c h a n g e s in form. materials a n d land u s e ) a n d
can provide valuable information f o r t h e assessment of slope stability
(Geological Society, 1982).
Black and white aerial photograph coverage of Hong Kong is extensive.

Although partial c o v e r a g e of t h e Territory is available from 1924, t h e f i r s t
complete coverage was obtained in 1963, a s summarised in Table 2. For almost
a n y s i t e i n t h e Territory, r e p e a t e d aerial photograph c o v e r a g e r e c o r d s t h e land
u s e a n d development c h a n g e s t h a t have o c c u r r e d , as well a s a n y history of
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r e c e n t instability. The small scale black a n d white photographs obtained a t
flying heights of o v e r 6 000 m a r e more suitable f o r obtaining a n overall view
of t h e Territory. A small number of t r u e colour. (false) colour i n f r a r e d a n d
black a n d white i n f r a r e d photographs a r e also available. Advice on how t o
obtain t h e aerial photographs i s given in Appendix 8.1.3.
6.2 TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGERY
6.2.1 Map a n d Plan Scales
Accurate topographic maps a n d plans can b e produced from aerial photo-

g r a p h s . A partial catalogue of maps a n d plans available from t h e Lands
Department i s given in Table 1 ( s e e also Appendix B.l.1). Large scale plans
(scales 1:500 t o 1:l 000) a r e usually most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s i t e investigations of
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small a r e a s , whereas plans with scales of 1:5 000 t o 1:20 000 a r e more
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d i s t r i c t o r regional s t u d i e s .
6.2.2 Aerial Photographic Imagery
The scale of an image on a n aerial photograph i s proportional t o t h e

distance between t h e camera a n d t h e s u b j e c t . For a n aerial photograph t a k e n
vertically, tall o b j e c t s ( t o p s of hills and buildings), a n d o b j e c t s n e a r t h e c e n t r e
of t h e photograph. c r e a t e images a t slightly l a r g e r scales t h a n low t e r r a i n o r
similar o b j e c t s n e a r t h e e d g e of t h e photograph. Radial distortion a b o u t t h e
optical axis of t h e camera displaces t h e t r u e vertical away from c e n t r e of t h e
photograph, an effect which becomes more pronounced n e a r t h e e d g e s of a
photograph. This may c r e a t e dramatic effects on large-scale p h o t o g r a p h s with
considerable c h a n g e s in elevation from one portion t o a n o t h e r .
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Despite t h e s e s o u r c e s of distortion. f o r s i t e s which can b e identified

within t h e c e n t r a l t h i r d of a vertical aerial photograph a n d which contain
t e r r a i n of broadly similar elevation, reasonably a c c u r a t e scaled images can b e
obtained by proportioning t h e distances between o b j e c t s identifiable on a map
( o r plan) a n d a contact p r i n t of a n aerial photograph, a n d by using t h i s
proportion ratio a s a n enlargement factor. Most aerial photography has been
obtained using cameras with l a r g e format negatives. Prior t o 1963, t h e sizes
of t h e contact p r i n t s v a r y , b u t a r e usually 162 mm b y 175 mm. With few
exceptions, t h e negatives obtained from 1963 t o t h e p r e s e n t a r e 228 mm b y
228 mm. The image produced on contact p r i n t s is extremely s h a r p , a n d clear
images c a n be obtained e i t h e r b y viewing t h e contact p r i n t s with a magnifying
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lens o r stereoscope, o r by enlarging all o r p a r t of t h e negative. Enlarged
p r i n t s c a n be used e v e n f o r s t u d i e s of small a r e a s of t h e size of a n individual
building site.
6.2.3 Orthophoto Maps a n d Plans
Orthophoto maps a n d plans, which consist of rectified ( t r u e t o scale)

photographs o v e r p r i n t e d with contours o r g r i d s c a n be made (overseas only)
f o r both vertical a n d oblique aerial photography. Rectification of t h e image
can be performed optically o r digitally; t h e accuracy is determined b y t h e
number of control points supplied, t h e d e g r e e of rectification desired a n d t h e
scale of t h e original photography.
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6.3 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION
6.3.1 Identification a n d Interpretation of Ground Features
Aerial photographs can b e i n t e r p r e t e d a t a r a n g e of scales a n d levels of

detail t o provide information valuable t o both t h e design of s i t e investigations
a n d t o t h e interpretation of t h e results. The design of s i t e investigations f o r
l a r g e projects s u c h as r o u t e c o r r i d o r s (e.g. roads, railways, pipelines o r
transmission lines) can benefit enormously from a preliminary aerial photograph
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (API) s u r v e y . This can highlight t h e n a t u r a l a n d man-induced
characteristics of t h e t e r r a i n , noting in particular h a z a r d s a n d r e s o u r c e s t h a t
may have a significant effect on t h e feasibility o r design of t h e project. Even
when performed f o r smaller sites, a n API s t u d y can often provide useful
information on t h e distribution a n d t h i c k n e s s of natural a n d fill materials, a n d
may reveal potential problems originating from adjacent land. Sequences of
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aerial photographs t a k e n a t different d a t e s can b e compared to determine t h e
location, extent a n d approximate time of filling a n d reclamation, a n d t h e
s e q u e n c e of development of a n area.
Aerial photographs, particularly when examined stereoscopically, can

often be used t o identify a n d delineate specific ground f e a t u r e s s u c h a s t h e
distribution of soil t y p e s (e.g. colluvial a n d alluvial deposits), soil t h i c k n e s s ,
bedrock t y p e , d e p t h t o bedrock, f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n s a n d spacings, as well a s
local relief. API is of particular value i n t h e mapping of "photolineaments".
This term r e f e r s t o s t r a i g h t o r gently-curving f e a t u r e s on aerial photographs
which a r e usually t h e s u r f a c e expression of variations in t h e s t r u c t u r e o r
materials of t h e underlying bedrock. Photolineaments a r e usually marked b y
topographic highs o r lows i n t h e t e r r a i n b u t sometimes t h e y may be more
s u b t l e f e a t u r e s , which can only b e identified b y different vegetation growth.
reflecting underlying c h a n g e s in soil t y p e , soi! t h i c k n e s s or moisture content.
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Well-defined linear depressions usually indicate t h e location of l e s s r e s i s t a n t

bedrock o r of discontinuities in t h e bedrock s t r u c t u r e s u c h as faults, f r a c t u r e
zones o r major joints. Local linear topographic highs o r lines of boulders o r
rock o u t c r o p s may indicate t h e p r e s e n c e of a rock u n i t t h a t is more r e s i s t a n t
t o weathering.
All t h e f e a t u r e s mentioned above may be important f o r t h e interpretation

of s i t e conditions. Early identification by API of major c h a n g e s in soil a n d
rock t y p e s a n d f e a t u r e s t h a t a r e likely t o have a significant influence o n t h e
local groundwater regime can b e of g r e a t assistance in t h e design of t h e
ground investigation a n d in establishing a geological model f o r t h e site.
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Reviews of API and related mapping techniques a r e contained in
Geological Society (1982). Some good examples of t h e u s e of API techniques a r e
provided by Lueder (1959). Van Zuidam & Van Zuidam-Cancelado (1979),
Verstappen & Van Zuidam (1968) a n d Way (1978).
6.3.2 Examples of API i n Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, API techniques have been successfully applied t o both

specific problems a n d regional appraisals. Examples of t h e former a r e given in
Brimicombe (1982). Bryant (1982) a n d Koirala e t a1 (1986). Systematic regional
API s t u d i e s have been u n d e r t a k e n within t h e Geotechnical Area Studies
Programme (GASP) t o provide information f o r planning, r e s o u r c e appraisal a n d
engineering feasibility s t u d i e s ( s e e Section 4.2). The f i r s t of t h e regional GASP
r e p o r t s was available in 1987 ( G C O , 1987) a n d a f u r t h e r eleven r e p o r t s in t h e
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s e r i e s were published between 1987 a n d 1989. All GASP maps a r e available f o r
inspection in t h e Geotechnical Information Unit ( s e e Appendix B ) .
F i g u r e 6 shows a n example of a vertical black and white aerial photo-

g r a p h of p a r t of Hong Kong Island a n d includes t h e corresponding portion of
t h e 1:20 000 scale geological map ( G C O , 19861. Some f e a t u r e s of t h e bedrock
s t r u c t u r e c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d from t h e aerial photograph. For example, t h e
location of t h e f a u l t line shown on t h e geological map can b e clearly seen a s a
s t r a i g h t , deep valley i n t h e c e n t r e - e a s t p a r t of t h e photograph. Near t h e
north e a s t e r n c o r n e r of t h e photograph, t h e photolineaments indicated on t h e
map can b e seen t o correspond t o less clearly-defined valleys.
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PLANNING THE GROUND INVESTIGATION
PART I I 1
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7, INTRODUCTION TO GROUND INVESTIGATION
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7.1 OBJECTIVES
For new works, t h e objectives of ground investigation are t o obtain

reliable information t o produce a n economic a n d safe design a n d t o meet
t e n d e r a n d construction requirements. The investigation should be designed t o
verify a n d expand information previously collected. In Hong Kong, because of
i n t e n s e u r b a n development, i t is often necessary t o investigate t h e effects of
new works on t h e s a f e t y of existing f e a t u r e s a n d works: i n particular, t h e
effects on t h e stability of existing slopes a n d retaining s t r u c t u r e s ( s e e
Sections 4.1.2 a n d 8.3).
The objective o f ground investigation related to defects or f a i h r e s o f

existhg features o r works (see Section 8.21, o r to safety o f existing features
and works (see Section 8.31, wiiY be directly related to the particular problems
~nvol ved The requirements f o r i n vestljrathn o f materials f o r constructhn
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purposes are discussed i n Sectlbn 8.4.
An understanding o f the geology o f the site i s a fundamentaf require-

ment in the planning and interpretation o f the ground i n vestigatlbn. I n some
cases where the geology i s relatively straightforward and the engineering
problems are not complex. suffic~entgeofogical hformation may have been
provided by the desk study, subject to confirmatibn b y t r i d p i t s or boreholes
o r both. I n other cases, i t may be necessary to undertake geolog~calmapping,
which is discussed i n Chapter 9.
O f p r h a r y hportance w i l be the establishment of the so17profile or sod

and rock p r o f i / , and the groundwater condit~ons. The profile shouM be
obtained by close visual inspection and systematic description of the ground
using the methods and term~irologygiven fir Geoguide 3 ( G C O , 1988), or a
suitable alternative system. I n many cases, this. supplemented by limited
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insitu o r laboratory testing, will s u f f i e . I n others, it w~Ylbe necessary to
determine i n detail the engineering properties of the soils and rocks. The
extent of the ground hvestigatfon i s discussed i n Chapter 10. Mere
appropriate, the geometry and nature o f discontinuities shoufd be estabhbed
(see Section 12.11).
I n many cases. especially in slope design, i t will b e v e r y important t o

determine t h e variations in t h e groundwater regime in r e s p o n s e t o rainfall.
The investigation should embrace al/ ground i n which temporary or

permanent changes may occur as a result of the works. These changes include
:changes i n stress and associated strain, changes ~n moisture content and
associated volume changes, changes li, groundwater level and flow pattern. and
changes in soil properties such as strength and compress1;3ility. Materials
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placed in the ground may deteriorate. It is therefore necessary to provide

informaaon from which an estimate o f the corros~~vity of the ground can be
made (see Chapter 131.
Special measures may b e r e q u i r e d to locate disused t u n n e l s o r u n d e r -

g r o u n d cavities, which may collapse, resulting in damage t o s t r u c t u r e s ( s e e
Sections 8.3.2. 10.3.3 a n d 10.7.2). Other h a z a r d s may a r i s e from earlier uses of
t h e s i t e (see Chapter 5 ) .
7.2 PLANNING AND CONTROL
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Before commenuhg ground investgaton, dl relevant informaton
collected frwn the sources discussed in Part I1 should be considered together
to obtiui, a prehinary concepton of the ground conditions and the
engineering problems that may be involved T h k will assist in plannhg the
amount and types of ground hvestigatrbn required
Plannhg of the ground investigation should be flexible so that the work
can be varied as necessary h the light of fnsh information. On occasions,
especiafly on large or extended sites, a prefimhwy hvestigation may be
necessary in order that the main investgatian may be planned to best
advantage fsee Sectbns 4.1.1 and 10.4).
The g r o u n d investigation should b e largely completed before t h e works
are finally designed. I t i s t h e r e f o r e important t h a t sufficient time f o r g r o u n d
investigation (including dealing with all legal. environmental, contractual a n d
administrative matters, r e p o r t i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) is allowed i n t h e overall
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programme f o r a n y scheme. For example, i n slope design. piezometers should
b e installed well i n advance t o obtain sufficient g r o u n d w a t e r d a t a f o r t h e
design. Should c h a n g e s in t h e p r o j e c t o c c u r a f t e r completion of t h e main
investigation, additional g r o u n d investigation may be required. If so, t h e
programme should b e a d j u s t e d to allow f o r t h e additional time r e q u i r e d .
Somethes, conditons necessitate additondl investigation after the works

commence. In tunnelfihg, for example, probing ahead of the face may be
required to give warning of hazards or changes in ground conditlbns. The
propertes of the ground and also the groundwater levels may vary with the
seasons. In plannihg the ~hvestigation,consideraton should be given to
predicting the ground conditions a t other t h e s of the year.
The ~hpositonof limitatons on the amount of ground investgation to
be undertaken, on the grounds of cost and the, may result h insufficient
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infomaton beihg obtained to enable the works to be designed, tendered for
and constructed adequately, economicdly and on the. Add1'0ond investi-
gations carried out a t a later stage may prove more costly and result in
delays.
A s g r o u n d investigations i n Hong Kong must often b e u n d e r t a k e n i n
u r b a n areas (Plate l A ) , i t is often necessary t o obtain road excavation permits.
temporary licences or way leaves before commencing t h e g r o u n d investigation.
For some s i t e s i t will be necessary to coordinate t h e works with t h e
requirements of t h e t r a f f i c police a n d o t h e r authorities (Plate 1B). P r o p e r
identification a n d maintenance of utilities encountered b y t h e works is
essential; high voltage power cables. g a s distribution lines a n d o t h e r utilities
often p r e s e n t significant s a f e t y hazards.
Since backfilled pits a n d boreholes might i n t e r f e r e with s u b s e q u e n t

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construction, t h e y should b e sited a n d backfilled with care. I t is essential

t h a t t h e precise location of e v e r y excavation, borehole or probing is properly
r e f e r e n c e d to t h e 1980 Hong Kong Metric Grid a n d recorded d u r i n g t h e
execution of t h e fieldwork. I t is also essential t o establish a n d record t h e
g r o u n d levels of t h e s e locations. The r e c o r d s should b e s u c h t h a t t h e
locations a n d levels c a n be readily incorporated i n t o t h e r e p o r t o n t h e
investigations (see Sections 10.5 a n d 40.2.8).
Investigations f o r new works a n d all o t h e r building works within t h e

Mid-levels Scheduled Area (Figure 2) must comply with t h e provisions of t h e
Buildings Ordinance (Government of Hong Kong. 19851, including t h e submission
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of t h e ground investigation plan t o t h e Buildings Ordinance Office for approval
and consent to commence t h e work.
Where t h e proposed investigation is in t h e vicinity of t h e Mass Transit

Railway, o r within t h e limits of t h e railway 'protection boundary', details and
locations of t h e proposed works, including t h e depths of any proposed
boreholes, should be forwarded to t h e Mass Transit Railway Corporation for
agreement prior to commencement of t h e work.
Should i t appear during t h e course of t h e investigation t h a t items of

archaeological o r historical significance have been encountered, t h e Antiquities
and Monuments Office should be notified (see Section 5.6).
To obtain the greatest benefit fm a ground investigation, it is

essential that there is adequate directrbn and supervisbn of the work b y
competent personnel who have approprhte knowledge and exper~enceand the
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authoriy to decide on var~atronsto the ground investigation when required
(see Chapter 15).
In planning ground investigations, particular attention should be paid to
t h e safety of personnel. Certain methods present special safety problems, and
recommendations a r e given in t h e relevant sections. Other methods involve
normal safety precautions appropriate to site o r laboratory work. A list of
statutory regulations which may apply t o ground investigations is given in
Appendix E; this list is not necessarily complete, and if there is doubt over
safety precautions, f u r t h e r advice should be obtained.
Appendix A summarises t h e types of information t h a t may be required in

planning a ground investigation.
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8, TYPES OF GROUND INVESTIGATION
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8.1 SITES FOR NEW WORKS
In vestigat~ons
for new works d~Werfrom the other types of h vestigatlbn
mentioned ILJ Chapter Z in that they are u M y wider li, scope because they
are required to y~eldinformation to assist h selecting the most suitable
location for the works, and the des~gnand construction of the works. For
example, when slope excavathn has to be carr~edout, a knowledge of the
subsurface materi*alsand groundwater cond~*tibnsshould indkate :
whether removal of t h e material will be difficult.
whether t h e s i d e s of t h e excavation will b e stable if
u n s u p p o r t e d o r will r e q u i r e s u p p o r t ,
whether groundwater conditions will necessitate special
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measures s u c h a s g r o u n d w a t e r d r a i n a g e o r o t h e r
geotechnical processes.
w h e t h e r t h e n a t u r e of t h e g r o u n d will c h a n g e a s a r e s u l t
of excavation, e.g. opening of relict joints in t h e soil
mass,
what form of s u r f a c e protection is required.
On the desjyn side, it is necessary to assess such considerations as
bearing capacity and setuement of foundations, stability of slopes ~ i ,
embankments and cuttings, earth pressures on supporthg structures. and the
effect of any chemically aggressive ground conditom. For the design of new
works, it is important that the range of cond~'tions,including least favourable
conditions, should be known. This entays not only a study of the degree of
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var~kbifityin the soil and rock profiles over the area of the site, but also an
appreciation of the possibe hjur~ouseffects of groundwater var~ationsand
weather c0nd~'tibnson the propertis of the various subsurface materials.
Where works r e q u ~ kexcavations into or within rock. iduding weathered rock,
the orientatrbn and nature of discontinuities in the rock may be the most
hportant factors.
Often, a preliminary design of t h e proposed works is of g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e
in t h e identification of parameters t h a t are r e q u i r e d t o b e obtained from t h e
g r o u n d investigation.
Investigations should a s s e s s whether t h e proposed works may i n d u c e

g r o u n d movements which could affect a d j a c e n t land, s e r v i c e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s .
a n d w h e t h e r t h e hydrogeological regime may be a d v e r s e l y affected (see
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Sections 4.1.2 a n d 8 . 3 ) .
8.2 DEFECTS OR FAILURES OF EXISTING FEATURES O R WORKS
The investigation of a site where a falure has occurred is often

necessary to estabfish the cause of the faiure and to obtarh the hfonnation
required for the design of remedid measures.
Observations a n d measurements of t h e f e a t u r e o r s t r u c t u r e to determine
t h e mode o r mechanism of failure a r e f i r s t needed, a n d t h e s e will often
s u g g e s t t h e origin of t h e trouble, o r at least indicate whether t h e g r o u n d
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conditions were p a r t l y o r wholly responsible. If t h i s is t h e case, a n
investigation will b e r e q u i r e d t o ascertain t h e ground a n d groundwater
conditions relevant t o t h r e e phases of t h e s i t e history, i.e. before t h e works
were c o n s t r u c t e d , at t h e time of failure a n d as t h e y exist a t p r e s e n t (see also
Chapter 32). Each problem will need t o b e considered on its merits.
Indications of t h e probable c a u s e of a failure will often r e s u l t in detailed
attention being directed t o a particular a s p e c t o r t o a particular geological
feature.
In the case of slope failure, or where such faihre is considered

imminent, 12 is common practice to monitor movements both of the surface and
underground The former is conducted b y conventionalsurvey methods and the
latter b y means of slip indicators or incfinometer measurements. These
techniques are fu/y described in BSI 11981b) and in the Geotechnical Manual
f o r Slopes (G CO, 1984). It is also usually necessary to monitor groundwater
pressures within the various underlying zones (see Chapter 201.
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fierefore, an investigation to determine the causes of a failure may be
much more detailed in a partzkuhr respect than would n o r d y be the case in
an investiga&bn of new works.
8.3 SAFETY OF EXISTING FEATURES AND WORKS
8.3.1 Effect of New Works upon Existing Features a n d Works
Because of t h e d e n s e u r b a n development in p a r t s of Hong Kong, i t is

often necessary t o investigate existing f e a t u r e s a n d works in t h e immediate
vicinity o r even remote from t h e s i t e of t h e proposed new works, t o decide
w h e t h e r t h e existing works a r e likely t o be affected b y c h a n g e s in t h e g r o u n d
a n d groundwater conditions b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e new works.
8.3.2 Types of Effects Table of Contents
Existing slopes a n d s t r u c t u r e s may be affected b y changed conditions

s u c h as t h e following :
Impeded drainage, which may r e s u l t in a r i s e i n t h e

groundwater level. This can c a u s e softening of cohesive
materials a n d reduction of s h e a r s t r e n g t h of permeable
materials, a n d give r i s e t o increased pore p r e s s u r e s
affecting t h e stability of slopes a n d retaining walls;
swelling may r e s u l t in g r o u n d heave.
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Excavations o r demolitions in t h e immediate vicinity.

which may c a u s e a reduction i n s u p p o r t t o t h e slope o r
s t r u c t u r e , e i t h e r b y general g r o u n d deformation o r b y
slope instability.
S t r e s s e s t h a t t h e new s t r u c t u r e may impose on existing

slopes o r s t r u c t u r e s , o r on t h e foundation materials
below a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s . which can c a u s e slope
instability o r d i s t r e s s t o existing s t r u c t u r e s .
( d ) Vibrations a n d ground movement resulting from traffic,
v i b r a t o r y compaction, piling o r blasting i n t h e immediate
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vicinity, o r from o t h e r construction activities.
/el Lowering the groundwater level b y pumping from wels or

dewatering of excavations or tunnels w17l cause an
increase i n the effective stress in the subsoil affected
which can lead to excessive settlement of adjkcent
structures. Also, if pumps do not have an adequate
filer, the leaching of tihes from the subs017 can easily
result in excessive settlement of structures at
considerable distance from the pump.
In a r e a s w h e r e n a t u r a l u n d e r g r o u n d cavities can occur.
e.g. k a r s t f e a t u r e s in t h e Yuen Long basin, increase in
effective s t r e s s o r downward ravelling of soil d u e t o
heavy pumping may lead t o subsidence o r t h e formation
of sinkholes (Siu & Wong. 1984).
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ff) Tunnelling operations i n the ne~ghbourhood which may
cause deformations and subsidence; the effect of tension
and compress~unon drainage should not be overlooked.
fg) Alterahon in stream flow of a waterway, wh~ch may
cause ~ n d e r c ~ t t i nof
g banks or scouring of foundations
of wafls, bridges and p~ers,and may be due to works
carr~edout some distance away.
fh) Silahon of the approaches of harbour works or the
changing of navigation channel afignments.
8.3.3 Procedure
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In the ~ h v e s t ~ g a t ~ofo n
the safety of existing features or works, the /list
requirement is an apprec~htionof the changes to the ground that are likely to
occur. The ground investigahon wifl need to provide knowledge of the
subsurface materials, together with the examination and testing of samples to
assess the effect that the changed cond12ions are likely to have on these
mater~kls. In some cases, it may be necessary to carry out a detailed analysis
to estimate the effect of the changed conditins on the safety of the existing
features and works.
8.4 MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION PURPOSES
Invest~gationsof sites are sometimes requked :

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fa) to assess the suitability, and quantities, for construchon

work of materials that become available from excavations
or dredging, e.g. whether spoil from cuts in road and
rayway works win be suitable for li//s i n other places,
( b ) t o find suitable materials f o r specific purposes, e.g. t o
locate borrow pits o r a r e a s f o r e a r t h w o r k s ( a common
problem in Hong Kong where i n t e n s e u r b a n development
demands a c o n s t a n t s e a r c h f o r suitable fill materials); t o
a s s e s s the suitability of materials in waste tips that may
need to be removed for environmental reasons,
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fcl to Jocate suitabJe dXsposaJ s12e.s for waste and dredged
rnaterids.
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9 , GEOLOGICAL MAPPING FOR GROUND I N V E S T I G A T I O N
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The object of geological mapping is t o a s s e s s t h e c h a r a c t e r , distribution
a n d s t r u c t u r e of t h e soils a n d rocks underlying t h e area. Interpretation of t h e
geological conditions a t t h e s i t e may not be possible without mapping a l a r g e r
area. An u n d e r s t a n d i n g of geological f e a t u r e s is a pre-requisite t o i n t e r p r e t i n g
t h e geological conditions a t t h e site, a n d a suitably t r a i n e d specialist should
normally u n d e r t a k e t h i s task.
A s a base map o r reference, t h e new 1 2 0 000 scale geological maps a r e

most useful. These maps will become available between 1986 a n d 1991
(Figure 3). Two existing 1:50 000 geological maps (which c o v e r t h e e n t i r e
T e r r i t o r y ) a r e also available (Allen & Stephens, 1971). Methods used f o r
geological mapping a t t h e regional scale a r e equally suitable f o r s i t e specific
mapping f o r g r o u n d investigations (Geological Society, 1982; Strange. 1986) a n d
may b e supplemented b y interpretation of aerial photographs ( s e e Chapter 6 )
a n d geophysical investigations (see Chapter 33).
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Natural exposures and artificial exposures, such as cut slopes and
quarries, beyond the site may provide data on the material and mass
characterisbcs o f soils and rocks. ~ h c l u d h g ,for example, the orientabon,
frequency and character o f bedding and jbinbhg discontinu~'bes, weathering
profiies, and the nature o f the junction between superficial and s o M
formabbns. Such information should be used as a guide only to conditoons
likely to be present at the site. Caution is needed in extrapohling data;
geologcal deposits may vary l a t e r d y , and very important geo/ogialstructures,
such as faults and other majar disconbhuities, may have only a restricted
extent.
It may be expedient to hvestigate local conditions at an early stage of
the mapphg, u s h g mechanically excavated s M o w pits and trenches. The
walls o f excavations and, where appropr~ate,the f/oor should be mapped at a
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suitably large scale and sampled before backijlfing takes place.
Slope s u r f a c e s t r i p p i n g is also commonly used in Hong Kong f o r t h e
p u r p o s e of geological mapping ( s e e Section 18.1).
Recording o f geo/ogcal information should be undertaken at a// stages o f

the works.
F u r t h e r information a n d examples of engineering geological mapping a r e
given elsewhere ( B u r n e t t & Styles, 1982; Geological Society, 1972; IAEG, 1981;
ICE, 1976; UNESCO, 1976).
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10, EXTENT OF THE GROUND INVESTIGATION
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10.1 GENERAL
The extent o f the ground investigafion is determined by the character
and variability of the ground and groundwater, the type o f project, and the
amount o f existing information. I t is important that the general character and
variabifity o f the ground should be estabhhed before deciding on the basic
principles o f the design of the works.
In Hong Kong. soils derived from insitu rock weathering generally exhibit
great variability even within relatively short distances. Granitic and volcanic
rocks, which together form the major portion of the solid geology of the
Territory, may be weathered to soils typically to depths of 30 m and 10 m
respectively. Under certain geological conditions, granitic rocks may be
weathered to over 100 m deep. Examples can be found in the Mid-levels area. Ma
On Shan and Yuen Long. It i s important to recognize that ground conditions
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may not always improve with depth; on occasions, hard rock a t t h e ground
surface may be underlain by thick zones of weaker material. Similarly. fill
materials within reclamations may vary considerably. Hong Kong soils and rocks
are further discussed in Geoguide 3 ( G C O . 1988).
Investigations include a range o f "methods'; e.g. excavations, b o r e h o k ,

probing, see Chapters I 7 to 23. The factors determining the selection o f a
particular method are diicussed in Chapters If, I 2 and I 7 to 23. In genera4
the recommendations in Sections 10.2 to 10.7 appfy irrespective o f the method
adopted, and the term "exploration point" is used to describe a position where
the ground is to be exdored b y any partkular method
Each combination o f project and site is Me& to be unique, and the
foflowing generalpohts should therefore be considered as guidance in planning
the ground investigation and not as a set o f rules to be applied rigidly in
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every case.
10.2 CHARACTER AND VARIABILITY OF THE GROUND
The greater the natural variabifity of the ground, the greater wi'l be the
extent o f the ground jhvestigation requii-ed to obtain an ihdicatlbn of the
character o f the ground The depth of exp/orahon is generafly determined by
the nature o f the works projected, but it may be necessary to exp/ore to
greater depths at a lihited number o f poihts to establish the overall geological
conditions. The technical development of the project should be kept under
continuous review, since decisions on the design will influence the extent of
the jir vestigation.
It ii jhportant to realize that the detailed geology o f a site can be no
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more than inferred from aerial photography, surface outcrops and subsurface
information at the positions o f the explorathn points. The possibility remains
that significant undetected variations or discontinuities can exist, includihg
lateral o r vertical varjahons within a given layer. The uncertainties can be
reduced but, except by complete excavation. can never be whofly eliminated b y
a more ihtensive inveshgation. The use of angled boreholes can in certain
cases greatly assist interpreting vari~honsbetween vertical boreholes (see also
Section 10.l.81. In some circumstances, additonal information between
investigation points can be obtained b y geophysical methods (see Chapter 331.
10.3 N A T U R E OF THE PROJECT
3 . General
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The investigation should yield sufficient data on which to base an
adequate and econom~'caldesign of the project. It should in aadit~onbe
sufficient to cover possible methods of construction and, where appropriate, to
indicate sources of constructhn materials. The lateral and vertical extent of
the invesbgathn should cover aLf ground that may be s~gnificantfy affected b y
the new works or their constructzbn. Two typical examples are the zone of
stressedgruund beneath the bottom of a group of pii'es; and an adJ;lcent slope,
the stabZty of which may be reduced b y the works.
10.3.2 Slope a n d Retaining Wall Construction
Due t o t h e extensive construction of slopes a n d retaining walls i n Hong

Kong, detailed guidance on t h e n a t u r e a n d c o n t e n t of s i t e investigation f o r
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t h e s e f e a t u r e s is given in Tables 3 a n d 4. F u r t h e r discussion of t h e design
a n d construction of slopes a n d retaining walls is given in t h e Geotechnical
Manual f o r Slopes ( G C O . 1984) a n d in Geoguide 1 : Guide t o Retaining Wall
Design (GEO, 1993).
10.3.3 Foundations f o r S t r u c t u r e s
Most s t r u c t u r e s in Hong Kong a r e founded on piles. Hand-dug caissons.

driven piles, machine-bored piles a n d b a r r e t t e s a r e commonly used. A general
approach t o planning a ground investigation suitable f o r pile design p u r p o s e s is
given in ICE (1978). The investigation should make a full appraisal of t h e s i t e
a n d t h e ground conditions should be investigated a t d e p t h s well below t h e
proposed pile toe level t o allow f o r variations in t h e pile design. Knowledge
of t h e groundwater conditions i s also required. F u r t h e r advice on g r o u n d
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investigation f o r foundations is given in Section 10.7.2. BSI (1986) a n d
Weltman & Head (1983).
In a r e a s w h e r e major s t r u c t u r a l defects in rock may o c c u r (e.g. k a r s t

f e a t u r e s in t h e Yuen Long basin, o r major s h e a r o r fault zones), more
intensive investigation a n d g r e a t e r exploration d e p t h s t h a n normally
recommended may be r e q u i r e d . Consideration may need t o be given t o locating
u n d e r g r o u n d cavities within t h e zone of influence of t h e loaded area, a n d t o
identifying o t h e r possible significant f e a t u r e s s u c h as steeply-dipping rockhead,
f r a c t u r e s a n d alternating soil a n d rock layers.
Recommendations on t h e d e p t h of exploration f o r foundations f o r

s t r u c t u r e s , including shallow foundations, a r e given in Section 10.7.2.
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10.4 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
Before deciding on a full investigation programme, i t may b e advisable t o

excavate trial pits o r t o s t r i p t h e s u r f a c e cover from slopes f o r a preliminary
assessment of g r o u n d conditions. These should be carefully examined, logged
a n d sampled ( s e e Section 18.1).
For l a r g e p r o j e c t s r e q u i r i n g s t a g e d g r o u n d investigations, i t will often be

useful d u r i n g t h e f i r s t s t a g e t o c a r r y o u t a geophysical s u r v e y i n addition t o
some widely-spaced boreholes t o identify those a r e a s which r e q u i r e more
detailed investigation.
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10.5 LOCATION
The points o f exploration, (e.9. boreholes, soundings, pits) should be

located so that a general geological view o f the whole site can be obtained,
together with adequate detays o f the engineering properhes o f the soils and
rocks and of groundwater conditlbns. More d e t d e d informahon shouM be
obtained at positbns of important structures and earthworks, at points of
special engineering difficulty or importance, and where ground conditions are
compficated, e.9. suspected buried va/lys, old s/ipped areas and underground
cavities. Rigid, preconceived patterns o f pits, boreholes or soundkgs shouM
be avoided. In some cases, it wig not be possible to locate subsurface
features until much of the ground investigation data has been obtained In
such cases, the programme o f in vestigations shou/d be modfled accordingly.
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The locations of boreholes a n d o t h e r exploration points should only b e
planned a f t e r t h e desk s t u d y , s i t e reconnaissance a n d geological mapping a r e
completed. I t i s often useful t o locate boreholes at t h e intended positions of
l a r g e deep foundations. For slopes, boreholes should generally b e located
along anticipated critical slope sections, a s well a s uphill a n d downhill f o r area
a n d regional stability studies.
For tunnels and incfined shafts, boreholes should be offset so as not to

interfere with subsequent construction. For other structures, the need to
offset boreboles and trial excavahbns from criticapoints should be considered
In most cases, boreholes should be carefufly backfilled, concreted or grouted
up. T r ~ kexcavations
l shouM be located outside proposed foundation areas.
I t is essentid that accurate locations and ground levels for all
exploration points should be estabfished, I necessary b y survey
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(see Section l.2).
10.6 SPACING
Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, a relatively close
spacing between points o f &orahon, e.g. I0 to 30 m, wi/ often be
appropriate for structures. For structures small in plan area, explorahon
should be made a t a minimum o f t h e points ifpossible. Where a structure
consists o f a number o f adjacent units, one exp/oration p o h t per unit may
suffice. Certain engineerhg works, such as dams, tunnels and major
excavations, are particularly sensih've to geological conditons, and the spacing
and locahon o f exploration points shouM be more closely related to the
detailed geology o f the area than I> usual for other works.
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In t h e case of a proposed c u t slope extending from soil into rock, t h e

level of bedrock along t h e f a c e of t h e cutting is important. Consideration
should b e given t o obtaining t h e s u b s u r f a c e profile b y additional drilling a n d
geophysical means. In t h e c a s e of reclamation, v e r y closely spaced boreholes
may b e r e q u i r e d t o locate a n d delineate buried obstructions s u c h a s remnants
of a n old seawall.
10.7 DEPTH OF EXPLORATION
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10.7.1 General
The d e p t h of exploration is governed b y t h e d e p t h t o which t h e new

project will affect t h e g r o u n d a n d groundwater o r b e affected by them.
Normally, exploration should be t a k e n below all deposits t h a t may be unsuitable
f o r foundation purposes, e.g. fill a n d weak compressible soils, including a n y
weak materials overlain by a s t r o n g e r layer. The exploration should be t a k e n
t h r o u g h compressible soils likely t o c o n t r i b u t e significantly t o t h e settlement
of t h e proposed works, generally t o a d e p t h where s t r e s s increases cease t o b e
significant, o r deeper.
In Hong Kong, i t is common practice to drill into rock f o r a d e p t h of a t

least 5 m t o establish whether corestone, boulder o r bedrock h a s been
encountered. However, t h e final d e p t h of drilling will depend on t h e need t o
prove b e d r o c k . In some cases, i t will be necessary t o drill d e e p e r t h a n 5 m t o
establish conclusively t h e presence of bedrock, f o r example, i n investigations
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f o r e n d bearing piles (see Section 10.7.2). In o t h e r instances, i t may not be
necessary t o terminate drilling in rock ( s e e Section 10.7.4).
More specifica//y. the recommendations given ~nSections I'D. Z 2 to I'D. Z 8

may be considered for certain types of work. I t is not always necessary that
every exploration should be taken to depths recommended i n SectJons IO.l.2 to
10.Z8. In many instances, it wi// be adequate IF one or more boreholes are
taken to those depths i n the early stages of the field work to estabfish the
general subsurface profile, and then the remainder sunk to some lesser depths
to exp/ore more thoroughly the zone near the surface which the initial
exphrahon had shown to be most relevant to the problem i n hand
10.7.2 Foundations f o r S t r u c t u r e s
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In the case of foundations for structures, the depth o f exphratron
should be at least one and a half times the width of the loaded area.
Commonsense will indicate exceptions to this guidefine; for example, 12 would
not usually be necessary to continue drilfing for long distances i n strong rock.
For foundations near the surface, the loaded area is considered as either :
(a/ the area of an individual footing, or
(bl the plan area of the structure, where the spacing o f
foundahbn footings is less than about three tJhes the
breadth, or where the floor loading is significant, or
(cl the area of a foundation raft.

In each case, the depth should be measured below the base o f the
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footing or raft.
Wherepiled foundations are considered to be a possibi/ity, the length o f
pile usually cannot be decided unt17 an advanced stage o f the project. No
exp/icit rules can be given for the depth o f exploration, but the fohwing
offer some guidance :
(a) Fill a n d weak compressible soils seldom c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e

s h a f t r e s i s t a n c e of a pile and may a d d down d r a g t o t h e
load on it. The whole pile load. possibly with t h e
addition of down d r a g . will have t o be b o r n e b y t h e
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s t r o n g e r materials lying below t h e weak materials, e i t h e r
in e n d bearing o r t h r o u g h s h a f t resistance.
The l e n g t h of driven piles is often determined initially

b y t h e driving resistance, a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y checked b y
load t e s t s . Hence, in s u c h cases, t h e length of t h e pile
is not accurately known until t h e piling c o n t r a c t begins,
b u t i t may b e possible t o gain a n early indication from
s t a n d a r d penetration t e s t (SPT) blow counts.
In t h e case of e n d bearing piles in s t r o n g rock,

boreholes should be of sufficient d e p t h t o establish
conclusively t h e presence of bedrock. The rock should
t h e n b e f u r t h e r explored, usually b y means of r o t a r y
drilling, t o s u c h a d e p t h t h a t t h e e n g i n e e r directing t h e
investigation (see Section 15.2) is satisfied t h a t t h e r e is
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no possibility of weaker materials occurring lower down
t h a t could affect t h e performance of t h e piles. This will
usually r e q u i r e penetrating a t l e a s t 5 m, o r two a n d a
half times t h e diameter of t h e pile, whichever is l a r g e r ,
below t h e proposed founding level of t h e pile. For
boreholes c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g construction t o prove
satisfactory pile founding levels, t h e d e p t h of penetration
may have t o be increased where l a r g e corestones o r
boulders a r e suspected o r have been identified nearby.
In weathered rocks, i t may not always be feasible t o

locate underlying f r e s h rock. Foundations in t h i s case
must often b e founded in t h e weathered rock, a n d
proving t h e s t r e n g t h a n d continuity of t h e material below
t h e intended founding level a n d t h e location, n a t u r e a n d
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orientation of discontinuities may t h e n suffice.
Pile-supported r a f t s on clay may be used solely t o r e d u c e

settlement. I n t h e s e cases, t h e d e p t h of exploration is
governed b y t h e need t o examine all s u b s u r f a c e materials
t h a t could contribute significantly t o t h e settlement.
Similarly, f o r pile g r o u p s on clay, i t will be necessary t o
e n s u r e t h a t t h e d e p t h of exploration i s sufficient t o
p r o v e t h e adequacy of t h e founding material below t h e
toe of t h e piles.
Based on the informat~bnof the probable subsurface profile obtained

from the desk study, the genera/ guidance given in fal to (el above,and an
assessment of the types of pile likely to be considered, the engineer directing
the hvestigathn shouh' determine the depth of exploraation and be ready
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during the course of the field work to modify this depth as appears to be
necessary. In any event, exp/oration should at some pofnts be taken below the
depth to which it is cons~'deredMely that the longest piles w i l penetrate.
I t should be noted t h a t if a n y s t r u c t u r e i s likely t o be affected b y

s u b s i d e n c e d u e t o collapse of u n d e r g r o u n d cavities (e.g. k a r s t f e a t u r e s in t h e
Yuen Long basin) o r a n y o t h e r causes, g r e a t e r exploration d e p t h s t h a n t h o s e
recommended in t h i s Section may be r e q u i r e d .
10.Z 3 Embankments
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For embankments on alluvial and marhe soils, the depth of the
exploraation should be sufficient to check possible shear failure through the
foundation materials and to assess t%relikely amount of any settlement due to
compress~Ble materids. In the case of water-retaining embankments,
investigation should explore all materials through which piping could be
initiated or significant seepage occur.
10.7.4 C u t Slopes
The d e p t h of exploration f o r c u t slopes should b e sufficient t o permit

full assessment of t h e stability of t h e slope. This may necessitate proving t h e
full d e p t h of a n y relatively weak o r impermeable materials s u c h as decomposed
d y k e s (Au. 1986). In general, exploration f o r slopes should extend a minimum
of 5 m below t h e toe of t h e slope o r 5 m i n t o bedrock, whichever i s
shallower. However, one o r more exploration points should in all cases extend
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below t h e toe of t h e slope o r excavation, irrespective of bedrock level.
Groundwater conditions, including t h e possibility of perched o r multiple water
tables, should also be determined.
10.7.5 Pavements
For pavements, t h e d e p t h of exploration should be sufficient t o

determine t h e s t r e n g t h a n d drainage conditions of possible s u b - g r a d e s .
Exploration t o a d e p t h of 2 t o 3 m below t h e proposed formation level will
probably b e sufficient in most cases.
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For shallow s d p~pefines,it wil frequently be suffiient to take the
depth of exploration to 1 m below the invert le veL For deeper p~pelinesthe
depth of explora&o should be sufficient to enable any likely difficultres in
excavating trenches and supporting the p~;Oelinesto be discovered; a depth a t
least I to 2 m below the invert level may be advisable. Large pipelines,
especially those in ground of low bear~hg capacity, require specid
consideration.
10.7.7 Marine Works
For marine works, the effects described in Sections 10.7.2 and 10.7.3 may
apply and, in additbn, consia'erafion shouh' be given to the effects of fi'dal
variations.
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In many cases of reclamation, i t may be sufficient t o terminate drilling

shortly below t h e base of a n y s o f t deposits t h a t a r e present.
10.7.8 Tunnels
For tunnels, it is important to take the exploration to a generous depth

below the proposed h v e r t level because changes in design may result i n the
lowering of the level of the tunne4 and because the zone of lnfluence of the
tunnel may be extended by the nature of the ground at a greater depth.
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Long horizontal boreholes parallel t o the proposed tunnel alignment are
extremely useful, particularly where the location of the proposed tunnel i s
overlain by thick layers of deeply weathered rock (McFeat-Smith, 1987).
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11, SELECTION OF GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS
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11.1 GENERAL
Although the character of the ground and the technic& requirements are
the most important aspects in the selection of methods of ground investigation,
sefectrbn may also be ifluenced b y the character of the site, the a v d a b ~ x t y
of equipment and personneL and the cost of the methods.
The specialist n a t u r e of ground investigation work should a t all times b e
considered. In most cases i t will be necessary t o employ a c o n t r a c t o r who is
experienced in t h e t y p e of investigation work which is being proposed, a n d
who has p r o p e r equipment a n d experienced personnel t o c a r r y o u t t h e works.
11.2 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
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The topography, nature of the ground surface, surface water, the
existence of buifd~hgsor other structures and land 'owner~h~>' may cause
problems of access to the locations for borehofes, or interfere with g e o p h y s ~ ~ ~ f
methods. For example, on very steeply sloping open sites, it may be necessary
to construct an access road or lower the equ~pmentdown the sfope or haul it
up. Where the working pos12ion is on steeply sloping ground. it will be
necessary to form a hor~zontafwork~ngarea by excavation or the use of
staging (Plate 2A). On sites that are obstructed b y buildings and other
structures, it may be necessary to demofish wa//s to gain access.
Alternatively, it may be possible to lift the equ12ment over obstructions ushg
a crane or to use special equ~>mentthat can be dismantled and man-handled
through the bu17ding and used in a confined space. Gaining access to sites
covered by water presents special problems fsee Chapter 14). I f the ground
surface is soft, it can be traversed o d y by very light equ~kment. Where t h ~ k
would not be effective, access roads for heavier equipment will be required
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Alternatively, the use of heficopters or hovercraft may be appropriate.
For g r o u n d investigation within o r r e q u i r i n g access t h r o u g h privately-
owned land, including properties of t h e utilities companies a n d armed forces,
permission should f i r s t be obtained from t h e owners. For Government land,
approval should b e s o u g h t from t h e r e l e v a n t District Lands Office. For sites
u n d e r t h e control of Government, approval must b e obtained from t h e r e l e v a n t
Department concerned. Such s i t e s include r e s e r v o i r s , service r e s e r v o i r s , roads.
highways, c o u n t r y p a r k s , Urban Council p a r k s , etc. Permission t o e n t e r a s i t e
f o r purposes of g r o u n d investigation may place f u r t h e r restrictions on .the
methods used. For example, i t may be necessary t o control o r eliminate t h e
r e t u r n of flushing media from boreholes t h a t affect a d j a c e n t slopes, fish ponds.
cultivated fields, o r highways ( s e e Section 18.7.1). Also, t h e p r e s e n c e of
foundations and services often r e s t r i c t t h e u s e of inclined drilling t h r o u g h
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existing retaining walls into a d j a c e n t properties.
Access f o r drilling r i g s should b e assessed in t h e field with t h e

assistance of plans, maps a n d aerial photographs. Timber scaffolding is often
used in Hong Kong t o provide access o v e r r u g g e d t e r r a i n a n d t o c o n s t r u c t
drilling platforms in v e r y s t e e p t e r r a i n (Plate 28). As s u c h scaffolding can
account f o r a l a r g e portion of t h e total c o s t of t h e investigation, c a r e should
b e t a k e n t o locate boreholes f o r e a s e of access w h e r e possible.
Most methods of boring a n d field t e s t i n g r e q u i r e a s u p p l y of water. On

a s i t e where water is not available, i t will be necessary t o a r r a n g e f o r a
temporary s u p p l y t o b e provided. I n t h e u r b a n area, water can often b e
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obtained from fire h y d r a n t s upon application t o t h e Water Supplies Department
f o r t h e h i r e of a metered adaptor. In r u r a l a r e a s water may be obtainable
from wells, r i v e r s o r streams. On s i t e s where t h e provision of water p r e s e n t s
a major problem, i t may be necessary t o t r a n s p o r t t h e water in bowsers, o r t o
use alternative methods of investigation; for example, with r o t a r y drilling a n
a i r foam flush could b e used instead of water flush ( s e e Section 18.7). Where
water is u s e d a s t h e flushing medium, a d e q u a t e measures should be provided t o
p r e v e n t silt a n d o t h e r d e b r i s in t h e flushing r e t u r n from e n t e r i n g t h e
permanent drainage system, t h e r e b y causing siltation a n d o t h e r problems. Such
measures may include settling basins a n d s a n d / s i l t t r a p s .
Other site considerations which may r e s t r i c t t h e methods used a r e as

follows :
(a) Trees on Government land are protected, a n d should be

p r e s e r v e d as f a r a s possible in gaining s i t e access o r in
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choosing investigation points. Permission t o lop o r c u t
down a n y t r e e s will not b e g r a n t e d unless good c a u s e is
shown.
( b ) 'Fung shui' a s p e c t s of some s i t e s a r e of g r e a t social a n d

religious significance, a n d local advice should b e s o u g h t
in planning t h e investigation.
(c) Buried utilities a n d services a r e v e r y common a n d must

be accounted for, a s must subways a n d o t h e r t u n n e l s
(e.g. Mass Transit Railway t u n n e l s ) t h a t may pass
beneath t h e site.
(dl Seismic s u r v e y s employing explosives may be r e s t r i c t e d o r

prohibited in built-up areas.
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(e) Noise restrictions may prohibit the u s e of certain
methods of investigation.
(f) The difficulty in s t o r a g e of spoil may r e s t r i c t t h e u s e of

trial pits on some sites.
F u r t h e r advice on planning a g r o u n d investigation a n d relevant sources

of information can be found in Appendices A a n d B (see also Sections 4.1.2
a n d 7.2).
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12, EFFECT OF GROUND CONDITIONS ON INVESTIGATION METHODS
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12.1 GENERAL
This c h a p t e r considers t h e f a c t o r s involved in t h e choice of t h e most

suitable p r o c e d u r e s f o r boring, drilling, sampling, probing a n d field t e s t s , a s
determined b y t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e g r o u n d . Specific r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e
g r o u n d conditions commonly e n c o u n t e r e d in Hong Kong; t h e s e a r e f u r t h e r
described elsewhere (Brand & Phillipson, 1984; Endicott. 1984; G C O , 1988;
Phillipson & Brand. 1985). The following sections should b e r e a d in conjunction
with Table 8, which summarises typical sampling p r o c e d u r e s f o r different t y p e s
of materials ( s e e Section 19.1). F r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e i s made to classes of sample
quality, which a r e defined in Table 9 ( s e e Section 19.2).
The determination of the groundwater cond12ions I> a most important part

of a ground investigation. I t f ~ v o l v e sthe installation of p~ezometers and
borehole or field testing (see Chapters 20, 21 and 25), and is not, i n genera/, a
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major consideration i n the choice of a procedure for d r i / / i g and sampling.
Ceophys~kd methods are often a useful means of interpolating between
boreholes i n a variety of ground cond~Zions(see Chapter 33).
12.2 GRANULAR SOILS CONTAINING BOULDERS. COBBLES O R GRAVEL
Some t y p e s of colluvium a n d alluvium may fall into t h i s c a t e g o r y , a s may

some fill a n d soils derived from insitu rock weathering. although t h e l a t t e r two
t y p e s a r e considered more fully in Sections 12.8 a n d 12.10.
Within t h e limits of c o s t , t h e b e s t method for investigating t h i s t y p e of

g r o u n d i s b y means of a d r y excavation ( s e e Sections 18.1 a n d 18.2). The
excavation permits t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e g r o u n d t o b e inspected, samples t o b e
obtained. a n d field t e s t s t o b e used t o measure insitu d e n s i t y , s t r e n g t h a n d
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deformation characteristics ( s e e Chapters 27. 29 and 30).
If i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o investigate t h e g r o u n d below t h e g r o u n d w a t e r table.

dewatering may b e r e q u i r e d t o obtain a d r y excavation. The possible effects on
a d j a c e n t g r o u n d of a n y dewatering should f i r s t be assessed. however, a n d i t
may b e n e c e s s a r y in some c a s e s t o a d o p t alternative methods of investigation
below t h e g r o u n d w a t e r table.
Rotary water f l u s h drilling may b e employed ( s e e Section 18.7). using a

t r i p l e - t u b e c o r e - b a r r e l with r e t r a c t o r s h o e f o r matrix material a n d a diamond
drill b i t f o r boulders. I t may also b e possible t o u s e a U l O O sampler ( s e e
Section 19.4.4) in matrix material t o obtain class 3 o r 4 samples. The u s e of a i r
foam a s a flushing medium may e n h a n c e c o r e recovery a n d sample quality.
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During boring, t h e r e may b e difficulty in advancing t h e boreholes and.

consequently, in obtaining samples of a d e q u a t e quality. Boring may b e
u n d e r t a k e n with t h e l i g h t cable percussion method using t h e shell ( s e e
Section 18.5). a n d employing t h e chisel when rock fragments too l a r g e t o e n t e r
t h e shell a r e encountered. The sides of t h e borehole m u s t b e s u p p o r t e d with
casing. Disturbed samples t a k e n from t h e shell a r e usually only class 5
( g r a d i n g incomplete) because t h e fine fraction may have been washed o u t a n d
t h e c o a r s e f r a g m e n t s may have been b r o k e n u p b y u s e of t h e chisel.
Borehole tests can be used to obtain an indicatlbn of the properties of
the ground. The standard penetrahon test (see Sect~on21.21 will give some
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indication of relative density. Occasional high values that are unrepresentative
of the true relative density will be obtained when the penetrometer encounters
coarse graveL In ground contahfhg cobbles or boulders, the standard
penetratlbn test gives an increasing proportion of unrealisticaly high results.
The borehole permeabifity test fsee Section 21.41, may give a reasonable
indication of permeability, and the results can also be used to give a guide to
the proportion of tihe particles i n the soiL A more rehble assessment of
permeability wifl be obtained from a pump~hgtest, (see Chapter 25). The cone
penetration test fsee Sechon 23.31, has limitations where there is a s~gn~flcant
content of boulders or cobbles. It is also limiited because of the inabimy of
the cone to penetrate dense gravel. The "static-dynamic" test (see
Section 23.41, is useful for this purpose, although its results win also be
affected where cobbles or boulders are encountered The pressuremeter is
useful in coarse granular so~7s when held w12hin a slotted casing (see
Section 21.71.
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12.3 GRANULAR SOILS
These soils include sands, silty sands and sandy silts, and are fairly
common in alluvial or marine deposits. Boreholes in these materials may be
sunk by the light cable percussion method using the shell, or by rotary
drilling. Disturbed samples taken with the shell are likely t o be deficient in
fines, and therefore of class 5 only. Samples suitable for a particle size
distribution test, class 4 , may be obtained using the split barrel standard
penetration t e s t sampler. Larger class 4 samples can sometimes be obtained
using UlOO sampling equipment with a core-catcher.
The action of forcing a sampler into granular soils tends to cause a

change in volume, even if the area raho is s d (see Sectrbn 19.4.1/21),and
hence the density of the s a m e may not be representative of the layer. In
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some cases, a piston samp/er wi7.Jbe effective (see Section 19.51,'this should
produce class 2 sampLes or, where the so~7is loose or very dense, class 3
samples. However, i n both cases the moisture content of the samples may be
unrepresentative of the insitu ground With clean sand, normal samp/ng
equipment may fail to recover a sample, and it wi/ then be necessary to use
the compressed a> sand s-er /see Sechbn 19.7),' sample classes w17l be
similar to those obtained with a piston sampler.
In shallow investigations above the water table, excavations or hand
augering (see Sechbn 18.41, may be used.
A guide to the relative density of granular so17s is obtained b y the
standard penetration test. However, the results can eas17y be i n v W a t e d by
loosening of the so17 below the water table. Where it IS important that the
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relative density should not be underestimated, for example when a driven p17e
prokct is being inveshgated, the relative density should be assessed b y the
cone penetration test.
Approxhate values of the strength and compressibility parameters can
be estimated on an empirical basis from the results of the standardpenetration
test or, preferably, from the results of the cone penetratlbn test.
Pressuremeter tests are also usefuL A more direct determination requires the
use of plate tests carried out in a dry excavation (see Sechon 21.6 and
Chapter 291.
Permeabifity may b e assessed from borehole permeabifity tests (see
Section 2I.31, or b y pumping tests (see Chapter 251.
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12.4 INTERMEDIATE SOILS
These include clayey s a n d s , clayey silts and silts, and may be

encountered in alluvial a n d marine deposits. The selection of methods of
g r o u n d investigation will depend on whether t h e material behaves a s a g r a n u l a r
soil o r a cohesive soil.
12.5 VERY SOFT TO SOFT COHESIVE SOILS
These include s a n d y clays, silty clays o r clays. They a r e commonly

e n c o u n t e r e d in marine a n d alluvial deposits. The normally consolidated a n d
lightly overconsolidated marine clays may be sensitive, while t h e alluvial silty
clays a r e generally insensitive.
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Rotary drilling o r t h e light cable percussion method may b e used t o
a d v a n c e holes in s o f t cohesive soil. Considerable c a r e is r e q u i r e d with r o t a r y
drilling t o avoid c h a n g e of water content a n d d i s t u r b a n c e by t h e drilling fluid.
Class 1 samples can be obtained by using a piston sampler. Class 2 o r 3
samples can sometimes be obtained with a n o p e n - t u b e sampler. Continuous
samples, usually class 3, can be obtained with a Delft sampler (see
Section 19.6). Disturbed samples from t h e clay c u t t e r of t h e light cable
percussion method a r e generally class 4. Where t h e borehole contains water, i t
may be necessary t o u s e t h e shell, in which c a s e class 4 samples can b e
obtained provided t h a t lumps of intact soil can be recovered.
The insitu v a n e t e s t is b y f a r t h e most satisfactory means of measuring

t h e undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h of s o f t clays, b u t t h e penetration v a n e test
a p p a r a t u s is much t o b e p r e f e r r e d t o equipment which is u s e d in boreholes ( s e e
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Section 21.3). Vane t e s t s a r e particularly effective if combined with s t a t i c
cone penetration t e s t s ( s e e Section 23.3). For laboratory t e s t purposes
(particularly oedometer t e s t s ) l a r g e diameter samples ( g r e a t e r t h a n 150 mm)
should be obtained w h e r e v e r possible. The compressibility values obtained from
Rowe cell t e s t s on l a r g e diameter samples (see Chapter 37 a n d Table 12) may
b e used in conjunction with insitu c o n s t a n t head permeability measurements t o
give a reasonable estimate of r a t e of consolidation settlement.
12.6 FIRM TO STIFF COHESIVE SOILS
These materials may b e encountered as l a y e r s within marine o r alluvial

deposits.
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Rotary drilling can be u s e d , b u t considerable c a r e i s r e q u i r e d t o avoid

c h a n g e of water c o n t e n t a n d d i s t u r b a n c e b y t h e drilling fluid. The r e t r a c t a b l e
t r i p l e - t u b e core-barrel can b e used in r o t a r y drilling t o obtain class 2 a n d
sometimes class 1 samples. The 100 mm open-tube sampler can be used t o
obtain class 2 t o 3 samples. Alternatively. t h e light cable percussion method
with clay c u t t e r can be used, which will r e s u l t i n class 5 samples.
12.7 COHESIVE SOILS CONTAINING BOULDERS, COBBLES O R GRAVEL
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Most colluvium a n d some t y p e s of alluvium fall i n t o t h i s category, a s
may some fill a n d soils derived from insitu rock weathering, although t h e
l a t t e r two t y p e s a r e considered more fully in Sections 12.8 a n d 12.10.
W M n the fim12s of cost, the best method of investigating cohesive soils

containing boulders, cobbles or gravel is by a dry excavation. The excavathn
wiiY enable the structure of the ground to be inspected, samp/es to be
obtained, and field tests for the determination of the insitu density, strength
and undrained deformation character~str'csto be carr~edout.
When using borehole methods of investigation, t h i s t y p e of g r o u n d
p r e s e n t s difficulties in both advancing t h e hole a n d recovering samples of
a d e q u a t e quality. Rotary drilling is often employed, using triple-tube core-
b a r r e l s equipped with a r e t r a c t o r shoe f o r t h e matrix materials a n d diamond-
impregnated drill bits f o r rock fragments a n d boulders. Class 1 samples c a n be
obtained b y employing a i r foam flush with t h e l a r g e diameter t r i p l e - t u b e core-
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barrel. Class 1 t o 2 samples may be obtained with r e t r a c t a b l e t r i p l e - t u b e
c o r e - b a r r e l s and water flush. The u s e of U l O O samplers can yield class 2 o r
3 samples of t h e matrix material, while t h e split b a r r e l s t a n d a r d penetration
test sampler can b e used t o obtain class 3 t o 4 samples. The s t a n d a r d
penetration t e s t is sometimes used t o obtain a r o u g h indication of s t r e n g t h ,
b u t i t may give misleading r e s u l t s if boulders a n d cobbles a r e p r e s e n t .
F17l can conskt of replaced natural ground, or waste materkls of various

origins. The uniformity of fi/l w i l depend on the degree of control which has
been imposed, on the quality of the incoming material and on the method of
placing and compaction. In older filL there may have been little or no control
of the filfing operation, and the major problem i n planning the ground
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investigation wi/ be to assess the variation in character and quality across the
site. Often, the variation wifl be random.
Conventronal methods of boring, sampling and h s i t u testing, as
appropriate to the character of the ground, can give informatron on the
thickness and properties of the fil/ at the particular locations of the boreholes
or ins12u tests. It I> essentid to ensure that the borehofe is always fufly
cased through fil/ to avoid contamination of the natural ground from falling
materiaL Pits and trenches are particularly useful for investrgating the nature
and var~kbi/iyof fil/ (see Chapter 181.
In combustible AHs, temperature measurements may be necessary. It
should be noted that on waste tips, burning materials below ground may give
rise to toxic or flammable fumes from the borehole. TIP fies may also create
voids, which may coflapse under the weight of an investiqation rig. Lagoons
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w12hin waste tips may be areas of very soft ground.
12.9 ROCK
Rotary diamond bit c o r e drilling with water flush is normally used in

rock. Soils derived from insitu rock weathering a r e f u r t h e r considered in
Section 12.10. Double-tube o r t r i p l e - t u b e core-barrels may b e employed, with
t r i p l e - t u b e core-barrels giving b e t t e r core recovery a n d causing l e s s
d i s t u r b a n c e , especially in highly f r a c t u r e d o r jointed rock. The use of l a r g e r -
sized equipment producing cores of a b o u t 100 mm diameter o r more will also
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help t o improve core recovery.
Soft i n f l l i n g o f rock discontinuities can sometimes be lost due to

erosion by the flush water, and air o r air foam flush driyfing may be deskable.
I n genera/ rotary core dr17fing with a d~hmonddri7l bit will produce samp/es
which may allow an assessment o f the character and engineering properhes of
the intact rock materia1 Such sampies may a/so give some indicat~ono f the
frequency and dip angle of the discontinuities but not their dip direction,
unless special techniques are used The use o f borehole periscopes, impression
packers, cameras, and television cameras may be usefuZ i n thh connection /see
Section 21.81. I n many cases, rotary core sampZes give no indication of the
character o f any infZfing o f the discontinuities.
I n a ground investigatlbn using light cable percussion borihg or rotary

core drilfing, an indicatlbn of the properties o f the rock mass can be obtained
from tests ih borehoZes. For certaih o f such tests, howevec it wifl be
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necessary to take into account the probable effects o f disturbance o f the
ground by the drilling process. The standard penetration test /see
Section 21.21, can give a rough indication of the variation of strength and
cornpress~'bAityi n weak rock. The permeabifity test (see Section 21.41, o r the
packer o r Lugeon test (see Section 21.51, may give a measure o f the mass
permeabi7ityY which i n t u r n can give an lhdication o f the presence o f open
jbints and other water-bearihg discontli7uities. Where appficable, the plate test
(see Section 21.51, and diyatometers such as the pressuremeter (see
Section 21. I), can be used to investigate deformation properties and possibly
also the strength.
The best method f o r determining the properties o f a rock mass,

including the orientahon o f dikcontinuities, i s visual ihspection, and field tests
carried out i n excavations, caissons or headings (see Chapter 181.
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12.10 SOILS DERIVED FROM INSITU R O C K WEATHERING
Weathered rock t h a t can be r e g a r d e d a n d t r e a t e d essentially a s soil from

a n engineering viewpoint o c c u r s extensively t h r o u g h o u t Hong Kong. These
materials a r e derived primarily from t h e chemical decomposition of t h e p a r e n t
bedrock, a n d t h e i r c h a r a c t e r depends on t h e p a r e n t rock type. Soils derived
from g r a n i t e a r e typically silty o r clayey sands. while those derived from tuff
a n d o t h e r volcanic r o c k s a r e often s a n d y o r clayey silts. These soils v e r y
often contain corestones of l e s s decomposed rock within a more decomposed
matrix, a n d i t is not uncommon to e n c o u n t e r g r a n i t e corestones a s l a r g e a s 3 m
o r more. The d e p t h o v e r which decomposed material c h a n g e s to f r e s h rock is
extremely variable a n d is related t o t h e rock t y p e , joint p a t t e r n , t h e spacing
of t h e joints, faulting. alteration, a n d t h e position of t h e water table (GCO.
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1988).
Where t h e s e soils o c c u r a t shallow d e p t h , pits a r e probably t h e most

effective means of investigation; class 1 block samples of t h e matrix material
can usually b e obtained f o r laboratory t e s t i n g a n d t h e exposure can be fully
described a n d logged.
Rotary drilling can be used t o advance boreholes in t h e s e materials

provided considerable c a r e is taken t o limit d i s t u r b a n c e by t h e drilling fluid.
Retractable t r i p l e - t u b e c o r e - b a r r e l s can generally be used t o obtain class 2 a n d
sometimes class 1 samples. Class 1 samples can be obtained using a l a r g e
diameter t r i p l e - t u b e c o r e - b a r r e l with a i r foam flush. Open-tube samplers
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generally provide class 2 t o class 4 samples. The split b a r r e l s t a n d a r d
penetration t e s t sampler can b e u s e d t o obtain small class 3 or 4 samples.
Borehole tests c a n be u s e d t o obtain a n indication of t h e properties of

t h e g r o u n d . The s t a n d a r d penetration test will give some indication of density
a n d d e g r e e of weathering, although t h e p r e s e n c e of corestones may give
unrealistically high results. The s t a n d a r d penetration test can generally
provide useful information f o r t h e initial assessment of likely pile founding
d e p t h s . The borehole permeability test may give a reasonable indication of
permeability. The p r e s s u r e m e t e r may b e useful f o r measuring g r o u n d stiffness.
In most rocks, the mass properties depend largely on the geometry and
nature of the discontinuities. This can requ~iethe engineering properties to
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be measured in the plane of the discontinu~'tresalong specific orientathns
determined by the anti'c~pateddirections of the stresses to be applied The
controf by discontinuities over the strength and deformtlbn characteristi'cs of
a ground mass is less obvious in so17s derived from ihsitu weathering than in
moderately weathered to fresh rock, but may be equa//y imgortant.
There are no satisfactory drilng or bor~ngtechniques available for
ensuring that the core recovered can be orientated over the full depth
penetrated, but borehole discontinuity surveys can be conducted f e e
Seelion ZI.81. In sofi!s, the discntzhuitis are often d e s t ~ y e dby the dr~Zing
and therefore overlooked Where d~kcontinuities are inp port ant to the
eng~heering problems in volved, i M u exposures of discontinuitJes are necessary
to obtah data on the2- or~entatrbnand nature. After i M a l ~hvestigations
using interpretation of aerial photographs, surface outcrop logging and the
drilfing of vertical and inclined or~entatedholes, it may be necessary to form
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full surface auposures, large dimeter boreholes, trenches, pits or adits to
allow visual inspection around and within the undisturbed ground mass, and
measurement of the relevant discontinuity data (see Chapter 261. In some
projcts, suitable exposures may be provided in exca vatibns necessitated by the
permanent works. The extractrbn or insitu preparation of orientated test
smples can be carried out in these exca vations, together with orientated large
scale tests. The orlentation of the excavations controls thek intersection with
the discontinuities and, consequently, the discontinuity data that can be
obtained Generally, three orthogonal exposures are required to define fully
the spatial distribution of the d~kcontinuiti'es. The extent of the excavations is
governed by the spauhg between discontinuities and the size of the works.
12.12 CAVITIES
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Ground containing n a t u r a l o r man-made cavities can be found i n Hong

Kong (e.g. c a v e r n s i n k a r s t , disused t u n n e l s a n d old mineshafts) a n d t h e
cavities may be v a c a n t o r infiIIed (Culshaw & Waltham. 1987). Difficulties may
b e experienced in advancing a borehole t h r o u g h s u c h ground. A v a r i e t y of
drilling techniques may need to be t r i e d , a n d precautions should b e t a k e n t o
p r e v e n t dropping of t h e drill s t r i n g , a n d to maintain verticality of t h e hole.
Care may also b e r e q u i r e d to avoid g r o u n d subsidence d u r i n g investigation ( s e e
Section 8.3.2). Close supervision is essential f o r s u c h investigations.
13, AGGRESSIVE GROUND AND GROUNDWATER
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13.1 GENERAL
In some a r e a s , soil, rock a n d groundwater may contain certain
c o n s t i t u e n t s in amounts sufficient t o c a u s e damage t o Portland cement concrete
o r steel, While insitu weathered rocks a n d t h e i r associated soils in Hong Kong
are generally not a g g r e s s i v e , t h i s should be confirmed by g r o u n d investigation
a n d laboratory t e s t i n g whenever t h e u s e of g r o u n d a n c h o r s , reinforced fill
s t r u c t u r e s o r o t h e r susceptible s t r u c t u r e s a r e contemplated. Investigations f o r
a g g r e s s i v e ground a n d groundwater should be considered f o r all s i t e s where
t r a n s p o r t e d soils a r e encountered, a n d f o r all marine sites.
The principal constituents causing damage t o concrete are sulphates,

which are most common i n clay soils and acidic waters. Total s u l p h a t e
contents of more t h a n 0.2% b y weight in soil a n d 300 parts p e r million in
g r o u n d w a t e r a r e potentially a g g r e s s i v e (BRE. 1981).
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Corrosion of metal i s caused b y electrolytic o r o t h e r chemical o r
biological actions. In i n d u s t r i a l areas, corrosive action may a r i s e from
individual waste p r o d u c t s t h a t have been dumped on t h e site. In r i v e r a n d
marine works, t h e possible corrosive action of water, sea water a n d o t h e r
saline waters, a n d t r a d e effluents may also r e q u i r e investigation. I n a marine
environment, t h e most s e v e r e corrosion is found in t h e 'splash zone' (i.e. t h e
zone t h a t is only wetted occasionally). The saline concentration in
groundwater near t h e s e a may approach t h a t of seawater. particularly i n t h e
c a s e of reclaimed land. I n e s t u a r i n e situations, t h e r e may b e a n a d v e r s e
condition because of alternation of water of different salinities.
13.2 INVESTIGATION OF POTENTIAL DETERIORATION OF C O N C R E T E
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Laboratory tests t o a s s e s s t h e a g g r e s s i v e n e s s of t h e ground a n d
groundwater a g a i n s t Portland cement concrete include determination of pH
value a n d s u l p h a t e content (BSI. 1975b). Reference should be made t o BRE
(1981) r e g a r d i n g t h e determination of water-soluble s u l p h a t e concentrations.
The pH value may be altered if t h e r e is a delay between sampling a n d testing.
s o field determinations should be made if possible.
Water sampled from boreholes may be altered by t h e flushing water used

in drilling. o r b y o t h e r flushing media employed. Therefore s u l p h a t e a n d
acidity tests c a r r i e d o u t on samples from boreholes may not b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
unless special precautions a r e t a k e n ( s e e Section 20.3).
13.3 INVESTIGATION OF POTENTIAL CORROSION OF STEEL

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The likelihood of corrosion of s t e e l can be a s s e s s e d from tests of

resistivity, redox potential. pH, chloride ion content, total s u l p h a t e content,
s u l p h a t e ion content, a n d total sulphide content. Details of t h e s e t e s t s , a n d
r e l e v a n t limits f o r a relatively non-aggressive environment f o r steel, are given
in t h e Model Specification f o r Reinforced Fill S t r u c t u r e s (Brian-Boys et al.
1986). Chemical tests should be done on u n d i s t u r b e d specimens which have
been placed in clean airsealed containers immediately a f t e r sampling. If
bacteriological attack is expected, u n d i s t u r b e d specimens should be placed i n
sterilized containers a n d t e s t e d in accordance with BSI (1973) (see also
Section 13.2 and Table 12).
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13.4 INVESTIGATION OF FILL CONTAINING INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Industrid waste products can contain a wide range of chemicals,

depending on the industrial processes from which the waste products are
derived. Some chemicafs are h~ghlyaggressive to concrete or steel ~ i r
underground structures, and some can be highly obnoxious or even poisonous.
The fast two characteristics can present major construction problems, e.g. the
disturbance or disposal of contaminated ground, or the disposd of
contaminated groundwater. L ocal enquiries may give some indication of the
orig~nsof the waste materials, and the pH value and sulphate content for the
fil/ and the groundwater will genera//y give some indication of the magnitude
of the contminatlbn. It may then be necessary to carry out a detarjed
chemical study of the ground conditions.
Further guidance i s g i v e n b y Naylor et a1 (1978).
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14, GROUND I N V E S T I G A T I O N S OVER WATER
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14.1 GENERAL
Sinking boreholes below water presents special d~yficult~es

in comparison
with working on dry land. A reasonably stable working platform may be
provided, such as a staging, barge or sh& and the borehole sunk through a
conductor pipe spanning between the working platform and the water bottom.
rncreasing use is being made of a var~etyof penetration testing techniques
(Blacker & Seaman, 1985). In some cases, it may be feasible to lower specidy
designed boring, driflng orpenetration testing equipment to the water bottom
to be operated by remote control or a diver. With remote controL operation
is restricted to a s~hglecontinuous process. Penetration depths vary from less
than 5 m for some devices, to 20 m or more for others. Geophysical
techniques are also used to augment the informaoon obtained from boreholes,
or a s a prefiminary investigation before putting down borehofes (see
Chapter 33).
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A s in land investigations t h e choice of suitable equipment f o r marine
investigations d e p e n d s primarily on t h e expected g r o u n d conditions a n d t h e
p u r p o s e of t h e investigation. Additional factors t h a t must be considered in
marine investigations include t h e water d e p t h , heave of t h e c r a f t caused b y
wave action, tidal fluctuations, a n d w a t e r c u r r e n t s (Blacker & Seaman. 1985).
Also, t h e r e q u i r e d working a r e a f o r a drilling vessel must include a safe
margin f o r anchor lines beyond t h e dimensions of t h e c r a f t itself. A typical
s p r e a d of a n c h o r s would be u p t o 50 m on e i t h e r side of t h e craft.
The scope of the work, including the methods of drilling, samphhg and
insitu testhg, requires careful considera&on depending on the parthuhr
difficulties of the site. When working over water it is essenttkl that due
consideration is given to safety requirements, navigational warnings, and the
regulations of Government Departments and other authorities.
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To avoid i n t e r f e r e n c e with marine traffic, t h e Marine Department must
be notified of investigations s o t h a t a Notice t o Mariners can b e issued.
Special consideration must be given t o s i t e s w h e r e t h e investigation o r
associated c r a f t could p r e s e n t a hazard. For example, c r a f t working close t o
t h e runway of Kai Tak Airport must not pose a hazard t o aircraft; permission
f o r a n y s u c h work must f i r s t b e obtained from t h e Civil Aviation Department.
Similarly. permission must b e obtained from t h e Mass Transit Railway
Corporation, t h e Cross Harbour Tunnel Co. Ltd, t h e Water Supplies Department,
o r t h e various public utility companies if work is t o be c a r r i e d o u t n e a r
submerged tunnels, pipelines o r major utilities (see Appendices A a n d B).
Ground invesfiyafions conducted from above water are often more

expensive and time consum~hgthan comparable hvest~gathnsconducted on dry
land, and there may be a temptation to economize by reduchg the scope of
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the ~hvestigatlbn. The extent of the requirement for ground investigabons

shouM be realisticafly assessed, shce econom~esi n t h ~ kdirection can turn out
to be false.
Tropical cyclones may lead t o disruption of investigations, especially in

t h e summer months. I t i s a usual i n s u r a n c e requirement t h a t vessels proceed
t o a typhoon s h e l t e r when t h e s t r o n g wind warning signal number 3 o r above
h a s been issued ( o r is forecast) b y t h e Royal Observatory.
14.2 STAGES AND PLATFORMS
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Mere stable working platforms are available or can be provided, such as
oil dr17ling platforms and jetties or purpose-bu17t scaffold stages and drilfing
towers, 12 is generdy possible to use conventional dry-land ground
investigation drilfing equipment and conventional methods of sampling and
insitu testing. When working from existing structures, it may be necessary to
construct a cantilevered platform over the water on which to mount the
drilling rig. m e n drjyfing close to the shore in relatively shallow water, it
may be more convenient to construct a scaffold staging from land to the
borehole location. Alternative&, it may be more economical to construct a
scaffold or other tower a t the borehole locathn, i n which case some means of
transporting the drilfing equ~bmentto the tower wifl need to be provided.
Some towers are constructed such that they can be moved from one borehole
location to another without having to be dismantled.
Jack-up platforms, and special craft fitted with spud legs, can be floated
into positlbn and then jkcked out of the water to stand on their legs. They
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can combine manoeuvrability w12h fu/fi/ent of the requirement for a fked
w o r m platform.
Jack-up and other fixed platforms effectively overcome the problem of
heave and allow a high standard of drilling, testing and sampling to be
achieved. Jack-up platforms currently available in Hong Kong are capable of
operation in water depths not exceeding about 12 m (Plate 3A).
The design of dl staging, towers and platforms should take into account
the nature of the seabed, fluctuating water levels due to tides, waves and
swefl conditions. It is essential that such constructibns should be sufficjently
strong for the boring operations to resist waves, tidal flow and other currents
and floatihg debris.
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14.3 FL UA TINC CRAFT
The type of floating craft suitable a s a drjYfing v e d depends on a

number of factors such a s whether the water is sheltered or open, the anchor
holding properties of the seabed, whether accommodation for the personnel is
required on board, the like& weather conditlbns, the depth of water and the
strength of currents. In inland water, a small anchored barge may suffice, but
i n less sheltered waters a barge should be of substanthl size, and anchors wi/
require to be correspondi&y heavy. In offshore conditions, a ah12 is often
employed, and it may then be possible to accommodate the personnel on board,
with a saving in auxifiary su&y vessels.
An auxifiary vessel will be required to handle the moorings ifa barge is
used for the work, but in certah cases a sh@ may be able to lay and pick up
its own moorings. Generdy, four or s ~ k poht moorings will be required, and
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anchors should have the best hold~hgcapacity feas~Ble. In water deeper than
80 m, conventional moorings become difficult, and the use of vessels
maintained in position b y computer-controlled thrusting devices should be
considered.
Special techniques are required to deal with fluctuating water levels due
to tides, waves and swell conditions (Plate 3 B ) , particularly with rotary drilling
where a constant pressure between the drill bit and the bottom of the
borehole is required (Smyth & Mcsweeney, 1985). When the heave is
anticipated t o exceed a b o u t 300 mm, i t is necessary t o employ a heave
compensator system if high quality samples a r e t o be obtained. Heave
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compensator systems allow t h e drill s t r i n g a n d sampling equipment t o b e
isolated from t h e vertical movements of t h e c r a f t (Blacker & Seaman, 1985).
Pontoons a n d b a r g e s should be anchored a t t h e c o r n e r s using a n c h o r

lines a t l e a s t five times t h e d e p t h of water. In exposed waters, motorized
mooring winches a r e necessary.
14.4 WORKING BETWEEN TIDE LEVELS
Sinking boreholes between high a n d low t i d e levels may b e achieved

using scaffold stagings. platforms (see Section 14.2) o r flat-bottomed pontoons,
o r by moving drilling r i g s t o t h e location d u r i n g periods permitted by t h e
tides.
When i t is intended t o conduct drilling operations from flat-bottomed
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c r a f t r e s t i n g on t h e seabed a t low tide, t h e profile a n d condition of t h e
seabed should be a s s e s s e d in advance.
14.5 LOCATING BOREHOLE POSITIONS
Close t o shore, borehole positions a n d o t h e r investigation points can be

s e t - o u t b y radiation from known s h o r e stations with distances measured b y
Electronic Distance Measuring ( E D M ) equipment. F u r t h e r offshore. o r when
visibility is bad, electronic position fixing techniques can be used.
Setting-out b y radiation usually involves t h e initial placement of a

m a r k e r buoy within 5 rn of t h e specified position. The marker buoy should b e
fitted with a line of sufficient length t o allow f o r tidal variations a n d wave
heaving. An auxiliary float on a 5 m line can also be tied t o t h e marker buoy
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t o indicate t h e direction of t h e c u r r e n t . This will help in manoeuvering t h e
drilling c r a f t into position. Once t h e drilling c r a f t has been anchored o v e r
t h e s i n k e r of t h e marker buoy, f u r t h e r measurements from t h e known s h o r e
stations c a n b e taken. The position of t h e drilling c r a f t c a n b e a d j u s t e d b y
means of a n c h o r winches until t h e borehole is positioned within 1 m of t h e
r e q u i r e d position. All borehole positions should be related t o t h e 1980
Hong Kong Metric Grid, o r if a s i t e g r i d is used, t h e s i t e g r i d should b e
related t o t h e 1980 Hong Kong Metric Grid s u c h t h a t s t a n d a r d co-ordinates
can be obtained.
14.6 DETERMINATION OF REDUCED LEVELS
Reduced levels are generafly transferred to a drilfing vessel from shore

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by setting up a tide gauge close to the shore. Tbe gauge is read at frequent
intervals throughout the tia'al cycles at the same time as readings of water
depth are taken on the dr~jrfingvessel. Corrections may be necessary to allow
for tidal variations when the distance between the tide gauge and the vessel is
s&ni&ant.
Reading of t h e t i d e g a u g e can be facilitated b y noting both t h e c r e s t

a n d t r o u g h levels of at least six consecutive waves. An a v e r a g e of t h e mean
c r e s t level a n d mean t r o u g h level can be adopted as t h e t i d e level at t h a t
instant. The tide g a u g e should be referenced t o Hong Kong's Chart Datum
(which is 0.146 m below Principal Datum), so that the reading can be used t o
obtain t h e reduced levels of t h e seabed and subsurface geological boundaries.
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14.7 D R I L L I N G , S A M P L I N G AND T E S T I N G
Marine investigations commonly encounter interbedded marine and allu-

vial deposits underlain b y weathered bedrock. Each stratigraphic horizon may
contain distinctly different materials and may require different investigatory
techniques (Beggs. 1983; see also Chapter 12).
For marine investigations, the rofary open hole method of advancing a
hole is preferred to the rotary wash boring method (see Section 18.7.1).
Drilling mud should be used as a flushing medium and to stabilize the hole
when casing is not required. Cable tool boring techniques may be used t o
advantage in some situations, for example the identification of suitable marine
borrow areas. Rotary drilling with a retractable triple-tube core-barrel (see
Section 19.8) is often employed in soils derived from insitu rock weathering, as
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for land-based investigations.
I f a fixed platform is not used during sampling, particular care must be
taken to prevent sample disturbance due to heave. Continuous sampling o f
soft soils can be undertaken with a Delft or Swedish foil sampler, but these
are particularly sensitive t o heave and should only be attempted from a fixed
platform. With the Delft samplers, care should be taken to prevent necking of
the nylon jacket due to unbalanced fluid pressures, and ripping o f the jacket
due t o shells in marine deposits.
A range of field tests in boreholes is useful in marine investigations,
including standard penetration tests. vane shear tests and permeability tests.
Static cone penetration testing and geophysical testing are also o f value. In
the case of vane shear tests, i t is preferable t o provide a stable support for
the equipment on top o f a soft marine mud seabed (Fung e t al, 1984).
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A special category of marine investigations involving only shallow-depth
seabed materials is often required for pipeline foundations, pollution monitoring
and similar projects. Disturbed, shallow-depth seabed samples may be obtained
for these purposes with a grab sampler, gravity corer or vibrocorer. The grab
sampler is t h e simplest of these devices, but it can only obtain samples from
t h e uppermost 0.5 m of the seabed. The gravity corer normally consists of an
open barrel 3 m in length that is allowed t o fall and penetrate the seabed
under its own weight. The vibrocorer is driven b y a motorized vibrator and
can penetrate 3 to 6 m depending on t h e nature of the seabed materials. The
samples recovered using these methods are generally o f poor quality but
nevertheless should be suitable for classification testing. The principal
advantage of these methods is the speed with which samples may be recovered
over a considerable area (Blacker & Seaman. 1985).
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15, PERSONNEL FOR GROUND INVESTIGATION
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15.1 GENERAL
In view of t h e importance of ground investigation as a fundamental

component of t h e p r o p e r design a n d efficient a n d economical construction of
all civil engineering a n d building works, i t i s recommended t h a t personnel
involved in t h e investigation should be familiar with t h e p u r p o s e of t h e work,
a n d should have appropriate specialized knowledge a n d experience.
15.2 PLANNING AND DIRECTION
The person planning a n d directing t h e g r o u n d investigation should be a

suitably qualified a n d experienced e n g i n e e r o r engineering geologist. This
person should have a university d e g r e e in civil engineering o r geology, o r a n
equivalent professional qualification, a n d a t least f o u r y e a r s post-qualification
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engineering experience, some of which should be local experience on p r o j e c t s
of a similar n a t u r e t o t h e one being contemplated. If t h e g r o u n d conditions a t
t h e s i t e a r e anticipated t o be complex a n d t h e safety a n d economy of t h e
project a r e significantly influenced b y t h e g r o u n d conditions, t h e person
planning a n d directing t h e g r o u n d investigation should possess, i n addition.
specialized qualifications o r experience in geotechnical engineering, a n d
specialized knowledge in s i t e investigation practice in Hong Kong.
The person planning a n d directing t h e g r o u n d investigation should be

thoroughly familiar with t h e project requirements a n d capable of liaising
effectively with t h e project d e s i g n e r o r client t h r o u g h o u t all phases of t h e
investigation (Figure 1). This person should determine t h e content a n d e x t e n t
of t h e investigation, direct t h e investigation in t h e field a n d laboratory, a n d
a s s e s s t h e r e s u l t s in relation t o t h e p r o j e c t requirements. P a r t of t h e s e duties
may be delegated t o geotechnical specialists o r suitably t r a i n e d a n d experienced
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subordinates.
15.3 SUPERVISION IN THE FIELD
Ground investigation works should generally be c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r t h e

supervision of a suitably qualified a n d experienced e n g i n e e r o r geologist.
assisted b y trained a n d experienced technical personnel. The s u p e r v i s i n g
e n g i n e e r o r geologist should have a university d e g r e e i n civil engineering o r
geology, o r a n equivalent professional qualification, and at least f o u r y e a r s
post-qualification engineering experience, some of which should have been in
g r o u n d investigations. Technical personnel should possess a certificate i n civil
engineering from a polytechnic a n d at least o n e y e a r of specialized training
a n d experience i n ground investigations, including training in t h e p r o p e r
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logging a n d description of g r o u n d conditions.
The s u p e r v i s i n g e n g i n e e r o r geologist should be full time or p a r t time on

site, depending on such f a c t o r s as t h e :
(a) size of t h e investigation.
( b ) n a t u r e of t h e project.
(c) complexity of t h e anticipated g r o u n d
conditions,
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(d) complexity of t h e sampling a n d field t e s t i n g schedule.
(e) reliability of t h e contractor's personnel u n d e r t a k i n g

t h e g r o u n d investigation works.
Increasing size a n d complexity of t h e p r o j e c t , a s well a s increasing complexity

of g r o u n d conditions a n d investigation t e c h n i q u e s , o r decreasing reliability of
t h e contractor's personnel, should all lead t o heavier time commitments f o r t h e
s u p e r v i s i n g e n g i n e e r o r geologist. The s u p e r v i s o r will normally b e r e q u i r e d
full-time on s i t e w h e n e v e r i t i s planned t o c a r r y o u t works which a r e critically
d e p e n d e n t on a high s t a n d a r d of workmanship for t h e i r s u c c e s s o r safety. Only
when minor g r o u n d investigation w o r k s a r e u n d e r t a k e n f o r confirmatory
purposes, a n d where t h e works involve simple investigation t e c h n i q u e s , should
full delegation of t h e supervision of t h e works to technical personnel b e
contemplated.
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Technical personnel will normally b e r e q u i r e d full-time on site. Several
technical staff may b e r e q u i r e d on s i t e if a number of drilling r i g s a r e operating
simultaneously, if s e v e r a l field t e s t s or i n s t r u m e n t installations a r e being
u n d e r t a k e n simultaneously, o r if t h e w o r k s a r e widely s c a t t e r e d .
The s u p e r v i s i n g e n g i n e e r o r geologist should b e aware of t h e t y p e 'of

information r e q u i r e d from t h e investigation, a n d should always maintain close
liaison with t h e e n g i n e e r o r engineering geologist directing t h e g r o u n d
investigation ( s e e Section 15.2). o r with t h e p r o j e c t d e s i g n e r , t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e
project requirements a r e satisfied. In most c a s e s , i t i s worthwhile f o r t h e
p r o j e c t d e s i g n e r t o s p e n d some time on s i t e d u r i n g t h e g r o u n d investigation
works in o r d e r to a p p r e c i a t e fully t h e actual g r o u n d conditions. Wherever
possible, t h e s u p e r v i s i n g e n g i n e e r o r geologist should b e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e
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c o n t r a c t o r u n d e r t a k i n g t h e g r o u n d investigation works. If t h i s i s not t h e case,
t h e e n g i n e e r o r engineering geologist planning and directing t h e g r o u n d
investigation should t a k e s t e p s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e is a n a d e q u a t e level of s i t e
supervision a n d t h a t reliable information i s obtained from t h e works.
15.4 LOGGING AND DESCRIPTION OF G R O U N D CONDITIONS
The s u p e r v i s i n g technical personnel ( s e e Section 15.3) should b e

responsible for recording t h e information obtained from boreholes o r o t h e r
investigations a s i t arises. This information should include a measured record
of t h e s u b s u r f a c e profile with rock a n d soil descriptions, a n d a r e c o r d of t h e
drilling a n d sampling t e c h n i q u e s used. In complex g r o u n d conditions. o r when
t h e information i s particularly important, t h e s u p e r v i s i n g e n g i n e e r o r geologist
should r e c o r d t h i s information a s i t a r i s e s . In some cases, i t may b e n e c e s s a r y
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t o obtain specialist advice on t h e logging a n d description of g r o u n d conditions

( s e e Section 15.6).
Detailed descriptions of t h e g r o u n d conditions e n c o u n t e r e d a n d of all

rock a n d soil samples obtained should b e made in accordance with Geoguide 3
(GCO, 1988), o r a suitable alternative system. All personnel u n d e r t a k i n g logging
and description of g r o u n d conditions should b e thoroughly familiar with t h e
system t o b e u s e d a n d suitably experienced in i t s application.
15.5 LABORATORY TESTING
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The testing of soil and rock samples should be carried o u t in a
laboratory approved by t h e directing engineer o r engineering geologist referred
to in Section 15.2. The laboratory testing should be done under t h e control. of
a suitably qualified and experienced supervisor, and all laboratory technicians
should be skilled and experienced in t h e type of t e s t they a r e conducting.
The laboratory testing schedule should be finalised only a f t e r selected samples
have been examined by t h e person directing t h e investigation o r by t h e
supervising engineer o r geologist. The latter should supervise t h e more
complex tests.
15.6 SPECIALIST ADVICE
Depending on t h e complexity of t h e ground conditions and t h e nature of

t h e project, specialist advice on particular aspects of t h e ground investigation
may be needed. For example, t h e advice of an experienced engineering
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geologist may be required on such aspects a s :
(a) full detailed geological descriptions of soils and rocks,
( b ) differentiating fill from insitu materials, o r boulders/

corestones from bedrock.
(c) identifying and classifying colluvial deposits.
( d ) rock mass classifications,
(e) geological and groundwater models of ground conditions

a t t h e site.
Similarly, t h e advice of an experienced instrumentation specialist will be
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invaluable for t h e planning, calibration. installation. commissioning and data
interpretation of t h e more complex geotechnical instruments.
15.7 INTERPRETATION
The interpretation of t h e ground investigation should be directed by t h e

engineer o r engineering geologist referred to i n Section 15.2. incorporating any
specialist advice obtained (see Section 15.6).
15.8 OPERATIVES
The driller in charge of an individual drilling rig should be skilled and

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experienced i n t h e practice of ground investigation by means of boreholes and

simple sampling and testing techniques. Operators of other equipment used in
ground investigations should have appropriate skills and experience. Any
timbering. shoring o r other s u p p o r t required in excavations or caissons should
be installed only by suitably skilled workmen. All operatives should be familiar
with and observant of safety precautions (see Appendix E).
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75
16, REVIEW DURING CONSTRUCTION
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16.1 GENERAL
There I> an hherent difficulty in forecasting ground conditions from

ground i n veshgations carried out before the works are started since, however
~htensive the inveshgation and whatever methods are used, only a sma//
proportion of the ground is examined.
fie primary purpose of the review during construction is to determine

to what extent, if any, ~h the light of the conditlbns newly revealed,
conclusions drawn from the ground investigation are required to be revised.
In some cases, additional information is found which may necessitate
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amendment of the design or the construction procedures. In certain cases, it
may therefore be appropriate to initiate a site procedure i n the early stages of
the contract, so that correct and agreed records are kept during the duratlbn
of the contract by both the engineer and the contractor. Tbe purposes of
these records are :
fa) to assist i n checking the adequacy of the design,
fbl to assist in checking the safety of the works during
constructlbn and to assess the adequacy of temporary
works,
(cl to check the findings of the ground investigathn and to

provide a feed-back so that these findings may be
reassessed,
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fdl to check h i t i a l assumptlbns about ground conditlbns,
including groundwater, related to construction methods,
fel to provide agreed information about ground condihbns in

the event of dispute,
ffl to assist i n checking the suitabifity of proposed
instrument installations,
fg) to assist in decid'ng the best use to be made of
excavated materials,
/hl to assist in the reassessment of the initial choice of
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construction plant and equ~;Oment.
16.3 INFORMA TION REWIRED
16.3.1 Soil and Rock
Accurate descriptions of all material encountered below ground level

should be made in accordance with Geoguide 3 (GCO, 19881, or a suitable
alternative system. The subsurface profile revealed on site should be recorded
and compared with that anticipated from the ground investigaton. The
descriptions should be made by an engineer or geologist /see Section 15.41. It
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may be advantageous to arrange for the site to be inspected by the
organization that carried out the site investigations, p a r t r k u M y if ground
conditions appear to differ s ~ g n i f i a n t l yfrom those described i n the ground
i n vestigation.
16.3.2 Water
It is most important to record accurately a/l informatrbn about the

groundwater obtained during construction, for comparison with i n f o r m t o n
recorded during the investigation. The informaton should cover the flow and
static conditons in a// excavations, seepage from slopes, seasonal variatons,
tidal variations i n excavatons or tunnels near the sea or estuaries, suspect or
known artesian conditrons, the effect o f weather conditions on groundwater,
and any unforeseen seepage under or from water-retah~hgstructures. The
effect of groundwater lowering should also be recorded in observatfon holes to
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determine the extent of the cone of depress~on.
Groundwater rises due t o the damming effects of new construction or

temporary works should likewise be recorded.
16.4 INSTRUMENTATION
On many types of structures, such as earth dams, embankments on soft

ground, some large buiMngs with underground construction, exca vations and
tunnels, it is prudent to consider regukr observatons by means of
instrumentation ~h order to check that construction works can proceed s&y
(Bureau of Reclamation, 1987; DiBiagio & Myrvoll, 1982). Such observations
may include measurement of pore pressure, seepage, earth pressure, settlement
and lateral movements (see also Sectons 8.Z 28.3 and 31.21. The
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instrumentation may be usefully conthued after construction h order to
observe the performace o f the project. This i s part'cularly necessary i n the
case o f earth dams for maintaining a safe structure under varying conditons,
and ~h other cases for gaining valuable data for future design.
For projects involving slopes, it is common practice in Hong Kong to

monitor groundwater levels and pore pressures, and their response t o rainfall.
Methods of measuring pore water pressures are given in Chapter 20. In many
situations, it will also be essential to monitor movements and the condition of
nearby buildings and structures.
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GROUND 1NVESTI GATION METHODS
PART IV
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17, INTRODUCTION TO GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS
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There is a considerable variety of methods of ground investigation, and
normally a combination of methods is employed to cover t h e technical
requirements and t h e range of ground conditions t h a t a r e encountered. The
factors involved in t h e selection of methods a r e discussed in Chapters 7 t o 16.
Particular attention should be paid t o t h e safety of existing features.
s t r u c t u r e s and services in t h e course of ground investigation. Advice on
planning and control is given in Section 7.2 (see also Appendix A). The
selection of methods may be influenced by t h e character of t h e site (see
Section 11.2), and particular ground conditions often dictate which specific
investigation technique should be used (see Chapter 12). Attention should also
be given t o t h e safety of personnel (see Appendix El.
Insitu tests that are carried out i n boreholes as part of a borehoe

investigation are described ih Chapter 21. Other insitu tests, for which a
borehofe either I> unnecessary or I> o d y an inwWdentdpart of the test
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procedure, are descriaed ih Chapters 24 to 33. Laboratory tests on soil and
rock are discussed in Chapters 31 to 38. The collecOon and recordihg of data
I> discussed i n Chapters 39 and 40.
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~p
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18, EXCAVATIONS AND BOREHOLES
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18.1 SHALLOW TRIAL PITS AND SLOPE SURFACE STRIPPING
Shallow trial pits are usually dug by hand using a pick and shovel,
and commonly extend to a depth of about 3 m. It is essential that the pit
sides are guarded against sudden collapse in order to protect personnel
working in the pit. For this purpose, timber shoring is usually provided
when excavation is deeper than 1.2 m. The spacing of the shoring should
be sufficiently wide to allow inspection of the pit'sides. Shallow trial
pits may also be dug by machine; a hydraulic back-hoe excavator is the
most commonly used.
Shallow trial pits permit the insitu condition of the ground to be

examined in detail both laterally and vertically, and allow mass
properties to be assessed. They also provide access for taking good
quality (block) samples and for carrying out insitu tests. rial pits are
particularly useful for investigating and sampling soils derived from
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insitu rock weathering and colluvium, both of which often exhibit a high
degree of variability. Pits may also be used to investigate the
dimensions and construction details of old retaining walls, and to
ascertain the exact position of buried utilities and services.
The field record of a shallow trial pit should include a plan giving
the location and orientation of the pit, and a dimensioned section showing
the sides and floor. Ground conditions should be fully described in
accordance with Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988) or a suitable alternative system,
and samples taken should be fully documented. Two examples of trial pit
logs are given in Figures 7 and 8. Logs should always be supplemented
with colour photographs of each face and of the base of the pit. The
positions and results of any field testing should also be recorded, such
as insitu density tests or Schmidt hammer, hand penetrometer and hand
shear vane index tests.
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Material excavated from trial pits should be stockpiled in such a
manner that it does not fall back into the pit or cause instability of the
pit excavation, e.g. by surcharging the adjacent ground. Wooden hoardings
anchored by steel bars driven into the ground are often used on steep
slopes to retain spoil from falling back into the pit. The spoil should
be placed and covered so as not to be washed downhill during rainstorms
or allowed to enter surface drainage systems.
It is advisable to backfill pits as soon as possible after logging,

sampling and testing have been completed, since open pits can be a hazard.
Recommendations on backfilling are given in Section 18.9. Pits that must
be left open temporarily should be covered and sealed so that rain water
cannot enter; they should also be securely fenced off if readily
accessible by the public.
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Trial pits can be extended readily into trenches or slope surface

stripping. The latter is used extensively in Hong Kong to investigate
both natural and man-made.slopes, and generally consists of a 0.5 m wide
strip, extending from the crest to the toe of the slope, in which the
ground has been laid bare of vegetation, chunam plaster or other
coverings. Bamboo scaffolding or access ladders are provided for
inspection, logging and reinstatement.
An example of a log sheet for slope surface stripping is given in
Figure 9. Colour photographs of salient geological features revealed by t h e
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stripping should always be obtained. Fill is sometimes used t o smooth t h e
surface of a c u t slope before application of t h e chunam plaster; if this is
encountered in slope stripping t h e depth of excavation should be increased if
possible to reveal t h e t r u e nature of ground beneath.
18.2 DEEP TRIAL PITS AND CAISSONS
Deep trial pits, shafts and caissons a r e normally constructed by hand

excavation using various methods for supporting t h e sides. Temporary o r
permanent liners a r e necessary for t h e protection of personnel working in
these excavations, but it is also necessary to consider t h e need t o expose t h e
ground for inspection and logging; considerable judgement and experience is
often required t o establish suitable procedures for such excavations.
Hand-dug caissons 1 m in diameter and larger a r e commonly used in
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Hong Kong for foundation construction t o depths of 30 m o r more. Typically,
cast-insitu concrete liners a r e used in soil, while t h e caisson is left unlined in
rock. These caissons may be particularly useful for t h e investigation of rock
a t or near t h e founding level of large foundations (Irfan & Powell. 1985). An
example of a caisson log is given in Figure 10. I t is recommended t h a t t h e
guidance notes on t h e technical and safety aspects of hand-dug caissons issued
by t h e Hong Kong Institution of Engineers (HKIE, 1981) should be followed.
Workhg in deep shafts w17f be dangerous unless the appropr~atesafety

precau&ons are str12tly foffowed Attention should be given to the poss13le
occurrence of ~nj'urious or combustl3fe gases or of oxygen deflcienc~es.
Correct methods of ~nspectlonshoufd be foffowed and appropriate precautlbns
shoufd be taken (see Section 7.2 and Appendix E). Oxygen-consumhg engines
that emit fox12 exhaust fumes, such as petrol-driven pump motors, shoufd not
be empfoyed in shafts.
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18.3 HEADINGS OR ADITS
Headings a r e driven from t h e bottom of shafts o r laterally into sloping

ground, and can be used for t h e insitu examination of t h e ground o r existing
foundation structures. and for carrying out special sampling o r insitu testing.
Further considerations a r e given i n BSI (1981a).
18.4 HAND AUGER BORING

The hand auger bor~hgmethod uses fight hand-operated equl-t. The
auger and driff rods are usudfy fifted out of the borehofe w~?houtthe aid of a
tr~bod,and no borehofe casing is used Borehofes up to 200 m d~.ametermay
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be made ~n suitable ground conditions to a depth of about 5 m. The method

can be used ~nself-supporak-g ground without hard obstructions or gravel -sized
to boulder-sized partl'cfes. Hand auger borehofes can be used for groundwater
observatlons and to obtain disturbed sampfes and s d open-tube sampfes.
18.5 LIGHT CABLE PERCUSSION BORING
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Light cable percussion boring is an adaptation of common well-boring
methods, employing a clay cutter for dry cohesive soils, a shell (or
bailer) for granular soils, and a chisel for breaking up rock and other
hard layers. The drill tools are worked on a wire rope using the clutch
of the winch for percussive action. The shell can only be used when there
is sufficient water in the borehole to cover the lower part of the shell.
Light cable percussion boring cannot be used for boring into or

proving rock, and it is severely restricted in bouldery ground where the
frequent use of a heavy chisel is required. The widespread occurrence in
Hong Kong of bouldery colluvium and corestone-bearing soils derived from
insitu rock weathering has therefore curtailed the use of light cable
percussion boring, as has the widespread need to core into and prove rock.
However, the method can be used to investigate the finer-grained marine
sediments and alluvium found in the flat coastal areas.
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18.6 MECHANICAL AUGERS
Mechanical augers, comprising a continuous-flight auger and a hollow

stem, are suitable for augering soft cohesive soils and may be suitable
for firm cohesive soils. They are of limited use in soils with boulders
or corestones and are therefore seldom used in Hong Kong. Further
considerations are given in BSI (1981a).
18.7 ROTARY OPEN HOLE DRILLING AND ROTARY CORE DRILLING
18.7.1 General
Rotary drilling, in which the drill bit or casing shoe is rotated

on the bottom of the borehole, is the most common method of subsurface
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exploration used in Hong Kong (Chan & Lau, 1986). The drilling fluid,
which is pumped down to the bit through hollow drill rods, lubricates the
bit and flushes the drill debris up the borehole. The drilling fluid is
commonly water, but drilling mud or air foam are often used with advantage
(see Section 18.7.2).
There are two basic types of rotary drilling : open hole (or full
hole) drilling, in which the drill bit cuts all the material within the
diameter of the borehole; and core drilling, in which an annular bit fixed
to the outer rotating tube of a core-barrel cuts a core that is returned
within the inner stationary tube of the core-barrel and brought to the
surface for examination and testing. Drill casing is normally used to
support unstable ground or to seal off open fissures which cause a loss
of drilling fluid. Alternatively, drilling mud or cement grout can be
used to seal open fissures.
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In ground investigations, rotary core drilling has the important

advantage over rotary open hole drilling of providing a core sample while
the hole is being advanced, and it is recommended for most situations.
In rotary open hole drilling, drill cuttings brought to the surface in the
flushing medium can only provide an indication of the ground conditions
being encountered. However, rotary open hole drilling is useful for rapid
advancement of a borehole required for field testing or instrument instal-
lation, and samples may be obtained between drill runs even when the open
hole technique is used.
Water used a s a flushing medium in r o t a r y drilling may have a
deleterious e f f e c t on both t h e stability of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g g r o u n d a n d on t h e
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samples obtained, a n d i t s u s e m u s t be carefully considered (see Section 18.7.2).
A c r u d e adaptation of t h e r o t a r y open hole method, often termed r o t a r y wash
boring, may be particularly detrimental in t h i s r e g a r d . This method involves
advancing t h e hole b y casing alone, with t h e inside of t h e casing cleaned o u t
b y s u r g i n g a n d flushing. Water p r e s s u r e s sufficient t o flush t h e casing a r e
often high a n d may lead t o increased pore p r e s s u r e s ( o r reduced pore suctions)
in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g ground. When drilling on a slope o r behind a n old masonry
retaining wall, f o r example, t h i s may be detrimental t o stability a n d may
actually t r i g g e r rapid collapse. Also, in soils containing gravel-sized
fragments, i t is impossible t o flush out. all t h e coarse fragments, i r r e s p e c t i v e
of t h e w a t e r p r e s s u r e employed, a n d t h e y will accumulate in t h e base of t h e
hole. These fragments will affect t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of f u r t h e r sampling
a n d t e s t i n g done in t h e borehole. I n s o f t o r loose g r o u n d , t h e flushing water
may not only c a r r y t h e c u t t i n g s u p t h r o u g h t h e casing, b u t also u p a r o u n d t h e
outside of t h e casing, t h u s c r e a t i n g a l a r g e zone of d i s t u r b e d material which
can extend f o r some distance below t h e bottom of t h e hole. A s a result,
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samples obtained from r o t a r y wash boring may be d i s t u r b e d , a t least over a
portion of t h e i r length. In marine investigations, t h e s t a n d a r d r o t a r y open
hole method should t h e r e f o r e be used i n preference t o r o t a r y wash boring (see
Section 14.7).
Rotary drilling r i g s a r e available in a wide r a n g e of weights a n d power

r a t i n g s in Hong Kong. Rigs a r e normally s k i d mounted, with a typical
configuration as shown in Figure 11. They a r e commonly available with a
power r a t i n g in t h e r a n g e of 10 t o 50 horsepower a n d capable of stable drill
s t r i n g rotation u p t o 1 500 o r 2 000 rpm. Drilling r i g s should be mounted on
a stable platform s u c h t h a t a force of 12 t o 15 kN c a n b e applied to t h e drill
bit without movement of t h e rig. In choosing a r i g , consideration must b e
given t o t h e expected d e p t h a n d diameter of t h e hole t o be drilled, t h e
possible casing requirements, a n d s i t e access. Rigs should generally have a
minimum ram s t r o k e length of 600 mm, a n d b e able t o o p e r a t e with a minimum
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of vibration. The sizes of commonly-used core-barrels, casings a n d drill r o d s
a r e shown i n Table 5.
Smaller scale r o t a r y drilling r i g s a r e also available a n d c a n sometimes b e

u s e d t o g r e a t advantage in special situations. Hand-portable r o t a r y core drills
may often be useful f o r coring t h r o u g h existing c o n c r e t e o r masonry retaining
walls; horizontal boreholes often enable t h e wall t h i c k n e s s a n d backfill
materials t o b e determined.
DrMng is in part an art, and its success is dependent upon good

practice and the ski1 of the operator, partkularly when coring weathered,
weak. partMly cemented and fractured rocks, where considerable expertise is
necessary to obtain fu// recovery of core of saakfactory qua/ity. This is
greatly inhenced b y the choice of core-barrel and cutt~hgbit type (see
Section 19.81 and b y the method of extruding, handfing andpreservaoon of the
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core fsee Section 19.10.51.
18.7.2 Flushing Medium
Careful selection of a flushing medium which is compatible with t h e

equipment employed a n d suitable f o r t h e g r o u n d t o be drilled is v e r y
important. Water is t h e simplest flushing medium. Other fluids used a s
flushing media are drilling muds (which consist of w a t e r with clay o r
bentonite), water with a n additive s u c h a s sodium chloride, a i r foams a n d
polymer mixtures. The main a d v a n t a g e of t h e s e o t h e r flushing media i s t h a t
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drill c u t t i n g s may be removed a t a lower flushing velocity a n d with less
d i s t u r b a n c e t o t h e ground. The u s e of drilling mud can also minimise t h e need
f o r casing of t h e hole, as i t helps t o stabilise t h e sides a n d bottom of t h e
hole i n caving soils. Another a d v a n t a g e of drilling mud is t h a t i t can r e d u c e
soil d i s t u r b a n c e a n d hence improve sample quality. However, drilling mud is
not recommended if permeability t e s t s are t o be c a r r i e d o u t in t h e borehole, o r
if piezometers a r e t o be installed. F u r t h e r guidance on t h e u s e of drilling mud
i s given b y Clayton et a1 (1982).
The u s e of a i r foam as a flushing medium h a s enabled increased core

recovery a n d quality t o be achieved in colluvium a n d soils derived from insitu
rock weathering (Phillipson & Chipp, 1981; 1982). This technique involves t h e
injection of foaming c o n c e n t r a t e a n d water i n t o t h e a i r stream produced b y a
low volume, high p r e s s u r e air compressor, a s shown diagrammatically i n
Figure 12. A polymer stabiliser is a d d e d when drilling below t h e water table.
The foam is forced down t h e drill r o d s in t h e conventional manner. a n d a
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slow-moving column of foam with t h e consistency of aerosol shaving cream
c a r r i e s t h e s u s p e n d e d c u t t i n g s t o t h e surface. Compared with water, t h e air
foam h a s a g r e a t e r ability t o maintain t h e c u t t i n g s in suspension, a n d t h e low
uphole velocity a n d low volume of water utilized s e r v e t o r e d u c e d i s t u r b a n c e
of t h e c o r e a n d s u r r o u n d i n g ground. The air foam also r e s i s t s percolation i n t o
open f i s s u r e s , a n d it stabilises t h e borehole walls. The polymer stabiliser,
however, has t h e disadvantage of coating t h e walls of t h e hole s u c h t h a t insitu
permeability t e s t i n g may not b e representative.
When investigating potentially unstable slopes. o r when drilling i n t o

failed slopes t o obtain samples from t h e slip zone, t h e u s e of water as t h e
flushing medium may not be advisable (see Section 18.7.1). A i r foam flushing,
o r in some instances, air flushing should b e considered t o r e d u c e t h e r i s k of
slope movement in s u c h cases.
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18.7.3 Inclined Drilling
Inclined boreholes can often be used to g r e a t advantage i n g r o u n d

investigations (McFeat-Smith, 1987: McFeat-Smith et al. 1986). While t h e y a r e
generally more costly t h a n similar vertical holes, t h e y often allow additional
geological d a t a t o b e obtained.
Inclined holes may be found t o deviate i n both dip a n d direction from

t h e intended orientation (Craig & Gray. 1985). This is particularly common i n
t h e vertical plane d u e t o t h e weight of t h e drill r o d s . Some of t h e f a c t o r s
which c o n t r i b u t e t o deviation a r e :
(a) worn a n d undersized drill rods, r o d s much smaller

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t h a n t h e borehole, a n d overly flexible r o d s ,
( b ) drilling r i g rotation a n d vibration, which tends to

produce spiraling i n t h e hole, a n d
(c) difficult g r o u n d conditions, s u c h as bouldery soils o r soils

containing corestones.
I n situations where deviation is detrimental, i t can b e minimised b y t h e

u s e of securely-anchored drilling r i g s a n d platforms, a v e r y stiff drill s t r i n g
a n d c o r e - b a r r e l s a t least 3 m long coupled t o drill r o d s of t h e same diameter
as t h e c o r e - b a r r e l o r to r o d s fitted with centralizers. Directional control may
also be achieved b y careful adjustments t o rotational speeds, t h r u s t p r e s s u r e s .
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a n d t h e location of centralizers placed on t h e drill rods. I n some difficult
g r o u n d conditions, s u c h as colluvium containing v e r y h a r d boulders within a
loose soil matrix, i t may b e v e r y difficult t o control t h e deviation of inclined
holes.
Several i n s t r u m e n t s a r e available f o r measuring borehole orientation o r

deviation, s u c h as t h e Eastman-Whipstock single-shot o r multi-shot photo-
g r a p h i c s u r v e y tools, t h e Pajari mechanical single-shot s u r v e y i n g i n s t r u m e n t
a n d t h e ABEM Fotobor multi-shot photographic probe. The function of t h e
Eastman a n d Pajari tools i s t o record t h e orientation of a gimballed magnetic
s p h e r e , b y photographic a n d mechanical means respectively. This precludes t h e
u s e of t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s within steel casings o r attached to steel r o d s , o r in
areas w h e r e o t h e r magnetic d i s t u r b a n c e s may b e anticipated. The ABEM
Fotobor r e c o r d s cumulative deflection measurements photographically within t h e
borehole a n d i t can b e u s e d within steel casings. Multi-shot tools s u c h a s t h e
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ABEM Fotobor, o r t h e multi-shot version of t h e Eastman-Whipstock tool. a r e
useful f o r u n d e r t a k i n g complete borehole s u r v e y s , b u t may b e cumbersome f o r
t a k i n g r e p e a t e d deviation c h e c k s d u r i n g drilling, in which case single-shot
tools may be preferable.
18.8 WASH BORING AND OTHER METHODS
18.8.1 Wash Boring
Wash boring utilizes t h e percussive action of a chisel bit to break u p

material t h a t is flushed to t h e s u r f a c e b y water pumped down t h e hollow drill
rods. I n g r o u n d which is liable t o collapse, casing may b e d r i v e n down t o
s u p p o r t t h e sides of t h e borehole, o r drilling mud may be used. The fragments
of soil b r o u g h t t o t h e s u r f a c e b y t h e wash water a r e not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e
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c h a r a c t e r a n d consistency of t h e materials being penetrated, a n d t h e flushing
water may d i s t u r b t h e s u r r o u n d i n g g r o u n d i n t h e same manner a s t h e r o t a r y
wash boring method discussed in Section 18.7. For t h e s e reasons, wash boring
is seldom u s e d i n Hong Kong.
18.8.2 Other Methods of Boring
There are many other methods of borhg, which have been developed
generafly to obtain maximum penetration speed, e.g. rotary percussive drilfing
for blast holes and grouthg. When such boreholes are sunk for purposes other
than ground i f fvestigation, hinited informaobn about ground conditons may be
obtained, provided that the boreholes are drfled under controlled conditons,
with measurement of rate ofpenetration, observaoon of drilling character13tics.
and sampHng of the drfling flushings fXorner & Sherrel' 19771.
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One s u c h r o t a r y percussive method is t h e Overburden Drilling Eccentric

method, o r ODEX (Plate 4A), which is based on t h e principle of u n d e r -
reaming. During drilling in soil, a n eccentric reamer bit swings o u t a n d drills
a hole l a r g e r t h a n t h e o u t e r diameter of t h e casing, which is i n s e r t e d at t h e
same time as t h e hole i s being advanced. The percussive action may be
provided b y e i t h e r a t o p hammer o r a down-the-hole hammer. When t h e
desired d e p t h has been reached, t h e drill r o d s a r e r o t a t e d i n a reverse
direction t o allow t h e reamer to be folded in a n d t h e bit t o b e r e t r a c t e d
t h r o u g h t h e casing, which remains in t h e hole. Drilling may t h e n b e f u r t h e r
extended into rock b y replacing t h e ODEX bit with a normal rock drill bit.
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This method is not commonly u s e d in g r o u n d investigations a s no i n t a c t
samples a r e obtained, b u t it has been used in Hong Kong t o install long
horizontal drains in colluvium (Craig 81 Gray. 1985) a n d f o r drilling t h r o u g h
bouldery fill t o p r o v e t h e bedrock profile. I t may also be a useful technique
f o r t h e location of cavities i n k a r s t t e r r a i n (Horner & Sherrell, 1977).
18.9 BA CXFLLING EXCA VATIONS AND BOREHOLES

Poorly-compacted backfill wdl cause settlement at the ground surface
and can act as a path for groundwater. The latter effect can cause very
ser~busincon venince ifthe backr'ied exca vatrons or 6oreholes are on the s2e
o f future deep exca vathns, tunnels or water-retaining structures. It could a/so
lead to the future po//ution o f an aquifer. For boreholes in dry ground, it
possible to use compacted so17 as a backfill although the procedure is often
unsuccessfu~ in preventing the flow o f water. The best procedure is to refill
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the borehole with a cement-based grout introduced at the lowest point by
means of a tremie p$e. Cement alone wi/l not necessarily seal a borehole, on
account o f shrinkage, and it is often preferable to use a cement-bentonite
grout, e.g. mix proportios about four to one, with no more water added than
is necessary to permit the grout to flow or to be pumped. The add~~tron o f an
expandhg agent may be necessary. It is possible to compact the backfi7l o f
excavations by means of the excavator bucket or other mechanical means. In
some cases, weak concrete may be used, e.g. to fill a small hole on a steeply
sloping face.
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89
19, SAMPLING THE GROUND
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19.1 G E N E R A L
The main p u r p o s e s of sampling a r e t o establish t h e s u b s u r f a c e geological

profile in detail, a n d t o s u p p l y both d i s t u r b e d a n d u n d i s t u r b e d materials f o r
laboratory testing. The selection of a sampling technique d e p e n d s on t h e
quality of t h e sample t h a t i s r e q u i r e d and t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e g r o u n d .
particularly with r e g a r d t o t h e e x t e n t t o which d i s t u r b a n c e o c c u r s before,
d u r i n g o r a f t e r sampling. The principal c a u s e s of soil d i s t u r b a n c e a r e listed in
Table 6 (Clayton e t al, 1982) a n d a r e f u r t h e r discussed b y Clayton (1984).
I t should be borne in mind t h a t t h e overall behaviour of t h e ground i s

often dictated by planes o r zones of weakness which may be p r e s e n t (e.g.
discontinuities). Therefore, i t i s possible to obtain a good sample of material
t h a t may not b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e mass. Because of this. a n d t h e f r e q u e n t
need t o modify t h e sampling technique t o s u i t t h e g r o u n d conditions, v e r y
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close supervision of sampling i s w a r r a n t e d ( s e e Chapter 15). In choosing a
sampling method, i t should b e made clear whether mass properties o r i n t a c t
material properties a r e t o b e determined ( s e e Section 12.11). The distinction
between mass a n d material properties i s discussed f u r t h e r in Geoguide 3 ( G C O .
1988).
There are four main techniques for obtdining samples (Hvorslev, 19481.'
fa) taking disturbed samples from the dr~i'l tools or from
excavating equipment in the course of boring or
excavation (see Sectlbn 19.31,
fb1 drive samphg, in which a tube or spLit tube sampler
having a sharp cutting edge a t its lower end IS forced
into the ground either by a static thrust or by dynamic
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impact (see Sections 19.4 to 19.7),
fc1 rotary samp/ing, lh which a tube with a cutter a t its
lower end ~krotated ihto the ground, thereby p r o d u c ~ ~ g
a core s@e (see Sectlbn 19.81,
fd) takjhg block samp/es spec~allycut b y hand from a t r ~ h l

pit. shaft or heading (see Section 19.91.
Sampfes obta~hedby techniques (b1, fc1 and fdl wifl often be suffic~entJy
intact to enable the ground structure wl'thin the s a m e to be examined. The
quamy of such samp/es can vary considerably, depending on the technique and
the ground cond~'t~ons, and most wi7f exh~Bitsome degree of d~kturbance. A
method for class~yfyingthe guafity of the sampfe given in Sechun 19.2.
Sections 1.9.3 to 19.9 describe the various sampfing techniques and give an
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indication of the sampfe quak2ie.s that can be expected Intact samples

~ fc1 and /dl are u s u d y taken in a vertical
obta~hed by t e ~ h n l q u e(b),
direction, but specially orientated samples may be required to investigate
particular features.
The mass of sample r e q u i r e d f o r various p u r p o s e s i s determined b y t h e
c h a r a c t e r of t h e g r o u n d and t h e t e s t s t h a t a r e t o b e u n d e r t a k e n . Guidance on
t h e mass of soil sample r e q u i r e d f o r different laboratory tests i s given i n
Table 7.
A summary of t h e typical sampling procedures for materials commonly
encountered in Hong Kong i s given in Table 8, which should b e read in
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conjunction with Sections 19.3 to 19.9.
19.2 SAMPLE UUALITY
The sampfing procedure shouh' be selected on the bas13 of the quality of

the sample that is requ~i-ed,and is assessed largely by the suitabfity of the
sample for appropriate laboratory tests. A classificatian for soil samples
developed in CermanyfIdeI et a4 19691 provides a useful basis for c/assfying
samples h terms of quality /Table 91.
In some cases, whatever sampling methods are used, it wi// only be
possible to obtain samples with some degree of disturbance, Le. class 2 at best.
The results of any strength or compressibility tests carried out on such
samples should be treated with caution. Samples of classes 3, 4 and 5 are
conmonly regarded as 'disturbed samples:
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A further consideration in the selection of procedures for taking c h s s 1
sampies 13 the size of the sample. T h k is determined largely by the geological
structure o f the ground, which, for soi4 is often referred to as 'the fabric'
@owe, 19721. Where the ground contains d13continuities of random orientation,
the s a m e d z e e t e r , or width, sbould be as large as possible in relation to the
spau'ng o f d~kcontinuitibs. Alternatively, where the ground contains strongly
orientated discontinuities, e.g. in johted rock, I? may be necessary to take
samples which have been specidly orientated. For h e so& that are
homogeneous and ikotropli?, samples as sm& as 35 mm in d i e t e r may be
used. However, for general use, samples 100 nun in d ~ k t e are r preferred
since the results o f laboratory tests may then be more representative of the
mass propertlis of the ground. In special cases, samples 150 mm and 250 mm
~hdiameter are used (Rowe, 19721.
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BSI N975b; 197501 give precise details o f the mass o f so17 sample
required for each type o f test. Where the approximate number o f tests is
known, it is a simple matter to estimate the total amount o f soil that has to
be obtained. I f the programme of laboratory tests is uncertan, TabAe 7 gives
some guidance on the amount of soil that should be obtahed for each series of
tests. Where materials for mineral aggregates, sands and flters are b e h g
considered, detads of the size o f sample requked are given in BSl f1975al.
19.3 DISTURBED SAMPLES FROM BORINC TOOLS OR EXCA V A T M EQUIPMENT

The quality o f the sample depends on the technique used for sinking the
borehole or excavation and on whether the ground is dry or wet. When
disturbed samples are taken from below water in a borehole or excavation,
there is a danger that the samples obtahed may not be truly representative of
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the ground. This I> particukify the case with granular soils conta'n~hgfines,
which tend to be washed out of the tool. This can be partly overcome by
plachg the whole contents o f the too/ h t o a tank and allow~hgthe fines to
settle before decanting the water.
The following classes o f samp/e can generally be tupected from the
various methods o f boring and sampling :
fa) Class 3. Disturbed samples from dry excavabons and
from dry boreboles sunk either by a clay cutter ushg
cable percussion equ~pmentor by an auger.
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b Class 4. Disturbed samples obtaned in cohesive soLJ
from excavabbns, or from boreholes sunk either by a
clay cutter using cable percusshn equ~pment,or by an
auger, in condiClbns where water is present.
fc) Class 5. Disturbed samples in granufar soil from wet
excavabons or from any borehole sunk by a shell ushg
cable percuss~bnequ~pmentor from any borehole sunk by
a method in which the dr5'l debris is flushed out of the
borehole, e.g. rotary open hole dr~yling,wash boring.
Care should be taken to ensure that the sample is representative of the
zone or layer from which it I> removed, and has not been contaminated by
other mater~as.
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19.4 OPEN- TUBE SMPLERS
19.4.1 Princ~pfesof Design

11) General. Open-tube samplers consht essentialy of a tube t h a t is
open a t one end and fitted a t the other end with means for attachment to the
drill rods. A non-return valve permis the escape of ai or water as the
sample enters the tube, and assists i f fretaking the samp/e when the tool I>
withdrawn from the ground Figure 13 shows the basic detays of a sampfer
suitable for general use having a single s a m e tube and simple cutbhg shoe.
The use of sockets and core-catcher 12 discussed h Secbon 19.4.4. An
alternative sampler incorporates a detachable inner finer.
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The fundamental requirement of a sampling toof I> that it should muse
a s little remoulding and d~kturbanceas possibe on behg forced into the
ground The degree of d~kturbance13 controlled by three features of the
design :the cutting shoe, the inside wall friction and the non-return valve.
12) The cutbh.q shoe. The cutting shoe should n o r d y be of a des~gn
similar to that shown in F~gure13 and 12 should embody the fohwing features
fa) Inside clearance. The hternaf diameter of the cutmg

shoe, D,, shoufd be slightly less than that of the sample
tube, D,, to give inside clearance, typically about 1%of
the d ~ d t e r . This allows for s/ight elasb'c expansion of
the sample as it enters the tube, reduces fr~'cbonaldrag
from the ins^-de wa/l of the tube and he& to retain the
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sample. A large ins~~de clearance should be a voided s~nce

it would permit the sampfe to expand. thereby increasing
the disturbance.
fb) Outside clearance. The outside d~;tmeterof the cutting
shoe, D, should be slightly greater than the outshfe
diameter of the tube, Dr. to give outside clearance and
fac~Xtatethe withdrawal of the sampler from the ground
The outside clearance should not be much greater than
the inside clearance.
fc) Area rath. The area raho represents the volume of so17
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displaced by the sampfer in proportion to the volume of
the sample (Figure 13). It should be kept a s s d as
possible consistent with the strength requirements of the
sampfe tube. The area ratro is about 30%for the general
purpose IOU mm dikmeter sampler, and about 10%for a
thin-walled samp/er. Scnne special samplers have a large
outside diameter Dr. relative to the internal diameter D,,
e.g. in order to accommodate a loose inner liner. The
sampling disturbance is reduced by using a cutting shoe
that has a long outside taper, and ik consi'derably less
than that which wouM be expected from the calculated
area ratio.
3 Wal/friction. This can be reduced by a suitable inside clearance.
and by a clean, s m t h finikh to the i'nsi.de of the tube.
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(4) Non -return valve. The non -return valve should have a large orifice
to allow a? and water to escape quickly and easily when driving the sampler,
and to assist in retention of the sampfe when removing the sampler from the
borehole.
Typi'cal designs of open-tube samplers whi'cb are used for various
purpqses are descrfbed in Sections 19.4.3 to 19.4.5.
19.4.2 Sampling Procedure

Before a sample is taken, the bottom of the borehole or surface of the
excavaoon or heading should be cleared of loose or dikturbed materi-al a s far
a s possible. Some or a// of any such loose or dikturbed materm that is left
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will n o r d y pass into the 'overdrve' space.
Below the water table, certain types of laminated soils occurring below
the bottom of the borehole or excavatjon may be dikturbed if the natural
water pressure in the lamha&ons exceeds the pressure imposed by the water
within the borehoe or excavatbn. To prevent this effect, it is necessary to
keep the level of the borehole water above the groundwater level appropriate
to the location of the s d e .
The samp/r can be driven into the ground by dynarm2 means, using a
drop weight or s M n g hannner, or by a continuous stat12 thrust, using a
hydraulic jack orpulley block and tackfe. There is litt/e published evidence to
indicate whether dynamic or static driving produces less sample disturbance,
and for most ground condioons it is probable that there ik no significant
difference. The driving effort for each sample may be recorded a s an
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indicazYon of the consistency of the ground.

The distance that the t d ik driven shoufd be checked and recorded as,
ifdriven too far, the soil will be compressed in the sampler. A sampling head
with an 'overdrve' space (Figure 131 will allow the sample tube to be
campletely filled without rikk of damaging the sampie. After dri'vihg, the
sampler ik stead17y withdrawn. The length of s@e that is recovered should
be recorded, compared ~ 9 t hthe diktance that the too/ was driven, and any
dikcrepancy i'nvestigated For example, ifthe lengCh of the s u e is less than
the d~ktancedriven, the sample may have exper~encedsome compression or,
alternative&, the sample tool h a y have permitted the samp/e to s/l;oout 8s the
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tool was being withdrawn. ,",
19.4.3 Thin -Walled Samplers
Thin-wded samp/ers are used for soils that are partl'cularly sens~iYveto
sampling disturbance, and consist o f a th~n-waledsteel tube whose lower end
is shaped to form a cutting edge with a s d ins~ileclearance. The area rat20
is about 10%. These samp/rs are suitable only for h e s o i s up to a fim
consistency, and free from large particles. They generally give class 1 samples
in all fine cohesive s o i k ~ n c l u d ~ hsensitive
g clays, provided that the soil has
not been disturbed by sinkng the borebole. SSamps between 75 mrn and
100 mrn in diameter are normally obtaneo'; sampfes up to 250 nun in d~klmter
are often obtained for spec~klpurposes. It should be noted that d~kturbanceat
the base o f a borebole in weak soil will occur below a certain depth because
of stress relief: Piston samples penetrating we// below the base of the
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borehole are therefore preferable (see Sect2on 19.5). A typ~calthin-wa/ed
sampler illustrated in Figure 14.
19.4.4 General Purpose 100 mm Diameter Open-Tube Sampler

The 100 mm diameter open-tube sampler, often termed the U l O O sampler
(Plate 48). i s a fairly robust sampler that can be used for many Hong Kong
soils, but the driving action during sampling i s likely to introduce some
disturbance. The highest sample quality that can be obtained is class 2 a t best
(Whyte, 1984).
T h e details of the sampler is illustrated in Figure 13 and m i s t s of a
sample barreL about 450 mm in length, with a screw-on cutding shoe and drive
head The area rat20 13 about 30%. Sample barrels can be coupled together
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w~2hscrew sockets to form a longer sampler. Two standard b a r d , foming a
sampler about 1.0 m in length, are often used for sampflng soft clays (Scrota
& Jenn~ngs,1958), although the increased length of the sample tube may lead
to some disturbance. In soils of low cohesion, such as silt and silty h e sand,
the s&e may fall out when the tool 13 withdrawn from the g m d Sample
recovery can be ~mprovedby insert2ng a core-catcher between the cutting edge
and the sample barrel. When u s ~ h ga core-catcher, the sample qua/2y is
unlikely to be better than c h s 3.
Smaller samplers of about 50 mm or 75 mm dJ.hk?ter can be used ifuse
of the 100 mm samp/er I> precluded by the borehole s~ze. The smaller
samplers are of s1b1172r design, except that the c u t t ~ h gedge may not be
detachable.
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19.4.5 Sp/it Barrel Standard Penetratrbn Test Sampler
The split b a r d sampler is used in the standard p e k a t i o n test and is

described JR Test I9 of BSI N975b). It takes samples 35 nun n u
nh d ~ h e t e and
r
has an area rat2O o f about 100%. It ~k used to recover small samples,
partl'cularly under condit2ons wh~chprevent the use o f the general purpose
100 mm sampler, and gives class 3 or class 4 samples (see SectJbn 21.2 and
Figure 25).
19.5 T W - W A L L E D STATIONARY PISTON SAMPL ER
The thin-walled stafionary p~ktonsampler (Plate 4C ) consists of a thin-
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walled sample tube conta'n~nga close-fitthg sliding p~kton,wh12h is slightly
coned a t its lower face. The sample tube ~k fitted to the drive head, wh~bh13
connected to hollow dr17l rods. The piston is Dked to separate rods wh~bh
pass through a slid~hg~ J b i nt f fthe drive head and up inside the hollow rods.
Clamping devices, operated a t ground surface, enable the p~ktonand sample
tube to be locked together or the piston to be held statrbnary whlye the
sample tube is driven down. F~gure15 shows the bas12 deta7s of a statibnary
piston sampler. The sample d i m t e r is normally 75 nun or 100 mm, but
samplers up to 250 mm d~heteerare used for spe& so17 condithns.
Ini&ialy, the piston is locked to the lower end of the sample tube to
prevent water or slurry from entering the sampler. In soft clay, w~yhthe
piston in this pos~.tJbfl, the sampler can be pushed below the bottom of the
borehole. When the sample depth is reached, the p~ktonis held stabbnary and
the sample tube is driven down by a static thrust until the drive head
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encounters the upper face of the piston. An automatic clanp in the drive
head prevents the piston from dropping down and extruding the sample while
the sampler is withdrawn.
The samp/er is normally used ih low strength fine so17.s and gives class 1
samples in silt and clay, including sensitive clay. Its ability to take samples
below the disturbed zone and to hold them d ~ r ~ recovery
ng gl'ves an advantage
over the thin-waled sampler descr~i5edin Sectbn 19.4.3. Although normally
used J> soft clays, spec~klp~ktonsamplers have been designed for use in stryf
c/aus (Rowe, 1972).
19.6 CONTNUOUS SOIL SAMPLING
19.6.1 General
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Continuous soil sampling can produce samples up to 30 m in length ~h
soils such as recent fine alluvial deposits. This ~k of partlbular value for
~'denttfyingthe so17 '/abr~b'&'owe, 1972) and gives results s u p a r k to those
which can be obtained by consecutive drive sampling. The Swedish system
/Xjeffman et al, 1950) takes samples 68 mm in diameter us~hgsteel fo~7s to
eliminate l'ns~kkfdction between the sample and the tube w d The Delft
system, wbicb uses fighter equ~bmentand offers two sizes of sample, 1%
descrl'bed more fully in Sectrbn 19.6.2.
19.6.2 The Delft Continuous Sampler
The D&t continuous sampler. developed by the Laborator~bm vmr

Grondmechanica of Delft, Holland, is available in two s h to take cont~nuous
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samples 29 mm and 66 nun in diameter /Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory, 1977).

The 66 mm sampler is pushed into the ground w ~ l ha conventronal Dutch deep
sounding mach~hehhav~nga thrust of 200 kN The sampler is advanced by
pushing on the steel outer tubes. and the sample is fed automathally ~ h t oa
nylon stockinette sleeve wh~khhas been treated to make it ~inperv~ous.The
sample witb~hthe sleeve fed into a thin-waLJedplastic inner tube filled to
the appropriate level with a bentonite-barytes supporttng flu~Y of s~in~i'ar
dens12y to the surround~ngground The upper end of the nylon sleeve I> fked
to the top cap of the sample, wh~bhis connected through a tens~oncable to a
ftuedpoint at the ground sudace. Extens~ontubes I m i n length are added as
the sampler is pushed into the ground. Tbe sampler normah'y has a maximum
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penetration of 18 m, but i'n suitable ground with a modified magazine and
increased thrust, samples up to 30 m i'n length can be obta'ned The 29 mm
sampler i s of s1k7ar design and requires less thrust to effect penetration.
Class 2 to class 3 samples can be obtained with these samp/ers.
The samples are cut into I m lengths and placed ~ ' purpose-made
n cases,
samples taken with a 66 mm sampler being reta'ned i n the plastic tubes. The
66 mm samples are suitable for a range of laboratory tests. The 29 mm
samples are used for visual ex&natron and the determinatron of bulk density
and index propertres. After specimens have been removed for testr'ng, the
samples are split and are then descr~'bedand photographed i n a semi-dried
state when the soil fabric can be more readily identrued For 29 mm samples,
only one half of the split materikl i s used for testr'ng, thus preserving a
continuous record of the ground
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19.7 SAND SAMPLERS
The recovery of tube samples of sand from below the water table
presents special problems because the sample tends to f a / / out of the samp/e
tube. A compressed air sampler (Elkhop, 19481 enables the sample to be
removed from the ground into an air chamber and then lifted to the surface
without contact with the water i n the borehole. The sampler i s general/y
constructed to take s-es 60 mm i n d ~ h t e r . If the sampler I> driven by
dynam~cmeans, the change in volume of the sand caused by the dri-w'ng gives
a sample quality not better than class 3. However, if static thrust i s used,
generally &ass 2 and sometrines class I samples can be recovered An
alternative design (&rota B Jennings, I9581 introduces a bubble of a>at the
base of the sampler before it i s withdrawn fm the ground
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19.8 R O T A R Y CORE SAMPLES
Samples are obta'ned by the rotary core dri'/ig procedures described i n

Sectrbn 18.I. The q u m y of sample may vary considerably depending on the
character of the ground and the type of coring equ~pmentused (BS/, I974al.
Core-barrel sizes commonly u s e d in Hong Kong a r e given in Table 5,

t o g e t h e r with t h e c o r e sizes produced. Single-tube core-barrels a r e seldom
used, as t h e core-barrel r o t a t e s directly a g a i n s t t h e core a n d core recovery is
usually unsatisfactory. Double-tube a n d t r i p l e - t u b e b a r r e l s a r e used. with
applicability a n d limitations a s follows :
(a) Double-tube core-barrels, with a n i n n e r t u b e mounted on

b e a r i n g s which does not r o t a t e a g a i n s t t h e core, can
normally b e used in f r e s h to moderately decomposed
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rocks. However. t h e s e b a r r e l s d o not p r o t e c t t h e c o r e

from t h e drilling fluid unless t h e equipment is modified.
I n addition, t h e core is often removed b y hanging t h e
b a r r e l in a n e a r vertical position a n d tapping o n t h e
s i d e s of t h e barrel. I n highly f r a c t u r e d r o c k s t h i s c a n
r e s u l t in a jumble of rock fragments in t h e c o r e box a n d
may make logging a n d measurement of f r a c t u r e s t a t e
indices difficult. The u s e of a c o r e e x t r u d e r is
recommended i n s u c h situations. An example of a
double-tube core-barrel is shown in Figure 16 (see also
Plate 4D).
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( b ) Triple-tube core-barrels, containing detachable liners
within t h e inner barrel t h a t protect t h e core from
drilling fluid and damage during extrusion, a r e suitable
for use in fresh t o moderately decomposed rock and some
of t h e stronger highly decomposed materials. They a r e
particularly useful in coring highly fractured and jointed
rock a s t h e split liners facilitate the retention of core
with the joint system relatively undisturbed. An example
of a non-retractable triple-tube core-barrel (with split
liners) is shown i n Figure 17 (see also Plate 4E).
When coring soils derived from insitu rock weathering.
triple-tube core-barrels fitted with a retractable shoe a r e
normally used (Table 5). The cutting shoe and connected
inner barrel projects ahead of t h e bit when drilling in
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soft material and retracts when t h e drilling pressure
increases in harder materials. This greatly reduces t h e
possibility of drilling fluid coming into contact with t h e
core a t o r j u s t above t h e point of cutting. These
cutting shoes can be added to t h e same triple-tube core-
barrel used for coring fresh t o moderately decomposed
rock. Alternatively, and f a r more commonly in Hong
Kong, a Mazier core-barrel (Figure 18 and Plate 4F) is
used. However, i t should be noted t h a t t h e Mazier has a
tungsten carbide tipped cutting shoe and is therefore not
suitable for coring fresh to moderately decomposed rock.
When rock o r corestones a r e encountered, a core-barrel
with a diamond-impregnated drill bit has t o be used t o
advance t h e hole (e.g. t h e double-tube Craelius T2-101
barrel a s shown in Figure 16). The Mazier core-barrel
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has an inner plastic liner which protects the sample
during transportation to t h e laboratory. The 74 mm
diameter core obtained with t h e Mazier is compatible
with t h e commonly -used laboratory triaxial testing
apparatus.
High quality (class 1) core samples of soils derived from insitu rock
weathering and colluvium can be obtained using t h e large diameter triple-tube
core-barrels i n conjunction with air foam a s t h e flushing medium (see
Section 18.7.2). Samples of class 1 to class 2 can also be obtained using t h e
Mazier sampler in conjunction with air foam o r water a s t h e flushing medium.
Another type of triple-tube barrel is t h e wireline core-barrel. This non-
retractable barrel incorporates a line mechanism for withdrawing t h e inner
barrel up through t h e drill rods without withdrawing t h e outer barrel o r rods
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from t h e hole. This core-barrel may be used in fresh t o moderately

decomposed rock, and in very deep vertical o r inclined holes t o achieve more
rapid drilling progress.
Further discussions of core-barrels, drilling techniques and their
suitability t o materials found in Hong Kong can be found in Brand & Phillipson
(1984). Brenner & Phillipson (1979) and Forth & Platt-Higgins (19811.
19.9 BLOCK SAMPLES
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Block samples are c u t b y hand from material exposed i n trial pits a n d
excavations. They are normally taken i n fill, soils derived from insitu rock
weathering a n d colluvium in o r d e r to obtain samples with t h e l e a s t possible
disturbance. The p r o c e d u r e is also used t o obtain specially orientated samples,
e.g. t o measure t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h on specific discontinuities. The location
a n d orientation of a block sample should always b e r e c o r d e d before t h e sample
is s e p a r a t e d from t h e ground. Block samples should b e t a k e n a n d handled a s
described in Section 19.10.6. More detailed recommendations f o r block
sampling are given i n USER (1974).
19.10 XANDLINC AND LABELLING OF S2MfLE.S

19.10.1 General
Samples may have cost a considerable sum of money to obtain and
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should be treated with great care. The usefulness of the results of the
laboratory tests depends on the qu&y of the samples at the tibe they are
tested It is therefore hportant to e s t a b m a satikfactory procedure for
handling and l a b e f i g the samples, and also for their storage and transport so
that they do not deteriorate, and can readily be identi3ed and drawn from the
sample store when required.
The s&es should be protected from excessive heat and temperature
variatrbn, which may lead to deter~oration in the seahng of the sample
containers and subsequent damage to the samples. The temperature of the
sample store will be M u e n c e d by the c h a t e , but I? 13 recommended that the
samples should be stored at the lowest temperature practikable wwithn the
range Z•‹C to IS•‹C The d d y temperature variatrbn within the store should
not exceed ZO•‹C.
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19.10.2 Labelling
All samples should be labefled fmmed12tely after being taken from a

borehole or excavation. I f they are to be preserved at their natural moisture
content, they wil at the same time have to be sealed in an aiitight container
or coated in wax. The label should show a// necessary information about the
sample, and an addiobnal copy should be kept separately from the sample; thh
latter ~k n 0 r . y recorded on the da@y field report. The label should be
marked with indelible J M and be sufficienlry robust to withstand the effect o f
its environment and o f the transport o f the sample. The sample itself should
carry more than one label or other means of identincatrbn so that the sample
can sti7l be identiild ifone label ~k damaged.
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The sample label should give t h e following information, where r e l e v a n t :
(a) name of contract.

( b ) name o r r e f e r e n c e numbers of t h e site.
(c) reference number, location a n d a n g l e of hole.

( d ) r e f e r e n c e number of sample,
(e) date of sampling.
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(f) brief description of the sample.
( g ) depth of top and bottom of the sample below ground

level, and
( h ) location and orientation of the sample where appropriate
(e.g. a sample from a trial pit).
l9.lO.3 Disturbed Samples of So17 and Hand Spec~hensof Rock
Where samples are required for testhg, or where it is desirable to keep

them in good conditon over long periods, they should be treated as described
below.
Immediately after being taken from a borehole or exca vaton, the sample
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should be placed in a non-corrodible and durable contaher of at least 0.5 kg
capacity. wh~ehthe sample should /il/ witb the minimum of air space. The
contaher should have an airtight cover or seal so that the natural moisture
content of the sample can 62, maintained uno7 tested in the laboratory. For
rock samples, an alternative procedure is to coat the sample lh a layer of
paraffin wax. A microcrystalline wax is preferred because it is less Mely to
shrink or crack. Large disturbed s-es that are requked for certah
laboratory tests may be packed in robust containers or p h t k sacks.
Tbe sample containers should be numbered and the tear-off slip or a
label as described in Secton l9.lO.Z should be placed ~h the contaner
hmediately under the cover. An ia'enbkal label should also be securely Iixed
to the outskie of the contaher under a waterproof seal /war or plastksI. The
containers should be carefully crated to prevent damage during transit. During
the intervals wMe the samples are on site or in transit to the sample store,
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they should be protected from excessive heat.
For hand samples of rock, the reference number shauld be recorded by
panting d~iectryon the surface of the samp/e or by attaching a label
Samples should then be wrapped in several thkkness of paper and packed in a
wooden box. It is advisable to include in the wrapping a label of the type
described in Section l9.lO.Z.
19.10.4 Samples Taken with a Tube Sampler

The following recommendatons are appflcable to a17 samples taken witb
tube samplers, except those taken with thick-walled samplers (see
Section 19.4.51. The precautons for handfling and protectlbn of s d e s are to
be regarded a s a minimum requ~iementfor samples taken b y the usual methods.
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In special cases, 12 may be necessary to take more elaborate precaubons. For

samples that are retained in a tube or liner, procedure fa1 should be foflowed,.
for other samples, procedure fbl should be foflowed.
fa) Immediately after the sample has been taken from the
borehole or excavation, the ends of the sample shouId be
removed to a depth of about 25 mm and any obv~ously
d~kturbedsod ih the top of the s-er should also be
removed. Several layers of molten wax, preferably
microcrystalline wax, should then be app/ed to each end
to give a plug about 25 mm in th~kkness. The molten
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wax should be as cool a s possible. It is essenhal that
the sides of the tube be clean and free from adhering
soil. I f the sample is very porous, a layer of waxed
paper or alumhum foil should be placed over the end of
the sample before a p p / y i g the wax.
Any remaning space between the end of the tube or
h e r and the wax should be tightly packed with a
material that IS less compressible than the sample and
not capable of extracting water from it. and a close-
fitthg lid or screw-cap should then be placed on each
end of the tube or liner. The lids should IT necessary,
be hem in positon with adhesive tape.
(6) Sampls that are not retahed IR a tube should be wholly
covered with several layers of &ten paraffin wax,
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preferam m~'crocryst//inewax, hnmed~ktelyafter be~hg
removed from the samp/ng tooL and then should be
t&bt& packed with suitable mater%alh t o a metal or
plastic conta'ner. The lid of the container should be
held h position with adhesive tape. If the sample is
very porous, it may be necessary to cover it with waxea'
paper or alummi/m foil before applying the &ten wax.
A label bearing the number of the sample should be placed inside the
container just under the lid. The label should be placed a t the top of the
s.wr.de. In addWon, the number of the sample should be panted on the
outside of the contaner, and the top or bottom of the sample should be
lhdl'cated. The liners or contaners should be packed in a way that wiyl
minlinize damage by vibration and shock dur~hgtrans12.
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For soft marine soil samples, the tube or liner should be held vertically.
keeping t h e sample in the same direction a s it left the ground, and extreme
care should be taken during all stages of handling and transportation.
19.10.5 Rotary Core Extrusion and Preservation

After recovery of the core-bard to the surface, every effort should be
made in subsequent handling to ensure that, as far a s poss~'ble,the quality of
the core is mahtahed in its natural state unM it I> finally stored
Except h relatively strong and massive rocks, core is dmst inevitably
disturbed IT it is removed from the barrel held in a vertr'cal posii3on and then
placed into the core box. The barrel should be held in a hor~kontal pos~~oon,
and the core extruded into a tray in such a manner that it is continuously
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supported Ran-water guttering or other convenient/y avdable r~qgidsplit

tube can be used for this purpose. When 12 is required to preserve the core
such that it does not dry out, a conven~entmetbod is to extrude it from the
core-bard into s k v i n g formed of thh-gauge polyethylene, agan supporhhg
the core with rigid split tube. Where selected lengths of core are to be
preserved a t their natural mkture content for laboratory tesahg, any dr17ling
mud contaminatjbn and softened material should first be removed; the sample
should then be wrapped z h foi4 coated with successive layers of waxed cheese
cloth and labelled a s descried 121 Section 19.10.2
In the extrus~on process, the core should preferably be extruded i f fthe
same direcbbn a s it entered the barrel. Extruders should be of the p~kton
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type, preferably mechanically activated, since water-pressure type extruders
can lead to water contact with the core, and to damage by impulsive stressing
of the core. It should be noted that in weak, weathered or fractured rocks,
extrusion can lead to core d~kturbance,however carefully it is done. The use
of a low-friction transparent plastjc finer in the inne/ tube of a modified
conventional double-tube sw~'vefcore-barrel overcomes the majority of the
problems encountered in core extrusion, and fau7itates preservaoon of the core
in the conditrbn in which it is recovered. The general practice is to tape the
outside of the sleeved core every 200 mm, and lengthwise along the overlap in
the plastic sheet, and then, with the aid of plastic guttering for extra support,
the core can be boxed without too much disturbance to the fabr~k. However,
the presence of abrasive and frmtured m k s may preclude the use of such
hers.
The difficulz2es of extrus~onand preservat~oncan be overcome by the
use of tr~plee-tube core-barrels with low-friction h e r s (see Section 19.8). Split
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hher tubes are an ideal method of examiining the recovered core w~xhout
further damage after the dr~ylingprocess. On the other hand, seamless metal
m e r s and plastik h e r s are partkularly useful where core is to be removed
from site for logging or where confined, undisturbed samples are required for
sample preservation and subsequent laboratory testhg.
It is usual to preserve a/l core obta'ned from the borebole for the
period of the main works contract to wh~khthe core dr17ling relates. This is
con venientfy achieved with wooden or plastic core boxes, u s u d y between I m
and 1.5m ~ ' length
n and divided long12ud~hallyto hold a number of rows of
core. The box shoufd be of such depth and the compartments of such ~ ~ 7 t h
that there is mini& movement of the cores when the box J> closed
fCeological Society, 1970). The box should be fitted with a h~k-ged/id and
strong fastener, and should be designed so a s not to be too heavy for two
persons to lift when the box ~k full of core.
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In remowng the core from the barrel and plac~hg12 in the bau, great
care should be taken to ensure that the core is not turned end for end, but
lies i'n its correct natural sequence. Depths below ground surface should be
indicated by an indelible marker on sma// spacers of core d~.ametersize that
are inserted in the core box between cores from successive runs. W e r e there
is fayure to recover core, or where specimens of recovered core are removed
from the box for other purposes, t h ~ kshould be indicated b y spacing-blocks of
appropriate length. Both the /id and the box should be marked to show the
site location, borehole number and range of depth of the core with~hthe box,
addi~onto the number of the box in refatJon to the total sequence of
boxes for that borehole. Core box mark~hgshould be done so as to facilitate
subsequent photography which, ~Yrequired, should be carried out a s soon a s 13
practicable after recovery of the core, and before descr~;O~on, sampling and
testJhg.
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19.10.6 Block Samples

Sample cutting should be carried out a s quickly a s possible t o prevent
excessive moisture loss, and the sample should be protected from rain and
direct sunlight. The sample should be trimmed t o size in plan while still
connected a t i t s base (Plate 5A). The sides should be protected with
aluminium foil or grease-proof paper. and then coated with a succession of
l a y e r s of microcrystalline wax, reinforced with l a y e r s of porous f a b r i c (e.g.
muslin), if r e q u i r e d . A close-fitting box with t h e t o p a n d bottom lids removed
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should t h e n b e slid down o v e r t h e sample (Plate 5B). The t o p of t h e sample
should b e trimmed flat, marked with location a n d orientation, coated as
described above, a n d t h e t o p lid attached t o t h e box. e n s u r i n g a close fit.
The sample may t h e n b e c u t d o n g i t s base, a n d t u r n e d o v e r slowly a n d
carefully f o r trimming a n d coating of t h e bottom p r i o r t o attachment of t h e
bottom lid. A s t r o n g , rigid, close-fitting box is r e q u i r e d t o minimize sample
d i s t u r b a n c e d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a n d t o p r e v e n t discontinuities from opening.
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103
20, GROUNDWATER
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20.1 GENERAL
The determination o f groundwater pressures is o f the utmost importance

since they have a profound influence on the behaviour o f the ground during
and after the constructfbn o f engineering works. There is always the
possibfXty that various zones, particululy those separated b y relatively
impermeable layers, wwil have different groundwater pressures, some o f wh~cb
may be artesian. The locatfon of highly permeable zones in the ground and
the measurement o f water pressure in each is particdarly linportant where
deep excavation or tunnelling is requ~ked,since special measures may be
necessary to deal with the groundwater. For accurate measurement of
groundwater pressures, it is generally necessary to install piezometers. The
groundwater pressure may vary with tfme owing to rainfa//, ti& or other
causes, and it may be necessary to take measurements over an extended period
o f t h e 1j7 order that such variatfons may be investfgated When designing
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drainage works, it IS nerdy desirable to determine the contours o f the water
table or piezometric surface to ascertah the direction o f the natural drainage,
the seasonal variation and the influence o f other hydrological factors.
The monitoring of groundwater levels a n d pore p r e s s u r e s , a n d t h e i r

r e s p o n s e t o rainfall, is c a r r i e d o u t routinely in Hong Kong, a s t h i s information
i s vital t o t h e design a n d construction of slopes, excavations in hillsides, a n d
s i t e formation works. The choice of piezometer t y p e d e p e n d s on t h e predicted
water p r e s s u r e s , access f o r reading, service life a n d r e s p o n s e time r e q u i r e d .
Open-hydraulic (Casagrande) piezometers a r e often u s e d in soils derived from
insitu rock weathering a n d colluvium, which a r e generally relatively permeable.
Other piezometer t y p e s may be used f o r specific projects; t h e available t y p e s
a r e described i n Sections 20.2.3 t o 20.2.6, a n d t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s a n d
disadvantages are summarized in Table 10.
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Slope failures in Hong Kong a r e normally t r i g g e r e d by rainstorms. The
r e s p o n s e of t h e groundwater regime t o rainfall v a r i e s widely from s i t e to site.
r a n g i n g from virtually no r e s p o n s e t o a l a r g e immediate response. The
measurement of t r a n s i e n t r e s p o n s e is t h e r e f o r e v e r y important ( s e e
Section 20.2.8). I n o r d e r t o provide design data, g r o u n d w a t e r monitoring
should extend o v e r at least o n e wet season; t h i s wet season should ideally
contain a storm t h a t has a r e t u r n period of g r e a t e r t h a n t e n years. For s i t e
formation works which involve s u b s t a n t i a l modifications t o t h e hydrogeological
characteristics of t h e site. t h e period of monitoring may need t o b e extended
t o beyond t h e e n d of t h e s i t e formation works. Ground conditions in Hong
Kong may produce perched o r multiple water tables which must also b e
considered when installing a n d monitoring piezometers (Anderson et al, 1983).
I t may also b e necessary t o measure negative pore water p r e s s u r e s , o r

soil suction ( s e e Section 20.2.9). In many cases, existing groundwater d a t a in
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t h e vicinity of t h e s i t e will be available in t h e Geotechnical Information Unit

(see Section 4.2). a n d may be useful in planning a n a p p r o p r i a t e groundwater
monitoring scheme.
An additional consideration i n u r b a n areas is t h e contribution of leakage

from water-bearing s e r v i c e s t o t h e overall groundwater regime. This
contribution can b e significant at some sites. Hydrochemical analysis of
groundwater may aid t h e identification of t h e leak, e.g. t h e presence of
fluoride a t t r i b u t a b l e t o leakage from f r e s h water mains. Advice o n chemical
analysis of groundwater a n d related interpretation techniques s u c h as trilinear
plotting of cation a n d anion c o n t e n t s a r e given in ICE (1976).
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Borehole permeability tests are described l h Section 21.4, packer, or
Lugeon, tests are described in Secoon 21.5 and large-scde pumping tests are
d e d b e d f h Chapter 25.
20.2 METHODS OF DETERMINING GROUNDWATER PRESSURES
20.2. I Response Time

A l l the methods descr12ed i n Section 20.2 require some flow of water
into or out of the measuring device before the recorded pressure can reach
equifibrjkm with the actual groundwater pressure. For an excavation or a
borehole, a large v o h e of water may flow before the water level reaches
equifibr~umwith the groundwater pressure. On the other hand, some types of
piezometer requke only a very small change in volume of water in order that
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the groundwater pressure may be read Tbe rate a t which water flows through
the soil depends on the permeabifity. The &he required for a measuring
device to indicate the true groundwater pressure is known as the response
time and depends on the quantity of water required to operate the device
f 'volume factor% the 'shape factor' of the piezometer (Brand & Premchitt.
19801, the permeabiiWy of the porous element, and the permeability of the
ground The selection of a suitable method for measuring the groundwater
pressure will largely be determined b y the response time (Penman, 1986).
20.2.2 Observations in Boreholes a n d Excavations
The c r u d e s t method of determining t h e groundwater level i s b y

observation in a n open borehole o r excavation. This method may involve a
long r e s p o n s e time unless t h e g r o u n d is v e r y permeable, a n d observations
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should b e made at r e g u l a r time intervals until i t i s established t h a t t h e water
level h a s reached equilibrium. The r e a d i n g s will be misleading if rain o r
s u r f a c e w a t e r is allowed t o e n t e r t h e open hole. Readings taken in a borehole
s h o r t l y a f t e r completion of drilling should be t r e a t e d with caution, a s i t i s
unlikely t h a t equilibrium will have been re-established.
The reliability of w a t e r level observations in boreholes o r excavations

can be somewhat improved b y t h e installation of a standpipe, a s shown in
Figure 19. A s t a n d p i p e ( n o t t o be confused with t h e s t a n d p i p e piezometer
described in Section 20.2.3) consists of a n open-ended t u b e of h a r d plastic of
approximately 19 mm i n t e r n a l diameter which h a s been perforated e i t h e r o v e r
i t s e n t i r e length o r j u s t t h e lowest 1 t o 2 m. The perforated section, with
openings o v e r a t least 5% of i t s s u r f a c e a r e a , should b e wrapped in a suitable
filter fabric. The space between t h e t u b e a n d t h e wall of t h e borehole o r
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excavation is normally backfilled with medium t o coarse s a n d a n d fine g r a v e l

t o act a s a filter. The t o p 0.5 m a r o u n d t h e s t a n d p i p e should be sealed to
p r e v e n t t h e i n g r e s s of s u r f a c e water. While r e a d i n g s taken in a s t a n d p i p e a r e
more controlled t h a n i n a n open borehole, s t a n d p i p e r e s p o n s e time i s still slow,
and if zones of different permeabilities have been penetrated, flow between
zones may occur. Standpipe r e a d i n g s may t h e r e f o r e not be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
actual g r o u n d w a t e r levels. These drawbacks can largely b e overcome b y t h e
installation of open-hydraulic o r o t h e r piezometers.
20.2.3 Standpipe Piezometers
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The standpipe piezometer, p e r h a p s b e t t e r termed t h e open-hydraulic
piezometer, consists of a t u b e with a porous filter element on t h e e n d t h a t
can be sealed into t h e g r o u n d a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e level (Figure 19). Two t y p e s
of filter elements, viz t h e high a i r e n t r y filter a n d t h e low a i r e n t r y filter,
a r e generally used. Depending on t h e size a n d uniformity of t h e pores, t h e
filter c a n sustain a p r e s s u r e difference between a i r a n d w a t e r on i t s s u r f a c e
d u e t o t h e effect of s u r f a c e tension. The maximum p r e s s u r e difference t h a t
can be sustained is known as t h e a i r e n t r y value of t h e filter. The smaller
t h e size of t h e pores. t h e h i g h e r will be t h e filter's a i r e n t r y value, b u t t h e
lower will b e t h e filter's permeability. and t h i s can give r i s e t o a long
r e s p o n s e time. A high air e n t r y f i l t e r can be u s e d t o measure matric soil
suction, a s a i r can be k e p t o u t of t h e measuring fluid system, which is t h e n
allowed t o come i n t o equilibrium with t h e s u r r o u n d i n g negative pore water
p r e s s u r e ( s e e Section 20.2.9). The filter cannot, however, p r e v e n t t h e e n t r y of
a i r by diffusion, hence t h e need t o flush air bubbles o u t of t h e measuring
system from time t o time. A low air e n t r y filter has l a r g e pores a n d t h e r e f o r e
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does not impede t h e passage of air. Low a i r e n t r y filters a r e t h e r e f o r e not
suitable f o r measuring pore water p r e s s u r e s in u n s a t u r a t e d ground.
The Casagrande-type device is t h e most f r e q u e n t l y installed s t a n d p i p e

piezometer (Plate 6A). I t h a s a cylindrical (low a i r e n t r y ) porous element
protected b y a perforated rigid s h e a t h a b o u t 35 mm in diameter a n d 300 mm
long. This element is connected t o a 19 mm o r 25 mm internal diameter pipe.
The r e s p o n s e time of t h i s t y p e of piezometer is comparatively slow, b u t it
generally does not become a significant factor until t h e soil permeability is
less than about m/sec (Hvorslev. 1951). A t t h i s permeability, t h e
r e s p o n s e time should not be more t h a n a few h o u r s when t h e piezometer is
installed within a 150 mm diameter b y 400 mm long sand pocket.
Open-hydraulic piezometers a r e normally installed in boreholes. Access

t o t h e t o p of t h e piezometer is generally r e q u i r e d in o r d e r t o measure t h e
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water level with a dipmeter ( s e e Section 20.2.8) o r similar device, although t h e
water level can be read remotely using a n air-bubbling system (see
Section 20.2.8). The piezometer t o p should be well protected, b u t i t must
remain v e n t e d t o t h e atmosphere.
If t h e pore p r e s s u r e temporarily d r o p s below atmospheric, t h e open-

hydraulic piezometer will c e a s e functioning, b u t being self de-airing, i t will
resume satisfactory operation without maintenance. The piezometer t u b e
should generally not be smaller t h a n 1 2 mm internal diameter o r t h e self de-
airing function may be impaired (Vaug han. 1974).
The main a d v a n t a g e s of a n open-hydraulic piezometer are i t s simplicity

a n d reliability. Also, water can b e pumped down t h e pipe t o flush o u t
blockages. Moreover, i t can b e used t o determine t h e permeability of t h e
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g r o u n d in which t h e t i p is embedded ( s e e Section 21.4). I t s main disadvantage

is slow r e s p o n s e time in soils of low permeability.
20.2.4 Hydraulic Piezometers
In hydraulic piezometers, also termed closed-hydraulic piezometers, t h e

groundwater p r e s s u r e is detected in a small piezometer t i p with porous walls
a n d conducted t h r o u g h small diameter plastic t u b e s t o a remote point, where
t h e p r e s s u r e is measured, usually with a mercury manometer, Bourdon g a u g e o r
p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r . A i r i n t h e t u b e s will c a u s e e r r o n e o u s r e a d i n g s , a n d
because of t h i s t h e t u b e s m u s t b e k e p t full of w a t e r a n d routinely de-aired.
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Various t y p e s of hydraulic piezometers are available, t h e most common
being t h e t w i n - t u b e t y p e s shown in Figure 20. In t h e s e piezometers, t h e t i p i s
connected t o t h e measuring point b y two tubes. s o t h a t water c a n b e
circulated t o flush o u t a n y air bubbles. This should be done in s u c h a way
t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e t i p is left approximately at working p r e s s u r e .
I n o r d e r t o avoid cavitation, t h e measuring point a n d connecting t u b e s
should not b e more t h a n 7 m above t h e piezometric level being measured
(Penman, 1978). Hydraulic piezometers a r e not self de-airing a n d r e g u l a r
maintenance i s r e q u i r e d f o r satisfactory performance. The hydraulic leads
facilitate remote reading, a n d t h e measuring point can b e s e p a r a t e d laterally
from t h e piezometer t i p b y fairly long distances.
A closed-hydraulic piezometer has a s m d response tihe and can be used

for measuring rapid changes ~hpore water pressure due to rahfallinfiltraOon,
pressure changes due to tidal variathn or to changes of stress induced by
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superhposed loads or excavathns. It can a130 be used for ihsitu
measurements of permeab~jrity. In zones of high permeability, care should be
taken to see that the /im&hg permeability o f the porous tip is considered
20.25 Electrical P~ezometers
Electrical p~ezometershave a pressure transducer located h e to the

porous element. V e r y rapid response t~inescan be achievedprovided the tip is
de-aied mere long term stability is required. or the s ~ g n a lI> to be
transmitted over a long distance, the transducer I> u s u d y of the vf..rathg
wire type. The m a h disadvantage o f the electrcal piezometer 13 that it
requires calibrathn, wh12h cannot be checked easily after insta//athn. It
should be noted that some transducers have temperature-sens12ive elements, so
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that check cahbrattons should be carried out at groundwater temperature.
Moreover. it is not always easy to check that the instrument I> behaving
reliably. De-aihhg is not possible after installatrbn, and mislead~ngresults can
be obtahed. parb'cularly ~h unsaturated so17s or so17s contahing gas, e.g.
methane in organ2 soils. The electrical p~ezometercannot be used for ihsitu
permeabiZty measurements /Penman, 1960).
Electrical piezometers h a v e not been widely used in Hong Kong.
Pneuma02 systems comprise two aii-Med tubes connecfihg the

measurhg point to a valve located close to the porous element. When the air
pressure h the input line equah the water pressure in the porous element, the
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valve operates, thereby holding constant the pressure eithor ih the return line
or in the supply h e . The operation o f the valve requkes a s d volume
change in the porous element, and in impermeable clays this can lead to
difficulbes. Also, dirt enter~hgthe lines can prevent valve operation. The
pneumatic piezmneter is cheap and easy to instd and has a rapid response. It
cannot be used for insitu permeabZty measurements /Marsfand. 19731.
Pneumatri: piezometers have the same lim12atrons as electrical p~kzometersih
that they cannot be checked and the porous tips cannot be de-aied after
instaffation.
The use of pneumatic piezometers in Hong Kong is described by Handfelt
et al (1987).
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20.2.7 Installation of Piezometers
The success of pore water pressure measurement depends upon the care
taken during instdation and seahhg of the p~ezometeror standp~pe. The
porous element should be fully saturated and filled with de-aired water before
installaation.
In soft ground, the porous element can often be pushed or driven ihto
position. It is, howe ver. necessary to a void clogg~hgthe porous element if12
is pushed thmugh soft clays. This can be ach~evedby u s ~ n ga drive-
p~ezometer wh~'chhas a removable sleeve that covers the element during
driving Parry, 19717 In day. a pushed or driven piezometer shears and
remoulds the chy, destroys the fabric in the clay adjacent to the porous
element, and can lead to erroneous measurements o f insitu permeab12ty. It
should also be noted that the actfbn o f push~hgor driving may set up high
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excess pore-pressures, wh~khin s o i s o f low permeability may take a long t h e
to diss~pate. In harder ground, the instrument J> installed in a borehole with
the porous element surrounded by weLl-graded sand. Above the sand, the
borehole should be sealed off: preferably with grout.
The typical method of installation of a piezometer in a borehole is
illustrated in Figure 21. The tip should be placed within a sand pocket in t h e
specific zone for which pore pressures a r e to be measured, referred t o a s t h e
response zone. The length of t h e response zone should be a t least four hole
diameters, preferably not less than 400 mm. Washed sand with particle sizes
in t h e range 0.2 mm t o 1.2 mm is recommended for t h e response zone in most
soils derived from insitu rock weathering. For coarse transported soils (e.g.
alluvial and marine sands and gravels), filters should be specifically designed to
match t h e surrounding material (GCO. 1984).
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Bentonite should be used to provide a seal above t h e sand pocket, and if
t h e piezometer has not been installed near t h e base of t h e borehole. a
bentonite seal should also be placed beneath t h e sand pocket. The length of
bentonite seals is typically 0.5 m, although longer seals may be preferable.
especially on t h e upper side of t h e piezometer. Bentonite balls approximately
25 mm in diameter, formed from powdered bentonite and water. may be used to
form t h e seals. An alternative is to use compressed bentonite pellets. in which
case sufficient time should be allowed for t h e swelling action of t h e pellets t o
occur before grout is placed on top of t h e seal.
The remaining sections of t h e borehole, both above t h e upper seal and

beneath t h e lower seal (if applicable), should be filled with a cement-
bentonite grout of t h e same o r lower permeability than t h e surrounding soil.
A tremie pipe should be used to place t h e grout. The volume of grout used
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should be compared with t h e volume of t h e hole t o be grouted.
The compositfon of the grout m ~ kwill depend on a variety o f factors,

such as the availability of materials, the r e q u ~ b dpermeability, the type and
make of bentonite, the condition of the borehole and the groundwater levels.
The grout should be easily pumped, o f the required permeab~jrity,and flex~3le.
The constituents should not segregate while the grout is s M l liquid. A typical
mix might be four parts o f bentonite mired thomughly with e ~ g h tto twelve
parts o f water, to which is added one part o f ord~haryPortland cement.
Special mixes and chemical a d d i t i v s may be necessary if the grout is to be
used in sea water or very acid water.
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Poor sealing of t h e piezometer will permit t h e migration of water from
one level to another, and may r e n d e r t h e readings meaningless. The
installation of more than one piezometer in a single borehole is not generally
recommended. If two piezometers a r e placed in a single hole, great care must
be taken to achieve proper seals.
A well-drained, lockable surface box should be provided for every
piezometer installation (Figure 21).
After installation, a response t e s t should be conducted on each
piezometer where possible. t o check t h e adequacy of t h e installation. The
response t e s t may be of t h e falling head type, with t h e results presented on
falling head permeability t e s t result sheets. Unexpected results in a response
t e s t may indicate t h a t t h e piezometer is defective. Similar response tests
carried out a t intervals during t h e life of t h e piezometer a r e also recommended
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t o e n s u r e t h a t readings remain valid. In soft cohesive soils, care should be
exercised t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e head used in response t e s t s does not cause
hydraulic fracture in t h e soil.
20.2.8 Varying Groundwater Pressures

In additrbn to varying response to ra'nfalI, water pressures may show
seasonal variation, response to tr'dal changes or may be affected b y abstractibn
from ne~ghbouringwells or b y other causes. Where i t is finportant to take
account of these effects, adequate periods of observation should be adopted
Groundwater levels in open-hydraulic piezometers o r standpipes a r e
commonly measured with battery-operated electrical dipmeters (McNicholl &
Cho, 1985). This technique relies on t h e conductivity of t h e groundwater to
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complete a circuit. In some instances t h e dipmeter may fail to function until
t h e conductivity of t h e water has been increased, for example by t h e addition
of a few crystals of common salt (sodium chloride).
Groundwater levels o r pressures should be recorded and plotted
systematically. A typical record sheet is shown in Figure 22, where t h e
readings have been plotted on a time base for ease of interpretation, together
with corresponding rainfall data.
The observation of peak groundwater response i n open-hydraulic
piezometers o r standpipes can be measured using a string of piezometer
'buckets' (Figure 23 and Plate 6 8 ) . The buckets a r e filled progressively a s
water rises in t h e piezometer and will retain their water even if t h e
piezometric pressure subsequently falls. By using a series of closely-spaced
piezometer buckets, t h e peak transient response during o r a f t e r a rainstorm
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can be recorded a t a convenient time later on. The buckets a r e tied to a

weighted nylon string a t selected depth intervals above t h e normal base water
level and can be pulled t o t h e surface for readings. They might typically be
placed a t 0.5 m intervals within t h e range of 2 m both above and below t h e
critical groundwater level assumed in t h e design. A typical data sheet is
shown in Figure 24. Care should be taken when handling t h e string t o ensure
t h a t it does not drop into t h e borehole (thus rendering t h e piezometer use-
less), o r t h a t i t does not tangle and reduce t h e spacing between t h e buckets.
Another method for recording transient water levels in open-hydraulic
piezometers or standpipes is t h e automatic bubbling recorder, o r 'bubbler'
system. In this system, a small diameter air line is installed down to t h e
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piezometer tip with a small air flow sufficient to produce several bubbles per
minute. The air pressure required t o release bubbles can be equated to t h e
water pressure produced by t h e height of water in t h e standpipe.
An electronic pressure transducer and "Scanivalve" have been used for
automatic recording of a number of piezometers (Pope e t al. 1982).
Functioning of t h e system may be controlled by a microprocessor, allowing
variation in t h e number of piezometers read. t h e dwell time on each
piezometer, and t h e interval time between readings.
20.2.9 Soil Suction
Measurement of matric soil suction. o r negative pore water pressure, in

t h e range 0 to -80 kPa can be undertaken in t h e field with tensiometers. A
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high air e n t r y pressure ceramic tip allows equilibrium to be achieved between
soil moisture and a confined reservoir of water within t h e tensiometer. A
vacuum gauge is located a t t h e top of t h e tensiometer. A t suctions greater
than -80 kPa, water inside t h e tensiometer cavitates and is lost through t h e
ceramic tip. An example of a tensiometer is shown in Plate 6C.
The pressure exerted by t h e column of water within t h e tensiometer
must also be considered; for example. if t h e tip were located 1.5 m vertically
beneath t h e gauge, t h e maximum soil suction t h a t could be measured would be
reduced t o -65 kPa. When suction measurements a r e required a t greater
depths, a caisson may be excavated and tensiometers installed through t h e
sides of t h e caisson (Sweeney, 1982). The reliability of a tensiometer depends
on a good contact between t h e soil and t h e ceramic tip, and a good seal
between t h e tensiometer tube and t h e soil.
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For measurement of soil suctions beyond t h e range of tensiometers.
psychrometers may be used (Richards. 1971). although their accuracy is
doubtful. The measurement of soil suction in Hong Kong slopes has been
reviewed by Anderson (1984).
20.3 CROCINDWAATER SAMPLES
Care should be taken to ensure that samples are representative of the

water-bearing zone from w h k h they have been taken and that they have not
been contanuhated or d ~ l ~ t eby
d surface water or water used for boring.
Water samples should be taken as soon as possible after the water-bear~hg
zone has been met in the borehole. If other water-bear~hgtones occur a t
higher levels, these shouM be sealed off by the borehole cashg. A s far as is
possible, all the water in the borehole should be removed by pumping or
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baling, and the s a m e taken fmwater which collects by seepage. About one
litre should be coL4ected in a clean glass or hert plastic bottle, rinshg the
bottle three Limes with the water being sampled before filling. More stringent
requirements may apply ih certain cases, e.g. use of sterilized containers /see
Chapter 131. Even when precauttons are taken, water samples from boreholes
may be unrepresentative. Better resuks can be obtahed IT samples can be
taken from a standpipe p~ezometersealed withh the relevant zone. Water
samp/es may deterforate rapl-dly and should therefore be tested as soon a s
poss~Bleafter sampling.
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111
21, TESTS I N BOREHOLES
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21.1 GENERAL
This c h a p t e r describes various tests t h a t may b e conducted a s

supplementary t o a g r o u n d investigation c a r r i e d o u t b y boreholes. The tests
described a r e generally u n d e r t a k e n as a n integral p a r t of t h e drilling operation.
Additional field t e s t s a r e described in Chapters 24 t o 33, a n d include some
t e s t s which can also b e conducted in boreholes. The division of t h e s u b j e c t
matter h a s been somewhat a r b i t r a r y ; therefore, where coverage of a particular
t e s t is not given in t h i s c h a p t e r , i t should b e s o u g h t i n later c h a p t e r s .
21.2 STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS
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The s t a n d a r d penetration t e s t is a f r e q u e n t l y u s e d dynamic penetration
t e s t a n d is described i n Test 19 of BSI (1975b). A small d i s t u r b e d soil sample
(quality class 3 ) is normally obtained when t h e s p l i t b a r r e l sampler i s u s e d
(Figure 25 a n d Plate 7A). The test r e s u l t s have been related empirically t o
soil parameters a n d foundation conditions, especially i n s a n d s a n d gravels.
Minor variations from t h e specified equipment a n d procedures can

seriously affect t h e r e s u l t s of t h e test (De Mello. 1971; Ireland et al. 1970;
Nixon, 1982; Skempton. 1986). I t is important t h a t t h e t e s t is c a r r i e d o u t
precisely as described i n Test 19 of BSI (1975b). except t h a t t h e following
modifications should be incorporated :
(a) An automatic release t r i p hammer (Plate 7 8 ) should b e

used t o d r i v e t h e sampler.
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( b ) The weight of t h e hammer in t h e d r i v e assembly should
be 63.5 kg.
(c) The diameter of t h e borehole should b e between 60 mm

a n d 200 mm.
( d ) Drill r o d s with a s t i f f n e s s equal t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n t y p e

BW r o d s should be u s e d to r e d u c e e n e r g y dissipation.
These modifications b r i n g t h e t e s t p r o c e d u r e s into conformity with t h e

proposed international standardization of t h e test (ISSMFE, 1977).
21.22 Preparaobn for Testing

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It is necessary to clean out the bottom of the borehole. When the test
is carried out below the groundwater level. certain types of soil may be
loosened below the base of the borehole by the acaon of the boring tools and
b y pressure d~Yferencesbetween the groundwater and water ih the borehole.
This effect can be paro'cularfy severe in sands. The effect can be reduced b y
keeping the borehole topped up with water and b y very careful operaoon of
the boring tools but often these exped~entswill not be completely successfuL
The drill casing should not be advanced ahead of t h e borehole w h e r e a
standard penetration test is to be performed.
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21.2.3 Advantages and Limitations
The great merit of the test, and the main reason for its widespread use,
is that it is simple and inexpensive. The soil strength parameters which can
be inferred are very approminate, but give a useful guide in ground conditlbns
where it may not be possible to obtain borehole sampZes of adequate quality,
e.g, gra vels, sands, silts, c h y containing sand or gra vel and weak rock. In
conditlbns where the quality of the 'undisturbed' samp/e is suspect, e.g. very
sJty or very sandy clays, or hard clays, it is often advantageous to alternate
the samp/ng with standard penetration tests, thereby obtahing a check on the
strength. I f the samples are found to be unacceptably disturbed, it may be
necessary to use a different method for measuring strength, e.g, the plate test
described in Sections 21.6 and 29. I.
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When the test is carried out in granular sods below groundwater level,
the so17 may become loosened, even when the test is carried out i n strict
accordance with BSI (19756) and the borehole has been properly prepared. In
certain circumstances, it can be u s e m to contihue driving the sampler beyond
the distance specified, adding further dry1 rods as necessary. Although this is
not a standard penetration test, and should not be regarded as such, it may, a t
least, give an indication as to whether the deposit is really as loose as the
standard test may indicate. When there is good reason to believe that
unrealstically low vahes are being recorded, considerafion should be glSvento
the use of some other test which can be performed independently of a
borehole, e,g. the cone penetration test described in Section 23.3.
When the test is carried out in soils derived from insitu rock
weathering in Hong Kong, it is commonly extended to high blow counts,
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sometimes in excess of 200. However, it is recommended that the test
should be discontinued when the blow count reaches 100 or if the hammer
bounces and insignificant penetration is achieved, as is frequently the
case when corestones are encountered. If the test is curtailed due to
hard driving, the number of blows used to achieve the actual penetration
should be measured and recorded (e.g. Blow/Penetration = 100/80 mm), and
this may be used to estimate the blow counts for 300 mm penetration.
In the construction of bored pdes, the test is sometlines carried out i n

boreholes consl'derably larger in diameter than those used for ground
in vestigation work. The result of the standard penetration test is dependent
upon the dimeter of the borehole, and these tests should not be regarded a s
standard penetration tests. They may, however, pro vide useful informatlbn to
a plying contractor, parb'cularly ifhe has considerable experience in their use.
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21.2.4 Results and Interpretation
The resulting N value is defined as the number of blows required to

drive the standard split spoon sampler a distance of 300 mm. The sampler is
initially driven 150 mm to penetrate through any disturbed material at the
bottom of the borehole before the test is carried out. The number of blows
required for each 7 5 mm advance in the initial seating drive should be
recorded; the test may then proceed, with recording of the number of blows
required for each 7 5 mm incremental advance of the test drive.
When t h e test i s u s e d in soils derived from insitu rock weathering, i t
should be noted t h a t t h e empirical relationships developed f o r t r a n s p o r t e d soils
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between N value a n d foundation design parameters. relative density a n d s h e a r
s t r e n g t h may not be valid. Corestones, f o r example, can b e responsible f o r
misleadingly high values t h a t a r e u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e mass. In view of
this, t h e test should only be used to give a r o u g h indication of relative
s t r e n g t h in t h e s e soils, o r t o develop site-specific correlations.
21.3 VANE TESTS
21.3.1 Genera: Principles
A cruciform v a n e on t h e e n d of a solid rod is forced i n t o t h e soil a n d

t h e n r o t a t e d (Figure 26). The t o r q u e r e q u i r e d to r o t a t e t h e v a n e c a n b e
related to t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e soil. The method of c a r r y i n g o u t t h e t e s t
i s described in Test 18 of BSI (1975b). Vanes can t a k e t h e form of borehole
v a n e s o r penetration vanes, t h e l a t t e r being much more reliable. The test can
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be extended t o measure t h e remoulded s t r e n g t h of t h e soil. This is done b y
t u r n i n g t h e v a n e t h r o u g h t e n complete rotations. A pause of not more t h a n
o n e minute is permitted to elapse a n d t h e v a n e test is t h e n repeated in t h e
normal way. The d e g r e e of d i s t u r b a n c e caused b y rotating t h e vane differs
from t h a t obtained b y remoulding a sample of clay in t h e laboratory, a n d t h e
numerical value of t h e sensitivity of t h e clay determined b y t h e s e procedures
is not s t r i c t l y comparable with t h e r e s u l t s obtained from laboratory triaxial
tests.
The test is normally r e s t r i c t e d t o fairly uniform, cohesive, fully-
s a t u r a t e d soils, a n d is used mainly f o r clay having a n undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h
of u p to a b o u t 75 kPa. The r e s u l t s are questionable i n s t r o n g e r clays, or if
t h e soil t e n d s to dilate on s h e a r i n g o r is fissured.
I n Hong Kong, t h e v a n e test i s invaluable i n t h e marine sediments ( F u n g
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et al. 1984; Handfelt et al. 1987). However. some s t r a t a a r e s a n d y o r contain
shells, in which case v a n e s h e a r r e s u l t s should b e i n t e r p r e t e d with caution.
Marine muds are generally v e r y soft, a n d it is often necessary t o provide a
s e p a r a t e s u p p o r t frame on t o p of t h e seabed t o c a r r y o u t t h e v a n e test (see
Section 14.7).
It should be noted that the undraned shear strength determined by an

insitu vane test is. i n genera/, not equal to the average value calculated at
f a M i n the field e.g. h the fa7ure of an embankment on soft clay. The
discrepancy between /ied and vane shear strengths generuy increases as the
day becomes more plastk (8jerrum, 19731.
21.3.2 Advantages a n d Limitations

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The mah advantage 13 that the test itself causes /ittle d~kturbanceof
the ground. Th13 I> partz'culzly apparent ~ isensitive
) clays, where the vane
test tends to give higher shear strengths than those derived from laboratory
tests on samples obtahed with the genera/ purpose sampler described i n
Section 19.4.4. I n these condihns, the vane test results are g e d l y
considered to be much more reliable. If the test 13 carried out i n so2 that i s
not uniform and contains even thin layers of laminatrbns of sand or dense s17t,
the torque may be misleadingly high. The presence of rootlets i n organic
so17s, and also of coarse parOWes, may lead to erroneous results.
With t h e penetration v a n e t e s t a p p a r a t u s ( v a n e b o r e r ) described in Test
18 of BSI (1975b3. t h e vane a n d a protective casing (Plate 8) a r e forced into
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t h e g r o u n d by jacking. A t t h e r e q u i r e d d e p t h , t h e v a n e is advanced a s h o r t
distance ahead of t h e protective casing. t h e test is conducted, a n d t h e casing
a n d v a n e a r e then s u b s e q u e n t l y advanced to t h e next required depth.
However, with t h i s t y p e of test i t is not always possible t o penetrate t o t h e
desired l a y e r without t h e assistance of pre-boring.
Small hand-operated v a n e t e s t i n s t r u m e n t s a r e available f o r u s e in t h e

sides o r bottom of a n excavation. These devices can also be used on samples,
with t e s t s done e i t h e r in t h e field o r in t h e laboratory. The r e s u l t s t h u s
obtained a r e generally adequate f o r t h e p u r p o s e of classifying t h e consistency
of cohesive soils ( G C O , 1988). Comparative hand vane t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t in both
t h e field a n d laboratory may provide a n indication of possible d i s t u r b a n c e
d u r i n g handling a n d transportation of t h e sample.
21.4 PERMEABILITY TESTS
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The determination o f insitu permeability b y tests f h boreholes i n volves
the application o f an hydraulic pressure i n the borehole different from that ~ i ,
the ground, and the measurement o f the flow due to this difference, The
pressure i n the borehole may be increased b y introducing water into it, whfcb
i s commonly. c d e d a falfing-head or inflow test, or it may be decreased b y
pumping water out of it i n a rising-head or outflow test. The pressure may be
held constant durfng a test fa constant-head test) o r it may be Mowed t o
equahe to i t s origfhal value fa variable-head test). The techn~*ue i s strictly
applicable only to the measurement o f permeability o f soi/s below groundwater
level, although an approximate assessment may be made above t h ~ slevel
(Schmid, 19661. However, t h ~ sapproxhate value wfYl r e f i c t the fnfi7traatrbn
capacity o f the subsurface materia/ rather than i t s permeabfPty fsee dm
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Section 24.3). A great varfety o f tests are included under this heading,
varying from the very crude, where simple problems can be solved b y s h p l e
means, t o the sophisticated when the nature o f the problem demands more
refined data.
21.4.2 Preparatfons f o r the Test
I n the s~inplestform o f test, preparation consists o f cleaning out the

bottom o f the borehole. The test is then conducted b y measuring the rate o f
flow o f water out o f the borehole into the soil, or vice versa, through the
open end o f the casing. The borehole may be extended beyond the bottom o f
the casing, thus increasing the surface through which water can flow. If
necessary, the uncased p a r t o f the borehole is supported b y a suf'table AYter
material Water leak~ngthrough the casing joints has at trines been found t o
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cause m~sleadingresults and the problem has been overcome b y the use o f
f i b r e rhgs.
Misleading r e s u l t s c a n also a r i s e if a n y r e t u r n flow o c c u r s u p t h e

outside of t h e casing.
For more accurate measurements, a perforated tube o r a suf'tab1e

piezometer tip i s i n s t d e d , which is then surrounded b y a granular /iltr t o
prevent erosion o f the ground, and the casing withdrawn. It i s essential that
the filter material used has a permeabii'ity much greater than that of the soil
being tested. Recommendatrons for sealing the borehole above the granular
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filter are gi'ven ih Sectron 20.27. In order to avoid errors in flow
measurement due to compression and solution o f trapped air in the leads,
ceramic piezometer tips should be saturated with de-aked water before
installath
Permeability tests can be carried out at various depths in the borehole
as drilling progresses. Figure 27 shows a suitable test arrangement.
Before a permeabi/ity test is conducted, it IS essentral to determhe the
level of the natural groundwater table by one o f the methods described in
Chapter 20.
Measurements of water level taken soon after cessation of drilling
usually do not represent equilibrium values, and a series of measurements may
be necessary. If a piezometer is finally installed in the borehole. the
piezometric data obtained from monitoring may provide a check on the
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measurements taken at the time of the test.
The period required for constant-head tests is decreased and the inter-
pretation simplfied ifshort lengths of borehole are used for the test. Pore
pressures should be in equilibrium before the test is performed, and with clays
of low permeability it can take several months for the pore pressures set up
by the drilling of the borehole to equa/lie. For soih derived from ihsii'u rock
weathenhg and co//uvium, equalizatton typicdy occurs very much faster.
21.4.3 Variable-head Test
The fist operatlbn is either to fi// the piezometer tube with water
(falling-head tesN or to force the water level down by a fbot-pump or bikycle
pump (rising-head test). The head in the borehole IS then d o w e d to equalize
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with that in the ground, the actual head being measured at ihtervals of trine
from the commencement of the test. The depth o f the borehole should be
checked to determihe whether any sediinent has come out o f suspension or
whether the bottom of the borebole has heaved during the test period
21.4.4 Constant-head Test
A constant-head test is normally conducted as an i f l o w test ih whikh

arrangements are made for water to flow into the ground under a sensi'bly
constant head. It ik e s s e n W to use clean water. It w f l not be possible to
achieve a constant head IT the groundwater level IS not constant or the head
lost by frictrtrb in the pipes is sigdficant. Where a high flow rate is
antrcipated and where the ihstallatrbn comprises a piezometer tip surrounded by
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a iWter materied, two standpipes should be installed, one to supply the water
and the other to measure the head in the Mter materihl surrounding the
piezometer tip. The rate of flow of water IS adjusted unt2 a constant head is
achieved and, in the s i r n e s t form of test, flow IS allowed to contrhue unM a
steady rate of flow IS achieved. In some ground, this may take a long period
of time, and, in such cases the method suggested by Gibson N963) may be
used, in whikh the actual rate of flow is measured and recorded at intervah
from the commencement of the test.
21.4.5 Analysis of Results
There are numerous pubL&bed fomulae for calculating permeability from
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these tests, many of them part/y empiricaL Those given by Hvorsfev (19511,
which are reproduced h outhne in Section 21.4.6. are much used and cover a
large number of conditons. They are based on the assumption that the effect
of so17 compressib~jrity1s negligible. The method given in Gibson N963) for the
constant-head test is afso indicated This gives a more accurate result with
compressiible soils.
I t m u s t be emphasized t h a t t h e formulae given i n Section 21.4.6 a r e
s t e a d y - s t a t e equations suitable f o r calculation of permeability when t h e test is
c a r r i e d o u t below t h e water table. In Hong Kong, it is often necessary t o
measure permeability above t h e water table. In t h i s case, t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e
equations c a n only be used if t h e time o v e r which t h e test is conducted
becomes v e r y long. Under t h e s e circumstances, permeability should be a s s e s s e d
using t h e constant-head test i n t e r p r e t e d according t o Method 2 in
Section 21.4.6(2), with H, measured from t h e c e n t r e of t h e r e s p o n s e zone in
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t h e test.
21.4.6 Formufae for Borehole PermeabhYty Tests

(II Method 1 (after Hvorsfev, 19511.
For constant-head test,
and for vanable-head test,
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A . . . . .
k =
F(t2 z-fceneral approach)
- t') loge I31
where k I> the permeability o f soil,
q I> the rate of flow
F is the />take factor (Figures 28 and 291,
H, is the constant head,
HI is the variable head measured at t h e t,

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after commencement of test,

Hz is the variable head measured at tihe 1;
after commencement of test,
A is the cross-sectionaf area o f borehole
casing or standpipe as appropriate,
T I> the bask time factor (Figure 331.
It shouh' be noted the above formulae assume that the natural ground-
water level remains constant throughout the test. For the cam where the
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natural groundwater varies, see Hvordev f19511.
(21 Method Z. (Constant-head Test, after Gibson, 19631.
where k 13 the permeabzity of so~z

C IS the coeffic~kntof consolidahon or swelling,
q, IS the steady state o f flow /read o f f the q, I/Jt
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graph at f/[t = 01,
F is the intake factor (Figures 28 and 29A
He is the constant head
r 13 the radius o f a sphere equal in surface area

to that of the cylindrical tip,
n is the slope of the q, 1/Jt graph.
The followfi?g points regarding this method should be noted :
fa1 Heads are referred to natural groundwater level before
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the test.
fbl The method makes dowance for the compressibility of
the soil and also permits the coefficient of consoldahon
or swe//ing to be calculated
fc1 The //,w q, has, in theory, a linear relationsh& with
1 In prachke, it may take same hours for the plot
.
to came on a straight h e . The line can then be
extrapolated to give q, and n, where the test would
otherwise take too long.
21.4.7 Advantages and Limliations

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For most types o f ground, M d permeabiTty tests y ~ e l dmore &able

data than those carried out in the laboratory, because a larger volume of
mater~kli3 tested. and because the ground is tested hsitu, thereby avoiding
the d~kturbanceassociated with sampflng. The appropriate choke of dr17ling
method and careful drilling technique are necessary to avoid d~kturbingthe
ground to be tested. In granular soils, the ground may be loosened below the
bottom of the borehole; in layered deposits o f varying permeability, a s k h of
remoulded mixed mater%almay be formed on the walls of the borehole, thus
blocking the more permeable layers. h johted rock, the johts may be blocked
by the d r i l h g debris.
I n v e r y s o f t marine clays, i t is v e r y difficult t o c a r r y o u t a successful
permeability t e s t because of t h e low permeability of t h e soil, i t s
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compressibility, a n d t h e possibility of hydraulic f r a c t u r e arising from t h e
relatively l a r g e head r e q u i r e d f o r a falling-head o r constant-head t e s t .
Constant-head tests are likely to give more accurate results than

var12ble-head tests, but, on the other hand, variable-head tests are simper to
perform. The water pressure used in the test should be less than that whkh
wifl disrupt the ground by hydrauhk fracturing. It has been shown that
s e r ~ b u serrors may be introduced if excessive water pressures are used
IBjerrum et a/, 19721. In general. it is recommended that the total increase i n
water pressure should not exceed one half the effective overburden pressure.
With soh's of high permeabifity, greater than about m/s, flow rates are
fikely to b e large and head losses at entry or exit and in the borehole may be
high. In this case, fieldpump~ngtests, where the pressure distribuabn can be
measured by piezometers on radial fines away from the borehole, will probably
yield more accurate results; these are described ]in Chapter 25. When the test
is carried out within a borehole using the d r i l casing, the lower limit o f
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permeabifity that can be measured reliably is determined by the watertightness
o f the casing jbints and by the success achieved in seaihg the casing into the
ground In so2 the refiable lower h i t I> about lo-* m/s. In lower
permeab17ity soils and unweathered rock, it is a d v k b l e to carry out the test
using a standpipe or piezometer which is s e a M within the test length using
grout. In ground o f low permeabifity, the flow rate may be very small. and
measurements may be subject to error owing to changes in temperature o f the
measurihg apparatus.
The permeability of a compressible soil is influenced b y t h e effective
stress at which i t is measured, a n d t h e r e may be significant differences
between t h e r e s u l t s of inflow t e s t s . in which effective stress is reduced, a n d
t h e r e s u l t s of outflow t e s t s , in which i t is increased. The test t o b e used
should model t h e field conditions a s closely a s possible, e.g. w h e r e t h e
conditions indicate increasing effective s t r e s s , s u c h a s in embankment
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construction, a rising-head t e s t should be used; f o r t h e case of decreasing
effective s t r e s s , s u c h a s when a s s e s s i n g t h e quantity of inflow into a n
excavation, a falling-head t e s t would b e appropriate. The permeability of soil
a r o u n d t h e borehole may also be influenced b y c h a n g e s in i t s stress history
owing t o installation of t h e borehole a n d a n y previous permeability t e s t s
performed on it.
The compressiibity is influenced in a s i d l a r way, and this may affect

the results achieved The accuracy with which the coefficient of permeabifity
may be deduced from variable-head tests decreases with the coefficient o f
consofida&bn o f the soil being tested In princ~ple, the coefficient o f
conso/iration or s w e h q may be deduced from the results o f both constant-
head and variable-head tests. In praca'ce, results o f only limited accuracy can
be obtained, owing to dXficulties in interpretation and the extent to which the
stress history o f the soil adJbcent to the borehole is modified b y the
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installarion o f the borehole.

Execution of the borehole permeability test requires much experthe, and
s d faults in technique lead to errors of up to one hundred tlines the actual
value. Even with considerable care, an individual test result is often accurate
to one s ~ g n ~ f i c afigure
nt only. Accuracy will usua//y be improved by ana/ysing
the results of a s e r ~ e s o f tests. However, i n many types of ground,
particularly stratified soil or jointed rock. there may be a very wide variatlbn
in permeability, and the permeability of the mass of ground may be determined
by a relatively t h h layer of hzgh permeability or a ma/br joint. Very
considerable care is needed in ~nterprethgthe test data. In cases where a
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reliable result 13 required, the programme of borehole permeability tests is
generally followed by a full-scale pumping test (see Chapter 251.
21.5 PACKER (WATER ABSORPTION) TESTS
The packer or Lugeon test gives a measure of the acceptance by hsitu

rock of water under pressure. The test was originally introduced by Lugeon
(19331 to provide an acceptable standard for testhg the permeabi/ity of dam
foundatbns. In essence, it comprises the measurement of the volume of water
that can escape from an uncased sectrbn of borehole in a given time under a
given pressure. Flow is confined between known depths by means of packers,
hence the more general name of the test. The flow 13 confined between two
packers h the double packer test, or between the packer and the bottom of
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the borehole in the single packer test. The test is used to assess the amount
of grout that the rock will accept, to check the effectiveness of grouting, to
obtain a measure of the amount of fracturing of the rock (Snow, 19681, or to
give an approxhate value of the permeability of the rock mass adjacent to the
borehole.
The results of the test are usua/y expressed in terms of Lugeon units.
A rock is said to have a permeabifity of I Lugeon i/;under a head above
groundwater level of I00 m, a I m length of borebole accepts I /ire of water
per mhute. Lugeon did not specify the dXmeter of the borehole, which 13
usually assumed to be 76 mm fN size), but the test I> not very sensitive to
change in borehole dimeter unless the length of borehole under test is small
When t h e p a c k e r test is c a r r i e d o u t at shallow depths. a s is f r e q u e n t l y
t h e case in Hong Kong, t h e applied w a t e r p r e s s u r e must b e limited t o a value
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t h a t will not c a u s e hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g of t h e g r o u n d (see Section 21.5.3).
This often leads to t h e test being conducted a t p r e s s u r e s of 50 t o 500 kPa.
a n d extrapolation is t h e n necessary t o obtain t h e Lugeon v a l u e equivalent t o a
100 m w a t e r head (approximately 1 MPa p r e s s u r e ) .
If t h e rock discontinuity spacing is sufficiently close f o r t h e test section

t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e rock mass, a mass permeability can be calculated
a s described in Section 21.5.6. A simple r u l e t h a t is sometimes u s e d t o
c o n v e r t Lugeon values i n t o mass permeability is t o t a k e o n e Lugeon as equal
t o a permeability of 10- m/s.
A s t h e packer test is u s e d t o assess t h e potential f o r w a t e r t o p e n e t r a t e

rock discontinuities, clean w a t e r should be u s e d a s t h e drilling fluid when
forming t h e borehole, r a t h e r t h a n drilling mud. If drilling mud has been used.
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t h e hole should be thoroughly flushed o u t prior t o p a c k e r testing; a p p r o p r i a t e

explanatory notes should also b e given with t h e test data. In situations where
only salt water i s available t o conduct t h e t e s t , t h i s should also b e clearly
indicated on t h e t e s t results.
21.5.2 Packers
Several types of packer are in use, such as the mecban~kaltailp~be,the
manual mechan~kal-expandingpacker and the hydraulic self -expanding packer.
but b y far the most commonly used is the pneumatk packer.
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This comprkes a rubber canvas duct tube which can be iMated aganst
the sides o f the borehole by means of pressurized gas (Figure 31). Bottled
nitrogen or oxygen IS fed down the borehole through a small diameter nylon
tube. The inflafionpressure has to be sufficient to expand the packer against
the head of water in the borehole, but not sufficient to cause heaving of the
ground surface or fracturing of the rock. A useful rule of thumb 1%that the
pressure, in kPa, should lie between 12 times and 17 times the depth, in
metres, o f the borehole. The difference between the diameter of the
uninflated packer and the d i e t e r of the borehole should be such that the
packer can be easily inserted. A t the same t h e , the inflated diameter of the
packer should be sufficient to provide an efficknt seaL A double packer is
two packers connected by a length o f p&e of the same length as the test
section. The test water is introduced between the packers.
21.5.3 Application and Measurement of Pressure
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Water pressure is applied by a flush pump as used for diamond bit core
dr17ling. The maximum water pressure which should be applied should not be
suffic~entto cause uplift o f the ground or to break the seal o f the packers li,
deep holes in weak rock. The standard head o f 100 m above groundwater level
may not b e attainable in these conditons.
The applied pressure should not exceed overburden pressure a t t h e test
depth, and it may be necessary to keep the pressure well below the overburden
pressure, a s under some circumstances vertical cracks can develop in weak
rocks at pressures much lower than this value. Excessive pressure may be
detectable by careful analysis of the t e s t data, e.g. an abrupt change of slope
in a graph plot of applied water pressure v e r s u s flow rate may indicate
possible hydraulic fracture during the test.
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The pressure to be deterdned for use in the calculation of permeabi/ity
is that causing flow into the rock itselL This is somethes measured directly,
but it is more usual to measure it at ground level by means o f a Bourdon
gauge, .with the read~hgsadjusted in accordance with the following expression :
where h is the pressure head causing flow into the rock fml,
P IS the Bourdon gauge reading converted to head fml,
H I> the h e ~ g h tof Bourdon gauge above the mid-point of
test secthn fm/.
is the h e ~ g h o
t f natural groundwater level above the mid-
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H,
point o f test section fml,
H, is the friction head loss in the pipes fml.
The pressure gauge should be positioned so that it wifl give a true
reading without interference from local pressure var~k&onsinduced by flow
through the pipe work. The natural groundwater level should be measured
before the test begins. This is not always easy, especjally when the rocks are
of low permeability, and water has been used for flushing purposes during
d i g If necessary, separate observation wells should be instafled, and the
groundwater levels should be measured over a period to establish the general
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groundwater level. Friction head loss in the pipes is best estabfished by means
of a calZbrathn test, with the p&e work laid out on the ground
Calibration must be carried out for each t e s t arrangement (pump, packer.
valves and by-pass, pressure gauge and flowmeter) with various lengths of drill
rods and varying flow rates. All pressure gauges and flow meters used in t h e
t e s t should be calibrated regularly.
21.5.4 Measurement of Flow

The rate of flow of water may be measured either by a flowmeter or by
direct measurement of flow out of a tank of known dimensions by means of a
d~pstikkor depth gauge. Where a flowmeter is used, it should be h s t d e d
upstream of the pressure gauge, we// away from bends or fittihgs in the
pipework. and in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. The
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accuracy of the meter should be checked before the test begins, and
periodically afterwards, by measuring the time taken to fill a container of
known volume a t different rates of flow. Where the flow out of a tank is to
be measured, the use of one large tank can lead to haccuracfes where the
p h area is large and the fall in level correspondingly smaL A better
arrangement is to use a number of s d containers.
Flowmeters a r e prone t o inaccuracies. especially a t low flow rates, and
calibrations should therefore be carefully checked on site. Industrial water
meters commonly available in Hong Kong a r e not sufficiently accurate for use
i n the packer test. For very low flows. a rotameter board with a series of
graduated tubes can provide an accurate measurement of flow rate, a s can an
orifice plate meter.
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21.5.5 Execution of Test
The test may be carried out either a s a single or as a double packer
test. The single packer test is gener- to be preferred because any leakage
past the packer can be detected, whereas leakage past the lower packer ~hthe
double packer test cannot. However, the single packer test n o r d y has to be
done period~kallydur~hgthe dr17fing of the hole, which makes it more cosuy.
An important point I> to ensure that the packer is properly seated ~h the
borehole. Where a complete core has been recovered from the borehole, or
where appropr~atelogg~hgor television inspecIron has been carried out, a
careful examinathn may reveal suitable places to seat the packer. Where the
seating proves unsatistactory, the length of the test section should be altered
or test sections overhpped, so as to seat the packer a t a different depth in
the borehole.
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While the number of packer t e s t s carried o u t in a borehole depends on

t h e requirements of t h e project, i t is usual t o t e s t t h e whole length of t h e
borehole t h a t is in rock. However, t h e upper limit of testing may be
constrained by t h e highest level a t which a packer can be sealed satisfactorily.
Typically, overlapping tests a r e used, each having a t e s t section length of 3 to
6 m. In any case, t h e t e s t section length should not be less than ten borehole
diameters so as t o minimise end effects.
I t is customary t o r u n a staged t e s t a t each location, using different
p r e s s u r e s . A five-stage t e s t is desirable, with t h e maximum p r e s s u r e applied i n
t h r e e equal increments a n d t h e n r e d u c e d with decrements of t h e same amount
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(Figure 32). The d a t a obtained from t h e s e measurements a r e particularly
useful in assisting in t h e interpretation of t h e behaviour of t h e rock u n d e r
test.
The water level in t h e borehole above t h e packer should be observed
d u r i n g each t e s t , as a rising level may indicate t h a t leakage is occurring
a r o u n d t h e u p p e r packer.
21.5.6 Results a n d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
The v a r y i n g values of p r e s s u r e a n d flow recorded d u r i n g t h e t e s t may b e
plotted a s shown in Figure 33. The i n t e r p r e t e d Lugeon value. L, i s given b y
t h e formula :
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where 100 is t h e s t a n d a r d head of w a t e r (m).
1 is t h e length of test section (m).
q is t h e flow rate (litres/minute),

h is t h e p r e s s u r e head causing flow into t h e rock (m)
(see Section 21.5.3).
q / h i s t h e slope of g r a p h a s shown in Figure 33.
Where a test h a s been conducted at p r e s s u r e heads considerably less
t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d 100 m head, t h e Lugeon value may be somewhat o v e r -
estimated b y t h e above formula, d u e t o possible differences i n e n e r g y loss
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between laminar flow ( a t low head) a n d t u r b u l e n t flow ( a t high head). F u r t h e r
considerations o n test interpretation a r e given b y Houlsby (1976).
21.6 PLATE TESTS

21.6.1 General
The plate test is one particufar applcation of the vertical l0ad1~gtest,
and the general procedures for the test are described in Secoon 29.1. Only
the specific problems which anke from carrying out the test in the bottom of
a borehole are d~kcussedin thh SecLton. WhereverpracLti7ab1ee the test should
be conducted in a borehole whhh is of sufficient d~~ameter for a technician to
enter, clean out the bottom, and bed the plate evenly on undisturbed ground
Careful attention should be directed towards safety for operators working
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below ground (see Section 18.2 a n d Appendix El. Mere, for reasons of
economy, the test 13 conducted in a small dimeter borehole, the cleaning of
the bottom and the bedding of the plate has to be done from the surface, so
that 12 ~k very difficult to be certain that the plate is not resting on disturbed
materLal. This would of course, l m 2 the value of the resufts.
The techniques used for tests in large and sma// dXmter boreholes
differ in some respects and, where differences occur, the methods are
described separately in Chapter 29. The diameter of the plate used sboufd so
far a s practicable, be equal to that of the borehole, provided that care is
taken to elimfnate cohesion or fricbon on the side of the plate. Except i n
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strong materials, the plate should have a skirt as shown in Figure 43 (see
Sectkm 29.1'.41. Where the diameter of the plate is significantly less than that
of the borehole, the results of the test become difficult to interpret. A t a
hole-diameter to plate-diameter ratio greater than about 3:Z the parameters
being measured are t h e pertaining to a load a t a free surface and not a t
depth under confined conditons, which are usuafly the conditons of interest.
The general limf'tafions of the verthal load test are discussed in

Section 29.1.2 and they ap&y similarly to the borehole test. Additiondfy, in
the bottom of a borehole it is more difficult to ach~evea satisfactory bedding
of the load!hg plate on the test surface, and hence values obtained for the
deformation parameters may be of hitea' significance.
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Where.necessary, casing should be used to support the sides of the
borehole and to sea/ o f f water seepages from materials that are above the test
elevation. When the test is to be carried out below the prevailing water table,
dewatering b y pumping or baling from within the borehofe may cause seepages
which disturb the ground and have an adverse effect on its deformathn
characteristics. It wouM then be necessary to resort to external dewatering
(see Section 29.1.21. I f the test is undertaken only for measuring the strength
parameters, disturbance due to groundwater seepage may be a less significant
factor and the borehole may be emptied, Lf t h ~ iss possible, wwhe the plate is
being installed. The water shouM be allowed to return to its normal rest level
before the test is commenced. Alternatively, the plate can be instded under
water, altbough it may not then be poss~Ele to set the plate sufficienuy
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accurately for the deformation characteristics to be measured.
21.6.4 Bedding of the Plate
(11 Large Diameter Borehok. Subject to safety requirements (see

A p p e n d i x E), a technician shouh' be lowered to the bottom of the borehole to
remove a// loose soil manually, after which the plate is bedded a s described in
Section 29.1.3.
(21 S d Diameter Boreholes. The cleaning lj. carried out b y means of
a suitable auger or hinged bucket operated at the end of a drifl rod assembly.
A layer of neat cement mortar is then placed a t the bottom of the boreme b y
means of a tremie or bottom opening bucket, and the plate lowered down the
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hole and lightly pressed on to the surface of the mortar. Plaster and resins
can also be used for bedding.
21.6.5 Applicaoon and Measurement of Load
The plate is usuafly loaded through a column formed b y a steel tube,

with the load applied to the cofumn by means of a n hydraulic jack operating
against the resistance of kentledge, tension p17es or ground anchors, as
described in Section 29.I.4.
21.6. 6 Measurement of Deflection
The movement of the plate under load is generafly transmitted to did
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gauges at the surface b y means of a settlement measurement rod that is
located within the steel tube b y which the load is applied The rod is
restrained from lateral movement b y rod guides fied within the tube.
Methods of supporting the did gauges are given i n Section 29.1.4.
21.6.7 Execution of Test

The method of carrying out the test is given in Section 29.1.6.
21-6.8 Uses of the Test

fII Large Diameter Boreholes The main use of the test is to determine
the strength and deformation character~ktksof the ground It is sometimes
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used to establish the working load of plies ( Sweeney & Ho. 1982).
(2) S d Diameter Boreholes. The deformoon characteristks obtaned
are of very dubious value owing to doubts about the elim~nafio~ of ground
disturbance and errors resulting from unsatisfactory bedding of the plate. The
main use of the test is for measuring the strength characteristks of those
cohesive soils in which undisturbed samples cannot be obtained, e.g. some
gravefly clays and very weak rocks. The plate diameter shouh' be large i n
relation to the structure of the ground.
21.6.9 Supplementary Test

Although not stricuy a plate test, a test is sometimes made b y Lqsitu
methods to determine the coefficient of fricthn between the ground and
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concrete as an ah' to the assessment of shaft fricaon for pile design. A t the
bottom of a borehole is placed either a layer of compressible material or a
suitably-designed co/apsib/e container. The shaft above t h ~ slevel 1% then
fifled with concrete while the casing is withdrawn. When the concrete has
sufficiently matured, the load is applied, and the deflecthn measured in a
manner s~hilarto t h a t described i n Section 21.6.6. fiere the shaft f r i c h n of
only part of the ground prome is required, as i n a rock socket, the concrete
is first brought up to the level of the top of the ground layer concerned. and
the shaft is conhnued in smaller dimeter.
21.6.10 Horizontal Plate Tests
The plate t e s t may also be conducted horizontally within a large

diameter borehole or caisson (Whiteside. 1986). In this case, either two t e s t s
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can be conducted simultaneously on opposite sides of the caisson, or the

caisson wall opposite the t e s t can simply be used to provide the necessary
reaction force. Casing or lining of the caisson must of course be kept well
away from the test location. Guidance on interpretation of test results is
given in Section 29.2.
21.7 PRESSUREMETER TESTS
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21.1.1 Test Descr-ption
In a pressuremeter test, a probe is inserted k t o a pocket below the

bottom of a borehole or directly into the appropriate size of borebole and
avpanded laterdy b y compressed a? or gas. The appfied pressures and
resulthg deformations are measured and enable the strength and deformation
characteristics of the ground to be investigated
The earlest instrument, and that in most general use, is the M h r d
pressuremeter /&nard 1965). With this instrument, the lateral load is appled
b y a probe consisting of a water-filled central measuring cell flanked b y two
guard cells, either gas-Meed or water-/lied, depending on the type of
~ffstrument.
Readings are taken at the ground surface on pressure and volume gauges
whkh are connected to the central cefl b y means of a back-pressured annular
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pfastik tube. The pressure tube and probe must be calibrated on site. The
function of the guard cefls is to ensure a condition of plane strain in the
ground i n contact with the central ceh! The probes are manufactured in four
sizes up to 75 mm d~.meter,and can be operated at considerable depths. The
Mknardpressuremeter can be used i n soil or weak rock, but is not suitable for
stronger rock, since the instrument I> fimited b y its sensitivity to the tube
calibration. I t can be used in granular soils where special means are used to
insert it.
Another pressuremeter that has been developed has a 150 mm dimeter
gas-expanded probe in which the deformation is measured directly b y
potentimeters located 1j7 the centre of the probe OfcXinlay & Anderson,
1979. It can be used to determine the deformation characteristics of the
more deformable weathered rocks.
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A wireline-operated push-in pressuremeter exists a n d h a s been in u s e i n
a n offshore environment (Fyffe et al, 1986). Self-boring pressuremeters, which
can b e i n s e r t e d i n t o some soil t y p e s with minimal d i s t u r b a n c e , have also been
developed (Baguelin e t al, 1978; Windle & Wroth, 1977). Pressuremeter t e s t i n g
in rock is described i n Section 21.7.5.
21.7.2 Equipment Calibration
The probe a n d t u b i n g of t h e pressuremeter r e q u i r e calibration on site, a s

follows :
(a) P r e s s u r e calibration. This is t o account f o r p r e s s u r e

losses which o c c u r because of s t i f f n e s s of t h e r u b b e r
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membrane a n d slotted s t e e l s h e a t h of t h e probe.
( b ) Volume calibration. This is t o account f o r volume losses

which o c c u r because of expansion of t h e connecting
tubes.
P r e s s u r e a n d volume calibrations should be c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e beginning

a n d e n d of a t e s t i n g programme, o r whenever l e n g t h s of connecting t u b e s a r e
changed, new s h e a t h s o r membranes are installed, a n y water line s u b j e c t e d t o
vacuum o r p r e s s u r e h a s been s u d d e n l y released, o r a n y o t h e r factor affecting
t h e calibration has changed. I n addition, t h e hydrostatic p r e s s u r e d u e t o fluid
in t h e t e s t equipment below t h e p r e s s u r e gauge should be determined prior t o
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each t e s t .
21.7.3 Forming t h e Test Pocket
The formation of a suitable test pocket is a crucial s t e p in

p r e s s u r e m e t e r t e s t i n g , a s t h e test d a t a a r e obtained by radial expansion of t h e
probe of only a few millimetres and e v e n a t h i n d i s t u r b e d zone around t h e
pocket will affect t h e r e s u l t s . The test pocket must t h e r e f o r e be formed with
minimal d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e sidewalls, a n d with t h e p r o p e r diameter f o r t h e
i n s t r u m e n t t o b e used. The water flush r o t a r y open hole drilling technique
with open-ended casing ( r o t a r y wash boring, s e e Section 18.7.1) should not be
used t o form t h e t e s t pocket. Briaud & Gambin (1984) have outlined pro-
c e d u r e s f o r preparation of a n acceptable t e s t pocket of t h e r e q u i r e d diameter,
a s well as methods of placing t h e probe a n d conducting t h e test.
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The t e s t is normally conducted b y increasing t h e p r e s s u r e in equal

increments a n d taking volumetric r e a d i n g s a t time intervals a f t e r application of
each p r e s s u r e increment. Values of t h e soil deformation modulus are t h e n
i n t e r p r e t e d from t h e s e data. Winter (1982) has discussed t h e presentation a n d
interpretation of r e s u l t s f o r both g r a n u l a r a n d cohesive soils. A discussion of
t h e application of t h e p r e s s u r e m e t e r t o foundation design in Hong Kong is
given b y Chiang & Ho (1980).
21.7.5 Tests in Rock
In strong rocks, i t is necessary to use instruments of high sensifi'vity in
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wh12h the deformation of the rocks is measured over smell strain ranges b y
electronic transducers located within the probe. There are two types of
instrument available : a flexibfe type, 73 mm in diameter, operated
hydrau/icaly b y OH to a pressure of about I 4 MPa /Rocha e t a/, 1966k and a
rigid type, consisting of a steel cylinder spkt vertically into two halves and
called the Goodman jack /Goodman e t al, 19681. The rigid type I> afso
operated hydraulically b y oil but with a considerably higher pressure than the
flexible type, and is therefore part12uMy suitable for rocks in the h e r
modulus range.
The Goodman jack i s capable of exerting p r e s s u r e s in excess of 60 MPa
within a normal N X size borehole. A method of estimating t h e insitu modulus
of deformation from t e s t s with t h i s device is p r e s e n t e d by Heuze (1984).
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21.8 BOREHOLE DISCONTINUITY SURVEYS
21.8.1 Impression Packer S u r v e y
An impression packer s u r v e y provides a n assessment of t h e orientation

a n d a p e r t u r e of discontinuities in a borehole in rock b y means of a n inflatable
r u b b e r membrane which p r e s s e s a n impressionable thermoplastic film a g a i n s t
t h e borehole wall (Figure 34 a n d Plate 9 ) . The impression p a c k e r c a n be used
t o provide d a t a f o r t h e design of rock slopes, excavations o r t u n n e l s (Brand et
al, 1983; Gamon, 1984a; S t a r r & Finn, 1979), a n d i t can be used in conjunction
with t h e p a c k e r (water absorption) t e s t t o define t h e location, orientation a n d
opening of discontinuities where high water losses have occurred.
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The impression packer device is commonly available in sizes t o f i t N a n d
H size boreholes. A borehole length of a b o u t 1.5 m can be s u r v e y e d with each
t e s t , a f t e r which t h e device must b e withdrawn from t h e hole a n d t h e
thermoplastic film changed. Tests can b e conducted a s drilling p r o g r e s s e s , b u t
more commonly a s e r i e s of overlapping t e s t s a r e r u n a f t e r drilling has been
completed in o r d e r t o obtain a full s u r v e y of t h e borehole. Use of t h e device
is usually r e s t r i c t e d t o vertical o r slightly inclined boreholes.
Care must b e taken when lowering t h e device into t h e borehole s o t h a t
t h e thermoplastic film is not scuffed o r damaged. The p a c k e r may be inflated
b y e i t h e r a i r p r e s s u r e o r w a t e r p r e s s u r e applied t h r o u g h a c e n t r a l perforated
t u b e . Two metal leaves, c u r v e d t o match t h e borehole wall, t h e r e b y force t h e
impressionable thermoplastic film a g a i n s t t h e borehole wall, causing a
permanent impression t o be r e g i s t e r e d on t h e film. The device m u s t b e fully
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deflated before removal, o r t h e film may be damaged.
The device may be orientated i n t h e borehole in two ways, depending on

t h e accuracy r e q u i r e d :
(a) By positioning t h e two metal leaves in a known direction

a t t h e s u r f a c e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y marking t h i s direction
on each drill rod a s t h e device is lowered into t h e
borehole. This method, suitable only in shallow holes
a n d when drill r o d s a r e utilized, is usually only a c c u r a t e
t o a b o u t i5" in orientation a t best.
( b ) By t h e use of a n orientation i n s t r u m e n t attached t o t h e

bottom e n d of t h e device. The orientation of a floating
compass i s set within a fixative solution a t t h e time t h e
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p a c k e r is inflated, providing a record of orientation t h a t
can l a t e r b e t r a n s f e r r e d onto t h e thermoplastic film.
Somewhat b e t t e r accuracy may b e achievable with t h i s
technique.
I t i s recommended t h a t t e s t sections should b e overlapped to t h e e x t e n t

t h a t a t l e a s t o n e discontinuity common t o a d j a c e n t sections is recorded. This
will provide d a t a f o r checking t h e north direction between successive
impressions. Data from s u c h s u r v e y s should also b e checked a g a i n s t r e l e v a n t
d a t a from s u r f a c e exposures whenever possible.
An example of a n impression p a c k e r s u r v e y is given in Figure 35.
21.8.2 Core Orientators

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Several devices a r e available f o r determining t h e orientation of drill

core, of which t h e Craelius core orientator has been widely used (Hoek &
Bray, 1981). This mechanical device is usually installed in a fixed orientation
in a c o r e - b a r r e l , a n d i t initially p r o t r u d e s ahead of t h e b a r r e l i n o r d e r t o
s e n s e a n d record t h e c o n t o u r of t h e rock surface. The core orientator t h e n
proceeds u p t h e c o r e - b a r r e l a n d core drilling commences. Upon r e t r i e v a l of
t h e core sample, t h e uppermost core segment can again b e matched a g a i n s t t h e
core orientator a n d its relative orientation can b e determined. The remainder
of t h e c o r e r u n may t h e n b e oriented with r e s p e c t t o t h e uppermost core
segment.
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The Craelius c o r e orientator c a n o p e r a t e i n steeply inclined o r horizontal
boreholes a s well as vertical holes, b u t it does not provide information on t h e
a p e r t u r e o r infilling of discontinuities, nor does it provide a permanent record
of discontinuities. In addition, t h e orientation of t h e core must be determined
relative t o t h e uppermost c o r e segment, a n d t h i s may prove difficult where
core r e c o v e r y is poor o r where t h e c o r e contains sub-horizontal joints (Gamon.
1984a).
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22, FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING AND TESTING I N BOREHOLES
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The frequency of +mpfing and tesbhg in a borehole depends on the
information that is &ready avdable about the ground condibbns and the
techmkd objectives of the investigation. fn genera/, the field work w17l cover
three aspects, each of which may require a different sampfing and tesbhg
programme and may also requke phashg of operatrbns. These aspects are a s
foflows :
(a) t h e determination of t h e character and geological
s t r u c t u r e of t h e ground,
(b) t h e determination of t h e properties of t h e various zones

o r materials whose locations have been determined in (a).
using routine techniques for sampling and testing.
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(c) t h e use of special techniques of sampling and testing in
ground for which routine techniques may give
unsatisfactory results.
22.2 DETERMINATION OF THE G R O U N D PROFILE

In areas where suitable information about t h e ground profile is available
from previous investigations, it may be possible t o reduce t h e need for this
aspect. Otherwise, it is necessary to determine a s f a r a s possible t h e location,
character and s t r u c t u r e of each zone in t h e soil o r rock mass. Some zones
may be quite thin, and continuous sampling of t h e entire borehole may be
required in o r d e r t o obtain t h e necessary information.
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In soils derived from insitu rock weathering, colluvium and some fill
materials. t h e ground profile can be defined by taking samples using a triple-
t u b e core-barrel. Samples should be taken continuously o r a t close intervals
supplemented by standard penetration tests. Continuous rotary coring should
be undertaken in fresh to moderately decomposed rock. Where a r u n with t h e
rotary core-barrel results in poor core recovery, it may be useful to t r y to
recover a small drive sample using t h e split barrel SPT sampler. However. this
does not obviate t h e need to a d j u s t t h e rotary coring equipment and
techniques in order to obtain t h e best core recovery possible.
In f i e cohesive soi4 and some s~7tysand consecutive drive samples can
be obtahed using the 100 mm diameter sampler, or similar. In soft clay or
sand the barrels of the sampler can be coupled together to form a sampler
1 m in length and, ifnecessary, the core-catcher can be used to help retah
the samp/s. In soft days, it I> generdly g& practice to obtah a t least one
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complete profile for the site ushg the conC1;7uous&ton sampfing technique.
Specid sampfing equ~bmentis avayable for taklhg long continuous samples A
soft clay, lmse sik and loose s a y sand /see Secbbn 19.6).
In coarse granular sofi such a s gravel it J> advisable to take disturbed
samples from the drill tools /see Section 19.31, together witb split barrel
standard penetration test samples /see Section 19.4.5) a t about 1 m fhtervds.
Some of the so17 samples obtained by drive sampfing or rotary cor~hg,if
not required for 'undisturbed' tests, should be spkt along their longitudinal
axis and carefufly examined and described i n their fresh condition. This
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exercise should be repeated later when soil is i n a semi-dried state and the
fabric may be more readily identified Where h~ghlyvariable ground conditions
are expected, it may be advantageous to s1h.4 one or more boreholes first,
either b y rotary core samp/ng or b y cable tool boring with conthuous tube
sampling. The cores or tube samples can then be examined to give guidance
for samp/ing at selected depths in other boreholes which are sunk subsequently
close to the initial borehfes (see Sechon 22.4).
22.3 ROUTINE DETERMINATION OF SOIL AND ROCK PROPERTIES
Once t h e zones o r materials whose properties a r e likely t o b e r e l e v a n t

t o t h e technical objectives of t h e investigation have been identified, t h e s e
p r o p e r t i e s may be a s s e s s e d using routine o r special techniques ( t h e l a t t e r a r e
discussed in Section 22.5). The programme of sampling a n d t e s t i n g should be
varied t o s u i t t h e particular requirements of t h e investigation a n d t h e
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equipment t h a t is i n use.
The following programme is a n example of a reasonable sampling a n d

t e s t i n g f r e q u e n c y w h e r e a borehole is being s u n k t h r o u g h colluvium o r
weathered rock i n t o f r e s h rock b y means of r o t a r y coring :
(a) Colluvium a n d soils derived from insitu rock weathering.

A t t h e t o p of each zone o r l a y e r in t h e g r o u n d , a n d
t h e r e a f t e r a t 1.5 t o 3 m intervals. a n 'undisturbed'
sample, i.e. class 1 o r class 2 sample (see Section 19.2),
followed b y a s t a n d a r d penetration t e s t should b e taken.
A d i s t u r b e d sample should be recovered from t h e SPT
sampler whenever possible.
( b ) Moderately decomposed t o f r e s h rock. Continuous r o t a r y
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core sampling should be undertaken.
22.4 DOUBLE-HOLE SAMPLING
I n t h i s method. a borehole is f i r s t s u n k t o ascertain t h e ground profile.

A second borehole is t h e n s u n k a d j a c e n t t o t h e first, b u t a t a sufficient
distance away from i t t o avoid t h e d i s t u r b e d zone, a n d samples a r e t a k e n at
predetermined levels. This method may be used w h e r e high variability in
g r o u n d conditions i s expected, e.g. in variable sedimentary deposits, o r f o r t h e
location a n d sampling of t h e s h e a r zone material in a failed slope.
22.5 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES

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Special techniques of sampling a n d testing include t h e following :
(a) Sampling techniques. These include t h e u s e of s a n d

samplers, piston samplers a n d continuous soil samplers.
( b ) Testing techniques. These include v a n e t e s t s , cone

penetration tests, plate t e s t s , p r e s s u r e m e t e r tests, packer
tests a n d discontinuity s u r v e y s .
Some of the equipment used in these techniques IS fragile, and easily
~ i unsuitable
damaged ~ Y u s e d r ground It shouldpreferab/y be used on/y where
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it is known that ground cond'bns are suitable.
Using a special sampfing technique, the frequency of sampling lir sand
and in soft sensitive clay will in general be determined b y s~inilarconsider-
ations to those given in Section 223. However, if the material requiring the
use of a special sampling technique is of l~initedthickness, it may be adviable
to take samples a t s d e r than usual depth intervals so as to obtain a
sufficient quantity of that materiaL
In the borehole vane test, only the small volume of clay that is rotated
b y the vane IS tested, and individual results often show a considerable scatter.
For this reason, vane tests should be carried out as frequently as possible.
The vertical interval will be determined by the depth at which the test is
carried out below the bottom of the borehole; this interval is usuafly 500 mm.
Chser spacing can be obta~nedusing the penetration vane apparatus.
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The cone penetration, pressuremeter and packer tests, a s well a s
discontinuity surveys, are generally taken continuously, or such that complete
coverage of the borehole is provided.
Where a ser~esof plate tests is required at increasing depths, the

minimum spacing is determined b y the depth to which the so17 has been
stressed b y the test. A vertical interval of about four times the borehole
dimeter is usuafly adequate.
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133
23, PROBING AND PENETRATION TESTING
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23.1 GENERAL
Probing from the surface probably represents the oldest method of

inves&gating the depth to a hard layer where the overlying material I> weak
and not unduly thick. The simplest probe is a sharpened steel rod wh12h I>
pushed or driven into the soil unt2 it meets resistance. The method I> st~i'lof
use where other means of site investiga&on have d'sclosed relatively t h ~ n
layers of very soft soils overlying much harder sods. In such cases, the
th~kknessof the soft layer may be determined over a wide area very quickly
and economicdly. The method has many binitations, and a vatiety of more
sophisthated apparatus has been developed, both in an attempt to overcome
these drawbacks and to extend the use beyond that of detecting a hard layer,
e.g. to give some measure of the affowable bearing capacity of the s017s
present. Two distinct types of probe have been developed :one where the
probe is driven into the sod by means of some form of hammer blow the
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other where the probe is forced into the so11 b y a s t a t k load.
23.2 DYNAMIC PROBING
The a p p a r a t u s f o r dynamic probing comprises a sectional rod fitted at

t h e e n d with a cone whose b a s e i s of g r e a t e r diameter t h a n t h e rod. I t i s
d r i v e n i n t o t h e g r o u n d b y a c o n s t a n t mass falling t h r o u g h a fixed distance. A
device commonly u s e d i n Hong Kong is t h e GCO Probe ( F i g u r e 36 a n d
Plate 10A). which is essentially a l a r g e r a n d heavier version of t h e Mackintosh
Boring a n d Prospecting Tool. Probe r e s u l t s are v e r y useful f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e
d e p t h a n d d e g r e e of compaction of buried fill, making comparative qualitative
assessments of g r o u n d characteristics, a n d i n supplementing t h e information
obtained from t r i a l pits a n d boreholes. Probing h a s also been c a r r i e d o u t i n
t h e base of hand-dug caissons (Evans e t al, 1982). Probe r e s u l t s are normally
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r e p o r t e d a s t h e number of blows p e r 100 mm penetration, as shown in
Figure 37.
A s additional r o d s a r e added f o r probing a t d e p t h , t h e driving e n e r g y

provided t o t h e t i p is attenuated b y t h e additional mass of t h e rods.
Correction of t h e p r o b e values is sometimes made t o allow f o r t h i s effect.
The correction is negligible at t h e shallow d e p t h s a t which many probings
terminate, and i t is u n n e c e s s a r y to apply a correction if only qualitative
comparisons between probe r e s u l t s at similar d e p t h a r e being undertaken.
The f a c t t h a t t h e rod a n d couplers are somewhat smaller in diameter

t h a n t h e base of t h e cone p r e v e n t s , t o some extent, s h a f t friction from
influencing t h e r e s u l t s ; however, at d e p t h in c e r t a i n soils, t h i s f a c t o r should
also b e considered.
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The primary u s e of dynamic probing is t o interpolate d a t a between t r i a l

pits o r boreholes rapidly a n d cheaply. Therefore, probing should f i r s t b e
c a r r i e d o u t a d j a c e n t t o a t r i a l pit o r borehole w h e r e g r o u n d conditions are
known, a n d t h e n extended t o o t h e r areas of t h e site. A s with o t h e r t y p e s of
penetrometers, probing may 'sometimes b e unsuccessful i n soils containing
corestones, cobbles or boulders. I n fill o r completely decomposed rock, t h e
maximum d e p t h t o which a GCO p r o b e c a n be d r i v e n is a b o u t 15 m. In o r d e r
t o minimise damage t o t h e equipment, probing should terminate when t h e blow
c o u n t r e a c h e s 100, o r when t h e hammer bounces a n d insignificant penetration
i s achieved.
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23.3 STATIC PROBING OR CONE PENETRATION TESTING
23.3.1 General Description
Several t y p e s of s t a t i c probing equipment have been developed a n d a r e

i n u s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e world (De Ruiter, 1982; Sanglerat. 1972). The basic
principles of all systems a r e similar, in t h a t a rod is pushed i n t o t h e g r o u n d
a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e on t h e t i p (cone resistance) i s measured b y a mechanical,
electrical o r hydraulic system. The r e s i s t a n c e on a segment of t h e rod s h a f t
(friction sleeve resistance) may also b e measured. Static probing, o r cone
penetration testing, i s also known b y a number of o t h e r descriptive terms.
depending on t h e manufacturer o r o p e r a t o r of t h e particular device being used.
There is no British S t a n d a r d f o r cone penetration t e s t i n g , b u t suitable

recommendations a r e given b y t h e ISSMFE (1977) a n d t h e ASTM (1985k). Both
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of t h e s e t e s t s t a n d a r d s recognize a number of traditional t y p e s of penetro-
meters, a n d i t is imperative t h a t t h e actual t y p e of i n s t r u m e n t used is fully
documented, as t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s d e p e n d s o n t h e equipment
used. Two common t y p e s of penetrometers, mechanical a n d electrical, a r e
described f u r t h e r i n Sections 23.3.2 a n d 23.3.3 respectively.
The reaction r e q u i r e d to achieve penetration of t h e cone may be

obtained b y screw anchors, t h e weight of t h e t h r u s t i n g machine, kentledge. o r
a combination of these. When cone penetration t e s t i n g is done in shallow
water, t h e t h r u s t i n g machine may b e s e c u r e d t o a jack-up platform (see
Section 14.7).
23.3.2 Mechanical Cone Penetrometers
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Two common mechanical cones, t h e Dutch mantle cone a n d t h e Dutch
friction sleeve cone, a r e shown in F i g u r e 38 ( s e e also Plate 10B). These cones
were developed mostly at t h e Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory in t h e 1930's.
With e i t h e r t y p e , t h e cone is pushed i n t o t h e g r o u n d b y a s e r i e s of hollow
p u s h rods. With t h e mantle cone, t h e force on t h e cone is t h e n measured as
t h e cone is p u s h e d downward b y means of i n n e r r o d s inside t h e p u s h rods.
This force i s generally measured at t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e b y a hydraulic load
cell. With t h e friction sleeve cone, t h e same initial measurement is made, a n d
t h e n a second measurement is t a k e n while t h e cone a n d friction sleeve a r e
t o g e t h e r pushed downward a f u r t h e r increment. The friction is calculated b y
deducting t h e former reading from t h e latter. This p r o c e d u r e is normally
r e p e a t e d a t r e g u l a r d e p t h i n t e r v a l s of 0.2 o r 0.25 m.
An alternative quick continuous method of penetration is sometimes u s e d

with t h e mantle cone. In t h i s method, t h e cone a n d p u s h r o d s a r e p u s h e d i n t o
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t h e g r o u n d with t h e cone permanently extended a n d connected t o t h e load cell.

Accuracy is r e d u c e d in t h i s operation, however, a n d t h e f r e e movement of t h e
cone should b e checked at f r e q u e n t intervals.
For accurate work, the weight of the inner rods should be taken into
account in calcufai2ons. In very soft soils when sound~ngsare carried to a
significant depth, the weight of the Inner rods may exceed the force on the
cone or cone plus jacket; in these c~kcumstances,it is lhpossible to o b t a i ~
readings. Thzk effect can be reduced b y the use of alumzhium inner rods. The
inner rods should be free to slide ins]-de the push rods, and the cone, and
fr~ktronjacket where used, should be checked for free sliding both a t the start
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and a t the end of each penetratron test. All push rods and inner rods should
be straight, clean and we//-oiled i n t e r d y . The accuracy of the load and
pressure gauges should be checked period~'callyby calibratron.
23.3.3 Electrical Cone Penetrometers

A number of types of electr~'cally-operatedcone are in use, and these
generafly lhcorporate vibratrng wire or impedance strain gauges for measuring
the force on the cone and fr~ktronjacket. In use, the cone ~k advanced a t a
uniform rate of penetratron by pressure on the top of the push rods, and
signals frm the load-measur~hgdevl'ces are carried to the surface by cable
threaded through the push rods. Forces on the cone, and frictron jacket, can
either be dlkplayed on a readout a t the surface or recorded autmatrkally on a
chart recorder, punched tape or magnetr'c tape. Exclusive recording on
punched tape or magnetrk tape which does not allow direct access to the data
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during or immediately after sounding 13not recommended Provision should be
made for calibration of the force-measurlhg system a t regular intervals,
preferably on site. An inchnometer built into the cone is avdable with some
equ~;Oment.
The cones are generafly parallel-sided, and the friction jkcket, where
fitted, ~k immediate& behind the point, as shown Figure 39a (see also
Plate 10B). However, parallel-sledded electrical cones do not give exactly the
same results as those obtained witb the mechanical cone penetrometer,
altbough the dfyferenceis u s u d y of little hportance. Electr~kalcones with a
profile modified to give better agreement witb the mechanical cone are also
avadable /Figure 39b and cl.
One particular type of electrical cone penetrometer is t h e "Brecone",
which has a combined 5 kN and 50 kN force measurement range (Rigden et al,
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1982). I t has t h e advantage of being able to measure cone resistances i n clays
containing dense sand layers without suffering damage t o t h e more sensitive
load cell.
The recently developed "piezocone", which incorporates a pore pressure

transducer within an electrical cone, has also found application in some Hong
Kong marine investigations (Blacker & Seaman, 1985: Fung et al, 1984:
Koutsoftas et al, 1987)
23.3.4 General Recommendations
The following general recommendations apply t o cone penetration testing.

whether undertaken with mechanical o r electrical cone penetrometers :
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fal The cone cross-sectronal area should be 1 000 mm? and

the cone apex angle should be 605
fbl The fricclbn sleeve, JT present, should have a surface
area of 15 000 mm 3.
fcl The rate of penetration should be 20 r 5 mm/s.
/dl Force measurements should be accurate to wfthin ?5%of
the maximum force reached in the test.
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23.3.5 Uses a n d Limitations of t h e Test
The cone penetrometer test is relatively quick to carry out, and

inexpensive in cornparson with boring, s@ng and laboratory testing. It has
traditonaily been used to predict driving resistance, skin fricoon, and the end
bearing capacity of driven p17es in granular soils. In recent years, the cone
penetrometer test has also been used to give an indication of the contJfluous
soil profile by interpretation of the r a t 0 of friction sleeve and cone
resistances. In addition, there is substantial pubfished informtion relaohg
cone resistance value with other soil parameters.
The cone penetrometer test is also the preferred substitute for the
standardpenetration test i n soil conditons where results of the latter test are
suspect, and where hard driving is not antbpated. The test is aIso commonly
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used as a rapid and economical means of interpolating between borehok.
Although it may be possible to estimate the type of so17 through which the
cone is passing a s described above, it is preferable to carry out the test in
conjunction with some other means of determ~h'ng the nature of the soil
present.
Cone penetration is limited by both t h e safe load t h a t c a n b e c a r r i e d b y
t h e cone, a n d t h e t h r u s t available f o r pushing i t into t h e g r o u n d . I t is also
limited b y t h e compressive s t r e n g t h of t h e i n n e r r o d s ; some machines are
capable of c r u s h i n g t h e i n n e r r o d s before t h e r a t e d capacity of t h e machine is
reached. Because of limited cone capacity, penetration normally h a s t o b e
terminated where d e n s e s a n d o r gravel, highly t o moderately decomposed rock,
o r cobbles are encountered. For t h i s reason, cone penetration t e s t i n g in Hong
Kong h a s been limited t o t h e Recent alluvial a n d marine sediments.
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23.3.6 Presentation of Results
Results are normally presented graphicfly with cone resistance /and
local skin friction where a fricton jacket cone is used) plotted against depth.
The friction ratio, defined a s ffricton resistance/cone resistance) x 100, may
also be plotted agru'nst depth. This ratio is used to assist in interpreting the
soil type penetrated. Suitable scales for plotting the results are given i n
ISSMFE UP??).
23.4 STATIC-DYNAMIC PROBING
The s t a n d a r d penetration test is r a t h e r insensitive in loose materials a n d

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i s not t r u l y r e l e v a n t t o cohesive soils. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e cone

penetrometer is of limited u s e when d e n s e o r stiff l a y e r s a r e encountered.
The static-dynamic test combines t h e two methods (Sherwood & Child, 1974);
t h i s technique i s f u r t h e r discussed in BSI (1981a).
FIELD AND LABORATORY TESTS
PART V
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139
24, FIELD TESTS
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24.1 GENERAL
Field tests are generally des~rablewhere it is considered that the mass

characteristics of the ground would differ appreciably from the material
characteristics determined by laboratory testrhg. These differences generdy
arise from several factors, the most important of which are the extent to
which the laboratory samples are representative of the mass, and the qua/ity
of the sample that can be obtained for laboratory testing. Factors affecting
sample quality are dealt with in Chapter 12 and attention is drawn to factors
affecting the representative nature of a laboratory s.wn.de. These factors are
partly related to the insitu cond12ions of stress, pore pressure and degree of
saturation, and can be altered from an unknown insitu state by the sampling
processes. Consequently, their influence cannot be accounted for in laboratory
testhg.
The material tested insitu by a field test is analogous to a laboratory
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sampJe, and can be considered a s a 'field same'. The insitu conditrbns of a
field sample may be affected b y the process of gaining access to the test
position fe.g. digging a trial p i 0 but, generafly, the effect is very much less
than for a laboratory sarn.de.
More obvious, however. are the controfled effects of the nature,
orientation, persistence and spacing of dicontinuities fGeolog~kalSociety,
19721, the nature of any infilfing, and the size of sample required for it to be
representative. To ensure that they are representative, the selection and
preparation of samples in the field is subject to the same requirements a s for
laboratory s a d e s . Considerable attent~onshould be given in the field to
these aspects, because, generdy, fewer field tests can be carried out than
laboratory tests.
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The size of sample tested in a fild test w17l depend on the nature of
the ground and type of test, and may vary from a fraction of a metre, such a s
in the insitu triawial state of stress measurements, to several metres for fied
tri;?/s,to one or two kilometres in the pumping test.
Field tests may therefore be necessary where the preparation of
representative laboratory samples is complicated by one or more of the
following conditions :
fal The spacing of the discontrnuitres in the mass being
considered is such that a .sa.w.de representing the mass,
including the discontinuitl'es, wouM be too large for
laboratory test equipment. The discontinu~'tresare
assumed to govern the geomechanical response of the
mass relative to the scale of the engineering structure
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concerned
fbl There is difficulty in obtaining samples of adequate
quality owing to the lack of cohesion or ~ireversible
changes in mechanical propertres, resulting from changes
in pore pressure, degree of saturation and stress
environments during sampLing and from physical
disturbance resulting from the samp/ing procedure.
(cl There is difficulty in determining the ~ h s i t uconditions
such as those o f pore pressure, degree o f saturation, and
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stress environments for reproduction i n the laboratory
testing.
/dl Sample disturbance due to delays and transportation from

remote sites is excess~'ve.
The locations a n d levels of all field tests should be fully recorded d u r i n g

t h e execution of t h e work. The r e c o r d s should be s u c h t h a t t h e locations a n d
levels can be readily incorporated into t h e r e p o r t on t h e investigation ( s e e
Sections 10.5 a n d 40.2.8).
Some field t e s t s a r e relatively inexpensive a n d a r e u n d e r t a k e n on a

routine basis (e.g. field density t e s t s described in Chapter 27, t h e various
borehole and penetration t e s t s previously described in Chapters 21 a n d 23, a n d
t h e index t e s t s described in Section 24.2). Other field t e s t s a r e expensive and
must be designed specifically t o account f o r both t h e n a t u r e of t h e works a n d
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t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e ground mass. These l a t t e r t e s t s should not be u n d e r t a k e n
before a comprehensive u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e geology a n d n a t u r e of t h e g r o u n d
h a s been obtained.
24.2 R O C K STRENGTH INDEX TESTS
24.2.1 Point Load S t r e n g t h
The point load s t r e n g t h index t e s t measures t h e s t r e n g t h of rock material

b y means of a concentrated load applied t o specimens of rock core o r i r r e g u l a r
lumps of rock ( F i g u r e 40). The t e s t gives a n i n d i r e c t measure of t h e tensile
s t r e n g t h of t h e rock, which has been correlated with t h e uniaxial compressive
s t r e n g t h (Bieniawski, 1975; Broch & Franklin. 1972; Norbury, 1984). The t e s t
r e s u l t s a r e a useful aid t o rock description a n d classification ( G C O , 1988). The
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point load s t r e n g t h s of some Hong Kong r o c k s a r e discussed b y Gamon (1984133,
Irfan & Powell (1985) a n d Lumb (1983).
A s t a n d a r d t e s t procedure has been recommended b y t h e ISRM (1985).

Specimens of rock core can be t e s t e d in e i t h e r a n axial o r diametral mode, as
can i r r e g u l a r lumps of rock, provided specified s h a p e c r i t e r i a a r e met. The
t e s t r e s u l t s a r e d e p e n d e n t on t h e size of t h e specimen t e s t e d , a n d a 50 mm
s t a n d a r d reference diameter h a s been selected f o r t h e r e p o r t i n g of results.
The t e s t is intended t o measure primarily t h e i n t a c t s t r e n g t h of t h e rock

material, a n d specimens f o r t e s t i n g should t h e r e f o r e b e selected t o meet t h e
necessary s h a p e c r i t e r i a without incorporating discontinuities. Similarly, t h e
failure s u r f a c e from each t e s t should be examined, a n d if t h e failure passes
along a discontinuity, t h e t e s t r e s u l t should be discarded.
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The main a d v a n t a g e s of t h e point load t e s t a r e t h a t a l a r g e number of

t e s t s can b e completed rapidly, with minimal sample preparation. The t e s t
equipment is easily portable, a n d by t e s t i n g samples of t h e same material i n
various orientations, indications of s t r e n g t h anisotropy a n d tensile (splitting)
s t r e n g t h of discontinuities can be obtained.
Point load tests can be c a r r i e d o u t in t h e field o r in t h e laboratory. In

e i t h e r case, t h e visual examination a n d logging of samples described in
Section 36.3 should be u n d e r t a k e n prior t o testing. a s t h e t e s t is destructive.
24.2.2 Schmidt Hammer Rebound Value
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The Schmidt impact hammer can be used t o measure t h e h a r d n e s s of
rock. This device, originally developed t o measure t h e h a r d n e s s of concrete,
measures t h e r e b o u n d of a spring-loaded piston from a metal anvil r e s t i n g on
t h e s u r f a c e to b e tested. The height of t h e piston r e b o u n d i s t a k e n a s a n
empirical measure of rock h a r d n e s s , a n d t h i s value has been correlated with
rock a n d weathered rock properties (Hencher & Martin, 1982; Hucka. 1965;
Irfan & Powell, 1985).
The Schmidt hammer i s a portable, hand-operated device a n d i s available

in two models, i.e. t h e L t y p e (impact e n e r g y of 0.735 N-m) a n d t h e N t y p e
(impact e n e r g y of 2.207 N-m). The N Schmidt hammer i s more r o b u s t , a n d
generally t o b e p r e f e r r e d f o r field t e s t i n g of rock exposures. Brown (1981)
recommends a s t a n d a r d t e s t method for t h e t y p e L hammer, b u t t h e
recommendations a r e equally applicable to t y p e N hammers.
Although t h e Schmidt hammer i s quick a n d e a s y t o use, g r e a t c a r e
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should b e t a k e n when t e s t i n g weak r o c k s , o r a n y rock s u r f a c e which i s r o u g h ,
c r a c k e d o r f i s s u r e d . In s u c h cases. i t i s recommended t h a t a number of
seating blows a r e t a k e n initially, t o e n s u r e a good contact between t h e rock
s u r f a c e a n d t h e hammer head. Poole & Farmer (1980) concluded t h a t reliable
values could b e obtained b y ignoring artificially low r e a d i n g s a n d selecting
peak r e b o u n d values from a minimum of five consecutive impacts at a point.
The Schmidt hammer i s relatively insensitive on v e r y weak r o c k s which yield
r e b o u n d values below 10, a n d i t cannot b e used on rock c o r e unless t h e c o r e
i s held in a heavy vice o r a steel cradle.
The Schmidt hammer t e s t provides a rapid quantitative assessment of

rock h a r d n e s s a n d i s suitable f o r u s e in trial pits o r caisson excavations. o r on
s u r f a c e exposures. Use of t h e t e s t r e s u l t s i s discussed f u r t h e r in Geoguide 3
( G C O . 1988).
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24.3 INFILTRATION TESTS
The limiting infiltration r a t e f o r water e n t e r i n g t h e soil c a n b e

determined with a double r i n g infiltration t e s t ( F i g u r e 41). The t e s t i s
commonly c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e bottom of a trial p i t o r caisson. Water i s fed
from g r a d u a t e d bottles t o t h e exposed soil s u r f a c e in t h e i n n e r r i n g , a n d t o
t h e a n n u l a r s p a c e between t h e rings. The amount of water flowing o u t of t h e
bottle i s measured with time. The flow u n d e r s t e a d y - s t a t e conditions i s used
t o determine t h e limiting infiltration r a t e ( F i g u r e 42). Because of t h e
percolating water from t h e o u t e r r i n g ( t h e ' b u f f e r zone'), water within t h e
i n n e r r i n g i s constrained t o infiltrate vertically i n t o t h e g r o u n d , resulting in a
flow with approximately u n i t hydraulic g r a d i e n t . Therefore, t h e limiting
infiltration r a t e is roughly e q u a l t o t h e ' s a t u r a t e d ' field permeability of t h e
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soil. In practice, complete s a t u r a t i o n of t h e g r o u n d may not o c c u r d u e t o

e n t r a p p e d a i r in t h e soil voids, in which c a s e t h e t e s t r e s u l t will only give a
lower bound value f o r t h e s a t u r a t e d permeability (Schmid, 1966). The t e s t can
b e performed a t s u c c e s s i v e d e p t h s t o give a complete permeability profile.
I t i s also possible t o perform simpler single r i n g infiltration t e s t s a n d

c r u d e soakaway t e s t s (i.e. timing a known water head loss in a steel t u b e , hole
o r trial pit of s t a n d a r d dimensions). However, i t must be appreciated t h a t no
b u f f e r zone i s provided in s u c h t e s t s t o e n c o u r a g e vertical infiltration. The
r e s u l t s may be useful in a comparative s e n s e b u t should not b e r e g a r d e d a s a n
indication of the true permeability of the soil.
142
25, PUMPING TESTS
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25.1 GENER:AL PRINCIP LES
In principle, a pumping test involves pumphg at a steady known flow
from a well and observing the drawdown effect on groundwater levels at some
distance away from the pumped welL In response to pumping, phreatic and
piezometric leveh around the pumping we// will fall, creating a 'cone of
depression'. The permeability of the ground is obtained b y a study of the
shape of the cone of depression, which is indicated b y the water levels in the
surrounding observation wells. The shape of the cone of depression depends
on the pumping rate, the duration of pumping, the nature of the ground, the
existence, or otherwije. of intermediate or other boundaries, the shape of the
groundwater table, and the nature of recharge.
From the data obtained from the test, the coefficients of permeabifity,
transmissivity and storage can be determined for a greater mass of ground
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than b y the use of the borehole tests described i n Chapter 21. The results
can be used in the evaluation of dewatering requirements and groundwater
resources, as we//as i n the design of positive groundwater cut-offs. It shouh'
be noted that a given coefficient of transmissivity can result from many
different distributions of permeabifity wfth depth. I f the test is intended for
the evaluation of permeability in the design of dams and other similar projects
where seepage is an important consideratrun, the use of down-the-hole vel0c1'ty
pmfifing a t constant outflow can provide a permeabifity prome of the ground.
Pumping tests can be expensive, requiring adequately screened and
developed pumping and observation wens, suitable pump~hg and support
equipment, andpersonneL Care should be taken therefore to design a suitable
test programme. Before attempting to carry out a pumping test, refiab/e data
should be obtained on the ground prohi/e, ifnecessary b y means of boreholes
sunk especidy for the purpose. The geolog~kalunits encountered may then be
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grouped into hydrolog~'calunits on the basis of permeabifity ( Leach & Herbert,
1982).
The naturaf groundwater conditrons should be determined b y careful
monitoring over a sufficient period before the pumping test. Ideafly, the
conditlbns should be stable during the test; Lf they are not, the fluctuat~bns
have to be recorded.
Fluctuations can be caused by rainwater infiltration, tides, groundwater
extraction from wells, and nearby construction activities. This i s particularly
important in highly permeable ground subject to rapid recharge.
The interpretation of the data from a pumphg test can be .compficaated

and is much affected b y the inferred ground conditrbns and b y the influence of
any boundaries. Where necessary, expert advice should be sought.
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In Hong Kong. pumping tests have been used occasionally to determine

hydrogeological parameters (as described above) b u t are more often carried out
for the purpose of estimating the yield of water wells. They are also
conducted occasionally to provide data for the design of major dewatering
schemes associated with the construction of deep basements. The possible
effects on adjacent ground and structures, e.g. settlements and inducement of
negative skin-friction on piles, should be carefully considered before
conducting a pumping t e s t ( s e e Section 8.3.2(e)). Pumping t e s t proposals for
private developments must be submitted to the Buildings Ordinance Office for
approval and consent prior t o the commencement of works (see Appendix A.8).
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25.2 CROUNDWA T ' CONDITIONS
There are two main types of groundwater conditons, confined and

unconfined. and these shouh' be recognized for analybbal and design purposes.
fa) Confined. I f the ground under investr'gation is fufly
saturated and the water is confined under pressure
between two impermeable layers, then confined conditions
are said to exist.
fbl Unconfined. I f the original phreatib level is everywhere
below the upper surface of the aquifer, then unconfined
conditions are said to auist.
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Intermediate between the above two groundwater conditbns is a third
called the semi-confined condition. In this case, fully saturated ground is
overlain by material of signficant but lower permeabi/ity, and s~gnificant
leakage takes place across the boundary in response to pumping. Andysis of
data from semi-confined conditions is possible, but the condition 15 less
commonly encountered than the other two types.
The three types of groundwater conditions may be recognized by the
t e s t response ( B S I , 1981a).
25.3 TEST SITE
Although the choice of test site may be dictated by practibd con-

siderations, such as access and avai/abjXty of existing borebolees. the site
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should be representative of the area of interest. The hydrological conditions
should not change appreciably over the site. It IS essental that discharged
water is not able to return to the ground under test.
25.4 PUMPED WELLS
Pumped wels shouh' be of sufficient dlhA9ter to permit the inserton of

a rising main and pump of a suitable type and capacity, together with a
standpl;oe and velocity meter, ifrequired. They should be provided witb an
adequate well screen, and fifter pack where necessary, to prevent the with-
drawal of fine part'des from the surrounding soil. The minimum borehole
d~ameterwhkb will achieve this purpose is often 300 mm. It is desirable that
they penetrate the full depth of the water-bearing zone being tested. Where
the ground is composed of two or more independent horiions, each should be
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tested separately. Where fufly penetrathg cond12ions do not exht, the data
have to be corrected before analysis. In a// cases, the screen intake area
shoula' be such as to ensure that the maximum velocity of water enter~hgthe
well is not greater than about 30 mm/s to ensure that hydraufic well looses
are of an acceptable /eve/.
I6 during the test, changes in the shape of the cone of depression that
are due to extraneous causes are a significant fraction of those due to
pumping, then the resulthg estimate of permeabi/ity may become unacceptable.
Such influences can be corrected b y monitoring Mdton, l962/, both before and
d u r k testing. Where possible, and within the limitations set by the
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permeability, the pumping rate should be chosen so that resulting changes i n
water leveh are much greater than those due to extraneous causes, thus
minimizing the effects of the latter on the results.
Suctlbn pumps can be used where the groundwater does not have to be
depressed by more than about 5 m below the h t a k e chamber of the pump, and
drawdown can be increased b y setting the pump in a pit. For greater depths,
submersible pumps are preferable. The more permeable the ground, the greater
the pump capacity required to produce measurable drawdowns in the
observation we&.
It is essenh.d that the dlicharge is kept constant for the durahon of
the test and that a// the water level observahons are related to a hhe-scale
referred to the onset of pumphg.
It particu/ar/y important to mahtmh a constant pumping rate when
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vertical flow velou'ties in the pumping well are being measured for the purpose
of determining the relative permeab~jrihesof spec~zchoriions in the ground
under test. The pumping rate may be cohtroM by a gate valve in the
discharge fine or b y varying the speed of the pump, or both. The rate of flow
from the pump may be measured by a flow or or12ce meter, or b y a notch
tank with automahk recordng.
It is important that pumping wefls should be adequate& developed.
Development of a well is the process b y which particles surrounding the screen
are rearranged, with coarsening grade and better uniformity towards the
screen; it can be achieved in a number of ways (Johnson, 1982). Maximum
development is ind~katedwhen the ratio of pumping rate to fall in water level
i n the pumping we/l reaches a maximum. Fine partices from the ground are
removed during development, resulting in a stab& porous and permeable
medium surrounding the welL
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Successful well development r e s u l t s in r e d u c e d hydraulic head losses a s
t h e water e n t e r s t h e pumping well b u t , i n any case, t h e s e losses (well losses)
should b e accounted f o r in t h e analyses of t e s t results.
I n Hong Kong, pumping tests a r e sometimes c a r r i e d o u t i n l a r g e diameter

h a n d - d u g caissons. This has several disadvantages, a s t h e caisson may only
p a r t l y p e n e t r a t e t h e a q u i f e r being t e s t e d , a n d t h e well s t o r a g e is large. Also.
high well losses a r e often i n c u r r e d , a n d f o r t h i s reason observation wells
should always be used in conjunction with pumping tests in caissons.
25.5 OBSERVATION WELLS
Observation wells should have a n i n t e r n a l diameter l a r g e enough t o

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permit insertion of a dipmeter o r o t h e r water-level measuring device, b u t if

t h e diameter.is too l a r g e t h i s may c a u s e a time lag i n drawdown. Standpipes
with a n internal diameter of 19 mm a r e often used. Observation wells should
p e n e t r a t e t h e same g r o u n d a s t h e pumping well a n d should permit e n t r y of
water from t h e full d e p t h of g r o u n d being tested. If t h e r e i s a n y r i s k t h a t
fine soil particles may clog t h e observation wells, t h e y should be s u r r o u n d e d
b y a suitably g r a d e d filter material.
Although the permeab~jrity of the ground may be estimated from the

pumping wel/ drawdown data alone, more reliable values are obtained using
data from one or more observa&on web. The recommended mh~inumnumber
of observation weh's required to yield reasonably representative results is four,
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arranged i n two rows at right angles to each other. Their distances from the
pumping we// should approx~inateto a geometr~kalseries. It may be necessary
to add more wefls ifthe initlal ones yield anomalous data. I f linear boundary
conditions are associated with the site /e.g. river, canal or an impermeable
subsurface bedrock scarp, fault or dyke), the two rows o f observation wells are
best arranged p a r a m and normal to the boundary.
The mh~inumdistance between observafion wells and the pumphg well
should be ten times the pumping we// radius, and a t least one o f the
observation wells in each row shouh' be at a radid distance greater than twice
the thickness o f the ground being tested. However, unless the pumping rate is
very h g h , and the duration o f pumping long, partrkularly in low permeability
ground under unconfined conditions, falls i n water levels may be s W at such
distances. Prehininary calculations using assumed permeabifities esthated from
borehole data wifl help to indicate the fikely response in observation weUs to
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pumping. Hence the appropriate distance of the observation wells from the
pumping we// and the t h i n g o f observations can be assessed.
In additon to the observation wefls described above, it is desirable to
have an additional standpipe inside the pumping well in order to obtan a
rehkble record o f the drawdown of the well itself
Depths to water levels shou/d be measured to within 25 mm. This
usua//y means that measurement devices have to be checked a t regular
~ n t e r v agahst,
i for example, a graduated steel tape.
The water levels can be monitored with either an electrical dipmeter or
an automatic well level recording system.
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25.6 TEST PROCEDURES
Once the character o f fluctuatJons and other extraneous influences has

been established, the test programme designed and the wels developed,
pumping o f the ground at a constant rate should commence. Water levels in
a// we& are then measured with respect to time since commencement of the
pumping. Typically the frequency o f measurement might be at 1 m ~ h nt e r v a h
for the first 15 min and at regular logarihmic intervals thereafter. Some-
times, shorter intervals may be required initially. Therefore each wefl may
have to be monitored b y independent observers for the first 100 min, and then
b y one or more observers thereafter. In distant observation we& where head
changes are smdd automatic recorders can be used, although these g e n e r d y
require observation wells o f 100 mm d~ameteror greater.
The measurements should be plotted during the course of pumping t o

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evaluate the quality of the data, the nature of the response, and the required
duration of pumping. Johnson (1982) and Kruseman & DeRidder (1980) have
discussed the time requirements for both steady and non-steady state pumping
tests carried out on confined, semi-confined and unconfined aquifers.
In all cases, water levels shou/d continue to be monitored wit15 respect

to time from cessation o f pumping unM recovery o f levels to the original
values is complete. A s in the drawdown phase, recovery data shouM be taken
a t 1 m h intervals for 15 mi' following cessa&on o f pumping and thereafter at
regular intervals on a logarithmic scale.
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There a r e two forms of analysis of pumping test d a t a :
(a) Steady state. If pumping continues long enough, water

levels cease t o fall, a n d t h e hydraulic condition of t h e
g r o u n d is said t o be i n a s t e a d y s t a t e with r e s p e c t to
time.
( b ) Non-steady s t a t e . Before equilibrium is reached, water

levels fall at a changing r a t e with r e s p e c t to time a n d
t h e hydraulic condition of t h e g r o u n d is said t o be in a
non-steady state.
The simpler form of analysis is t h e s t e a d y s t a t e t y p e , b u t t h e necessary
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duration of pumping can b e significantly longer t h a n t h a t necessary f o r non-
s t e a d y s t a t e analysis. The analysis technique is also d e p e n d e n t on aquifer
response, i.e. whether confined o r unconfined conditions are p r e s e n t . A
summary of some of t h e available analysis techniques is given in BSI (1981a).
a n d t h e s e a r e f u r t h e r discussed b y Johnson (1982) a n d Kruseman & DeRidder
(1980).
A number of simplifying assumptions r e g a r d i n g g r o u n d conditions are

r e q u i r e d in whatever method of analysis is used, a n d i t is t h e r e f o r e common
t h a t t h e actual drawdown d a t a collected in t h e field may lead t o ambiguities in
t h e analysis. This may.be caused b y inhomogeneity a n d anisotropy i n t h e
aquifer, o r t h e presence of unknown b a r r i e r s to g r o u n d w a t e r flow. I n some
c a s e s , high flow velocities a r o u n d t h e well may invalidate t h e u s e of Darcy's
law, upon which most methods of analysis are based.
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149
26, DISCONTINUITY SURVEYS
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26.1 GENERAL
Discontinuities s u c h a s joints usually control t h e mechanical behaviour of

a rock mass. Where s u r f a c e exposures o r o u t c r o p s of t h e r o c k s exist, a joint
s u r v e y may be c a r r i e d o u t t o a s s e s s t h e r i s k of joint-controlled instability, e.g.
in c u t slopes a n d excavations.
The methods a n d equipment used t o c a r r y o u t a joint s u r v e y a r e

described in ISRM (1978). a n d techniques f o r analysing t h e r e s u l t s a r e given b y
Hoek & Bray (1981). F u r t h e r guidance on joint s u r v e y s a n d description can b e
found in Geoguide 3 ( G C O . 1988).
During analysis, c a r e must be taken t h a t rare b u t critical joints a r e not

overlooked by t h e usual statistical methods of d a t a s o r t i n g (Beattie & Lam,
1977: Brand e t al, 1983). An experienced s u p e r v i s i n g engineer o r geologist ( s e e
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Section 15.3) should visit t h e s i t e t o examine in detail t h e n a t u r e of those
discontinuities t h a t have been identified a s critical. The slope o r exposure
should be examined again d u r i n g construction f o r t h e presence of unfavourable
joint sets not identified i n t h e s u r v e y . The need t o c a r r y o u t a joint s u r v e y
f o r c u t slopes formed in soils derived from insitu rock weathering should also
b e considered; unfavourably orientated relict joints may c a u s e slope failures.
26.2 DISCONTINUITY ROUGHNESS SURVEYS
I t i s often not possible t o account fully f o r discontinuity r o u g h n e s s in

a n insitu o r laboratory s h e a r t e s t , d u e t o limitations on t h e length of t h e joint
plane which can be t e s t e d in s t a n d a r d equipment, a n d on t h e selection of
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sampling points. Therefore, discontinuity r o u g h n e s s s u r v e y s a r e
often u n d e r t a k e n t o supplement such t e s t s .
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Procedures f o r u n d e r t a k i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g field r o u g h n e s s s u r v e y s a r e
described in detail b y t h e ISRM (1978). The most commonly-used method is t o
employ a s e t of thin circular plates of various diameters. These are t a k e n
i n t o t h e field a n d a series of discontinuity dip directions a n d dip angles a r e
measured in t u r n f o r each plate when placed on t h e discontinuity surface. The
accuracy of t h e s e measurements is improved by taking a l a r g e number (e.g. 50
o r more) r e a d i n g s f o r each plate a n d by e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e discontinuity s u r f a c e
i s relatively l a r g e a n d reasonably r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a particular joint set. The
r e s u l t s a r e often presented as contoured polar diagrams on a n equal-area
s t e r e o g r a p h i c projection. The smallest base plate will give t h e l a r g e s t s c a t t e r
of r e a d i n g s a n d t h e l a r g e s t r o u g h n e s s angles ( a n d vice v e r s a ) . A graphical
plot of maximum r o u g h n e s s angles v e r s u s plate diameter i s often used t o a s s e s s
t h e sensitivity of t h e relationship between r o u g h n e s s a n g l e a n d length of
potential s h e a r displacement along t h e discontinuity plane.
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The main engineering u s e of a field r o u g h n e s s s u r v e y is f o r t h e a s s e s s -

ment of design values of discontinuity s h e a r s t r e n g t h (Hoek & Bray, 1981).
This is achieved b y combining t h e s u r v e y r e s u l t s with d a t a from d i r e c t s h e a r
t e s t s o r assumed basic friction angles. Methods f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
contribution of r o u g h n e s s t o discontinuity s h e a r s t r e n g t h in Hong Kong g r a n i t e
a r e discussed b y Hencher & Richards (1982); t h e application of a r o u g h n e s s
s u r v e y a t a n engineering s i t e in North Point. Hong Kong i s described by
Richards & Cowland (1982).
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27, FIELD DENSITY TESTS
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27.1 G E N E R A L PRINCIPLES
Field testing of soil bulk density is a common a n d useful procedure.

When coupled with moisture content determinations, t h e test r e s u l t s can be
used t o obtain t h e d r y density of t h e soil. A major use of s u c h testing is f o r
t h e control of compaction of embankments, where i t forms t h e 'field' portion
of a relative compaction t e s t ( t h e o t h e r portion of t h e t e s t being c a r r i e d o u t
in t h e laboratory). Field density t e s t i n g may also be used in evaluation of
insitu materials a n d old fills, where i t provides a direct determination of
density t h a t is independent of t h e sampling d i s t u r b a n c e normally p r e s e n t i n
laboratory t e s t s .
In essence, most of t h e available methods of field density testing depend

on t h e removal of a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample of soil, followed b y determinations
of t h e mass of t h e sample a n d t h e volume i t occupied prior t o removal.
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However, t h e nuclear methods discussed in Section 27.7 a r e a n exception t o
t h i s general rule. Mass determinations a r e relatively straightforward b u t
a c c u r a t e measurements of sample volume a r e more difficult a n d may lead to
significant variations in t e s t r e s u l t s , depending on t h e technique used, which is
in t u r n d e p e n d e n t on t h e n a t u r e of t h e soil being tested.
All t h e t e s t methods described below r e q u i r e physical access t o t h e soil

insitu. Therefore, t h e y a r e normally r e s t r i c t e d t o soil within 2 t o 3 m of t h e
surface, although t h e y can also be u s e d equally well within caissons o r shafts.
Use of t h e nuclear probe technique is a n exception t o t h i s d e p t h limitation.
The methods described generally measure bulk density, a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

moisture contents a r e r e q u i r e d if t h e d r y density is t o be calculated. Ideally,
t h e weight of t h e moisture content sample should be determined on site, t h e n
t h e sample should be t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e laboratory f o r oven d r y i n g in
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accordance with BSI (1975b3, Test 1A. Otherwise, t h e e n t i r e sample h a s t o b e
p r e s e r v e d in a n a i r t i g h t container until i t can be weighed. Alternatively, a
rapid determination of moisture content can be made using a microwave oven.
t h e 'Speedy' moisture t e s t e r , o r o n e of t h e rapid methods described in BSI
(1975b3, Test I. However, all s u c h rapid determinations should b e thoroughly
correlated with t h e s t a n d a r d o v e n - d r y i n g technique f o r t h e particular soil t y p e
being tested. In a n y case, moisture content samples should b e a s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a n d a s l a r g e a s practical, o r s e v e r a l determinations should be
made in o r d e r t o obtain a reliable mean value.
With t h e exception of t h e water replacement method f o r rock fill (see

Section 27.81, t h e methods outlined below a r e described f u r t h e r in Test 15 of
BSI (l975b) o r t h e ASTM s t a n d a r d s quoted.
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27.2 SAND REPLA CEMENT METHOD
BSI (197561 describes three variathns on the sand replacement method.

The first, employing a small pouring c y h d e r , is used for f i e and medium
grained soi/s, as defined in BSI N975b/. The second, using a large pouring
c y h d e r , is suitable for fine, medium and coarse grahed soils, The third, the
scoop method, may be used for fine, medium and coarse graned soils, but it is
less precise than the first two and yields less rehkble results; its use should
be restricted to occasions where no pouring cylinder is available.
These methods are unsuited to soils containing a high proporfion of very
coarse gravel or larger particles because the apparatus 12 not large enough to
cope with a hole of suffiient size to obtain a representative sample; also the
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sand win tend to run into the interstices of the material, thus leading to
inaccurate results. The method cannot be used in so17s where the volume of
the hole cannot be maintained constant. It also loses accuracy i n soils where
it is difficult to excavate a smooth hole because the sand cannot easily occupy
the full volume.
The t e s t should not be carried out when compactim plant is operating
nearby, or when ground vibrations are present.
The calibration of the sand i s sensitive t o humidity and should be
checked daily. The sand should be oven-dried and stored for about a week for
the moisture content to reach equilibrium with atmospheric humidity. After
each t e s t , the sand should be dried and sieved to remove arty extraneous
material before further use.
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27.3 CORE CUTTER METXOD
The core cutter method is described in BS/ 09756). The method
depends upon being able to drive a cylndrical cutter into the soil without
significant change of density and to retain the sample inside it so that the
known internal volume of the cylinder is completely W e d It is therefore
restricted to fine so17s that are sufficiently cohesive for the sample not to fa//
out, and to completely decomposed rock free of large fragments. The method
is g e n e r w less accurate than the sand replacement method because driving
the sampler tends to alter the density of the soil.
27.4 WEIGHT IN WATER METXOD
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The weight in water method is d e d b e d i n BSI N975b). It is applcable
to any so17 where representative samples occur in discrete lumps that wi7l not
disintegrate during handlng and submersion in water. In practice the method
is restricted mainly to cohesive soils.
27.5 WATER DISPLA CEMENT METHOD

The water displacement method is described in EST 09756). It is an
alternative to the weight in water method and has the same lm12afions.
27.6 RUBBER BALL DON METHOD

A descr~bfibnof the rubber ba//oon, or densometer, method can be found
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in ASTM f1985b). In essence it is a water replacement test with a rubber

membrane retain~ngthe water. It is an alternative to the sand replacement
method with the limitation that it is not suitable for very soft so17 which win
deform under slght pressure, or i n which the volume of the hole cannot be
maintained constant. The ASTM standard does not describe the apparatus i n
precise terms and hence the method couM be used for coarser soils than the
sand replacement method ifa sufficiently large apparatus were constructed
The densometer allows a simpler and more rapid determination of density
t h a n t h e s a n d replacement method, b u t t h e a p p a r a t u s is somewhat cumbersome
a n d may be prone t o leakage ( G C O . 1984).
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27.7 NUCLEAR METHODS
Nuclear methods of density measurement at shallow d e p t h a r e described

in ASTM (1985e). They d o not measure density directly, a n d calibration c u r v e s
have t o be confirmed f o r each soil t y p e , which involves measuring t h e
densities of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples of t h e soils concerned b y o n e of t h e d i r e c t
methods discussed i n Sections 27.2 t o 27.6. However, once t h i s has been done,
a n d provided t h e r e a r e no significant c h a n g e s in soil, t h e method is v e r y much
f a s t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s . I t is t h e r e f o r e most suited t o situations w h e r e t h e r e is
a continuous need f o r many density determinations o v e r a period of time, a n d
where t h e soils do not v a r y t o a n y significant extent. I t should be noted t h a t
t h e density determined b y nuclear methods is not necessarily t h e a v e r a g e
density within t h e volume involved in t h e measurement.
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The measurement of moisture content at shallow d e p t h b y t h e nuclear
t e c h n i q u e is described in ASTM (1985h). I n many modern nuclear instruments.
measurements of both density a n d moisture c o n t e n t a r e made simultaneously.
A s t h e moisture c o n t e n t determination is indirect, i t is essential t h a t nuclear
determinations (which often overestimate moisture c o n t e n t of local soils
obtained b y t h e oven-drying method) a r e correlated with conventional oven-
d r y i n g moisture determinations f o r t h e particular soil being investigated.
Nuclear measurements of density a n d moisture c o n t e n t can b e made at

d e p t h b y employing a nuclear probe within a borehole (Brown, 1981; Meigh &
Skipp, 1960). This technique may be particularly useful when u n d i s t u r b e d
samples cannot be obtained readily, s u c h a s in some fine g r a n u l a r soils. A s
only i n d i r e c t measurements a r e obtained, t h e limitations mentioned above f o r
shallow nuclear techniques apply equally well t o t h e nuclear probe.
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All nuclear techniques utilize radioactive materials, a n d a p p r o p r i a t e
s a f e t y precautions must be followed. The u s e a n d handling of nuclear
i n s t r u m e n t s should be fully i n accordance with t h e manufacturer's
recommendations a n d applicable regulations (see Appendix E).
ZI.8 MA TER REPLA CEMENT METHOD FOR ROC' FILL

The methods quoted in Secthns ZZZ to ZI.7 can rarely be used in
materids conta'ning a s u b s t a n M fracthn larger than coarse grave4 and the
water replacement method, which is described below, has been dewked for such
soils. AAlthough it is not covered by any standard specificatJon, some
experience in its use has been gahed In principe, it cons~ktso f excavating a
hole large enough to obtain a representative sample, fining the hole with
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f l ~ i b l epo/yetbylene or simIi'ar sheeting and then determz'nhg the volume o f

water required to fi// the hole. A 'density rzhg' is used as a template for the
size o f hole and aho as a datum from which to measure water levels. T h ~ kIS
made up from structural steel plate, and for rack /i// may be Z m in d~kmeter,
ZOD m in height and provided with a mark on the insI.de.
The procedure I> to place the ring on a levelled surface, packing sand
under it where it I> not in contact with the soi4 and weighhg it down with
sandbags. Polyethylene sheeting is placed over the rig, pressed into it and
smoothed out as far as poss13le so as to fine completely the cyfindrkal cavity
so formed A measured supply of water is then run into it and the volume
required to fill it up to the mark on the density ring I> noted
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The polyetbyJ.ene sheeting is then removed, the hole excavated, and the
spo17loadedlinto s k ~ p for
s subsequent weighing and grading, 2requ1ied Care
is needed i n the excavaaon to ensure that the density ring is not disturbed
and, to this end, the edge of the excavation should be kept a t least 150 mm
away from the inner edge of the ring. The sides of the hole should be
trimmed to minimize projecting stones.
Polyethylene sheeting is then placed over the ring and hole and partidly
secured with sandbags. Water I> then run in from a measured source and, at
the same time, the po/yethylene lining is fed into the hole, helping it into
crevices and minimking folds. This continues until the water level is again up
to the mark on the inside of the density ring. The difference in the two
volumes is then a measure of the volume of the hole. It is customary to aflow
the water to remain i n the hole for a period of t h e to see whether there is
any fafl of water level which would indYcate leaks in the polyethylene lining.
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The accuracy of the results of this test can be enhanced b y attention to
the following detahs :
(a) The hole should be made as large as possible,

b The sides of the hole should be made as smooth as
possible.
(c) A s th~ina gauge of pohetbylene as possh5le should be
used, consistent with it not fracturing tw easiy. Two
sheets of 0.1 mm polyethylene laid together have been
found to be sathfactory. It is not quite so flexible a s
one sheet of the same thickness, but is less prone to
punctures.
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Accounts of the practhaf use of this method can be found ekewhere
(Frost, 1973; Stephenson, 1973), Table of Contents
155
28, INSITU STRESS MEASUREMENTS
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28,l GENERAL
The stresses existing in a ground mass before changes caused b y the
apflication of loads or the formation of a cavity within the mass are referred
to as the 1nih.2 insitu state of stress. These stresses are the resultant of
gra vitathnal stress and residual stresses related to the geological history of
the mass.
Data on the initlk/ insitu state of stress lir rock and so17 masses before
the execution of works are increas~nglyimportant in design, more particularly
when using lin12e element analysis. The mpst favourable or~entation,shape,
execution sequence and support of large and complex underground cavitks and
the predicthn of the fiial state of stress existhg around the completed works
are dependent on knowing the initial insitu state of stress. Measurements of
insitu stress have shown that in many areas the horizontal stresses exceed the
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vertical stress, which in turn often exceeds that calculated assuming that only
gravity is acting on the ground mass.
Measurement of insitu stress in so17s may be made, although the
equ~pmentused generdy provides an estimate of horizontal stress only. In
order that both total and effective stresses can be estimated, it is usual to
measure the pore water pressure i n addiion to the total stress.
The interpretation of insitu stress measurements requires specialist
experience.
28.2 STRESS MEASUREMENTS IN ROCK

The methods available are generally based on induced stress changes,
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achieved in some cases by over-coring or slotting an instrumented test area.
Over-coring is used for measurement within the rock mass, whereas

slotting is used for surface stress measurements. Measurements taken have to
be a d h t e d to take account of the redistributlbn of stresses as a result of
formation of the borehole or slot, and, in the case of underground works,
when the measurement is made in the zone of influence of the main access,
such as an adit. The accuracy of most methods of measurement of ~ h s i t u
stress in rock fimits their use to locatrbns where the rock cover is at least
75 m. Stress measurements may also be determined from the measurement of
disp/acements of the walls of a tunnei or of an expiratory adit, close to the
working face.
With the exceptJon of the static equifibrium method /Morgan & Panek,
1963), the a vailable techniques generally require that the material in which the
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measurements are made behaves i n a near elast~k,homogeneous and isotropic

manner, and that it is not excessively fractured or prone to sweliXng as a
result of the effects of drilfing water. For the over-cor~hgmethods, the
elastic behav~ouris assumed to be reversible, the elastk constants behg
obtained from laboratory tests.
Stress measurements may be made us~ngelectrical strain gauges, photo-
elastic discs, sofid inclusions and systems for measur~ngthe diametral change
of a borehole. Some equ~pmentis des~gnedto measure stress change with
t i , or stress change due to an advanwhg excavation, whereas other
equipment ik designed to obtain an instantaneous measurement of stress. The
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technique selected has to be chosen in relatrbn to the rock materia and mass
q u a y . Strain gauges cannot be reliably to highly porous or wet rock.
Special methods for measuring and interpreting the uniaxial, biaxial or
triaxial state of s t r e s s in a rock mass are described in BSI (1981a).
The report on the results of insitu stress measurement should include
information on the followihg :
fa) Location of test and direction and depth of the
boreholes, method of dr2ling and d i m t e r s of cores.
b Depth below ground level of the point of measurement.
fc) Gdogikal descri)tion of the rock materia and rock
mass.
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fd) Type and sizes of straih gauges, and strain readings to
the nearest 10 micro-strah.
/el Temperature and humidity at the test location, and
temperature of the flush water ifamcable.
ff) The modulus of elastikity, 6 and Poisson's ratio, ?L of
the rock sampled fmeach stress measurement area, as
determined from statik laboratory testing of core
{preserved a t insitu moikture content) over the
appropriate stress path.
(g) The six components of stress fox, rr,, &, r,,, T,, L/
at each point to the nearest 100 kPa.
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fh) The three prinwpal stresses and thmi directions fto the
nearest degree), d a t e d to both a borehole or adit awik
system and a global w k system.
02 Cohur photographs of the cores or test location.
1(7 Date of measurement and date at which the excavation
passes the poiht of measurement.
28.3 STRESS MEASUREMENTS IN SOILS

The analysis of the response of soil masses to applied loads requires
reliable data on their strength and deformatrbn characteriktiks, and, a s these
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are stress dependent, a knowledge of the insitu state of stress assists in thek
evaluatrbn by laboratory testhg.
Diiect insitu measurements of the ihi'tikl state of stress in smi's is
difficult because the dikturbance created by gaining access to the ground mass
ik generally non-reversible, and several tiines that produced by a stress-
relieving technique. The accuracy of most instruments that have been
developed suffers because of the dikturbance created h the ground on
ihsertion.
It is usual to masure only horizontal stress, and to make assumptions
concerning the level of verb'cal stress based on the overburden depth. On&
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total stress may be measured; therefore, to determine the effecti've stress
conditbns, the pore water pressure at the test level has to be measured or
assumed. Methods of detennh~ngpore water pressure in the M d are
dlkcussed in Secbon 20.2
In soft clays, hydraulic pressure cells have been carefully jacked into
t h e ground, o r installed in a pre-bored hole (Kenney. 1967). The
"Camkometer", a self boring pressuremeter, reduces disturbance t o a minimum
by fully supporting t h e ground it penetrates (Windle & Wroth, 1977). The total
horizontal insitu s t r e s s may then be obtained by measuring t h e contact
pressure. Facilities t o measure pore pressure a r e available in t h e same
instrument. Hydraulic fracturing has also been used t o estimate minimum
horizontal stresses in soft clay (Bjerrum & Anderson. 1972).
In large excavations, pressure cells a r e sometimes used t o measure t h e
contact pressure between t h e soil and a retaining structure. The type and
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position of a cell should be chosen with g r e a t care, because t h e introduction
of t h e cell into t h e soil causes a redistribution of t h e s t r e s s e s around it, and
- t h e e r r o r s depend on t h e geometry of t h e instrument. Details of t h e types of
cells available and t h e problems t h a t may be encountered when using them a r e
given by Brown (1981) and Hanna (1985). Some of t h e factors t h a t affect t h e
accuracy of contact pressure cells a r e discussed by Pang (1986).
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29, BEARING TESTS
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29.1 VERTTCAL L OAD/NC TESTS
29.1.1 General Princfples
Insitu verthal loading tests h v o l v e measuring the applied load and

penetration of a plate being pushed into a sod or rock mass. The test can be
carried out in shallow pits or trenches, or at depth h the bottom o f a
borehole, pit or adit (see Secaon 21.61. In soils, the test is carded out to
d e t e m n e tbe shear strength and deformation characteristr'cs of the materfkl
beneath the loaded plate. The ultimate load is often not attanable h rocks,
where the test I> more frequently used to determine the defomaation
characteristics.
The test is usually carrfed out either under a series o f rnahtaned loads
or at a constant rate of penetrabon. In the former, the ground is allowed to
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consohdate under such a load before a further ~ncrementis applieed,.this wil/
yield the drained deformahon characteristics and also strength characteristics
if the test is continued to fa7ure. In the latter, the rate of penetration is
generally such that little or no drainage occurs, and the test gives the
corresponding undrahed deformafion and strength character~ktt'cs.
It should be emphasized that the results o f a single loadfhg test apply
only to the ground whf'ch is s~gnificmtlystressed by the plate; thk IS typically
a depth o f about one and a half tiines the df.ameter or width of the plate.
The depth of ground stressed by a structural foundation wi;% in general, be
much greater than that stressed by the loading test. For this reason, the
r e s u b of load~hgtests carried out at a shgle elevah-on do not n o d l y give a
direct indfbath? o f the &owable bear~ng capacity and settlement
characteristics o f the full-scale structural foundathn. In order to determhe
the variathn of ground propertres with depth, it wf7lg e n e d y be necessary to
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carry out a series of plate tests at different depths. These should be c a r r i d
out such that each test subjects the ground to the same effecive stress level
it would receive at working load
W h e r e tests are carrfed out h rock, blastrirg for rock excavaaon may
seriously affect the rock to be tested This effect can be minlinied by u s h g
s d charges, and by l i n h h h g the excavafion by hand methods.
29.1.2 Limiattons o f the Test
The m a n lim'tathn o f the test lies fh the possibfZity o f ground

disturbance during the excavaoon needed to g a h access to the test position.
Excavafion causes an unavoidable change in the groundstresses and may
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result in h-eversible changes to the properties whf'cb the test is intended to

study. In spite o f this effect, the moduli determined from plate tests are more
&able and often many t . 2 . ~higher ~ than those obtained from standard
laboratory tests. In a project whkh ihvolves a large excavation, e.g. a
bu17di'ng with a deep and extensfive basement, the excavation may cause
dfkturbance to the ground beneath, with a consequent effect on the
defomathn characteristics. In such a case, it wf7l be necessary to allow for
thh unavoidable disturbance when interpretihg the results of Joadhg tests.
When camying out the test below the prevailing groundwater table, the
seepage forces assou'ated with dewatering may affect the properties to be
measured This effect is most severe for tests carried out at signiifiint
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depths below the water table in sods and weak rocks. It may therefore be
necessary to lower the water table by a system of wells set outside and below
the test positibn.
29.1.3 Site Preparathn
It is necessary to ensure that any material loosened or softened by the

excavauon 13 removed and that the plate will lie in direct planar contact with
the sample surface. It 1s essentia/ that th13surface is undisturbed. planar and
free from any crumbs or fine loose d e b r k Where access is possible the
surface is best prepared by hand; elsewhere, special tools are required to trim
and prepare the surface from a remote point. A s the sample preparation
involves stress d e f and exposure to different temperature and humidity
conditibns, the delay between setting up and testihg should be minimzed and
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the tihe lag should be reported with the results.
l.ne even transference of load onto the test surface can best be
achieved by setting the plate on a suitable bedd~ngmaterial, which usually
consists o f cement mortar or plaster o f paris. Where the test is being
performed to measure the deformation character~istics of a relabbvely stiW
materia4 considerable care is required in setting the plate, and a series o f
bedd~hglayers may be needed /Ward e t a/, 1968). Changes in water content of
the ground being tested shouh' be kept to a min~imm.
29.1.4 Test Arrangement
The test I> subject to scale effects. Several plate sizes and shapes are
used, the most ccnnmon being uicu/ar plates ranging from 300 mm to 1 000 mm
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in d i m t e r . The choice depends on the problem b e ~ h gstudied In rocks,
plates larger than 1 000 mm d'kmeter may be used. depending on the johting
frequency, The test arrangement used by the U.K. Bu17ding Research
Establishment 13 shown in Figure 43 and 13fully described elsewhere /Marsland.
1971; 1972; Ward et a/, 1968).
The need sometrines a r ~ k e sto measure displacements in the ground below

the plate /Marsland B Eason, 1973; Moore, 1974). The plate has to be rigid
and the d~iectibno f the resultant appfled load has to be vertical and without
eccentr~WYy. The loading may be applied directly by kentledge or j'acking
agahst a reaction system provided by means of kentledge, tension piles or
ground anchors. Where kentledge 13 used. it should be supported on a properly
designed frame or gantry such that there is no poss131Xty of the load ti7ting
or ca'lapsihg. The foundations of this frame or gantry should be sufficiently
far away from the sample not to affect 12s behaviour to any significant extent.
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Where tension piles or ground anchors are used. they should be sited
sufhently far away from the sample so as to have no s ~ g n ~ Z c ainfluence
nt on
its behaviour. The normal practice 13 to maintain a m~nimumdistance of three
t i k s the plate diameter from the centre o f the plate to the centre of the
pile, The amount of kentledge or jacking resistance that needs to be provided
I> governed by the purpose for which the tests are carried out and also, to
some Went, by econom~'cconsiderations. In genera/, the nearer the soil or
rock under the plate approaches the point o f shear failure, the more
hWrthwh~7eare the data derived from the tests. The test is sometines
conducted ih a sihilar fashion to the constant rate of penetration fCRPI test
for piles (ICE, 19781.
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The penetratibn or deflectibn o f the plate should generally be measured
at the centre and the edge o f the plate. In order to minihize the effect of
poor bedding and sample dikturbance. the dikplacement o f the material at some
depth beneath the prepared test surface can be determined by inserting
reference datum rods anchored at various depths W;zlace e t al, 19691. Such
measurements are intended to provide more realistik data on the mass
behavihur of the ground; they are usualy taken through a central hole in the
loaded plate.
The dikphcement of the plate is related to a fied datum. This often
consists of a reference beam supported by two foundations positioned outside
the zones of ifluence of either the loaded area or the reaction area. The
deflecction-measurihg equipment has to be set up li, such a way that any tiltng
of the plate wi2 not cause errors in the measurements. Dial gauges are dften
used and the rods transm'ttihg the displacements o f the plate should
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ihcorporate a b d joint or other sim1ar device to elimhate the effects o f
bendihg. The reference beam and measuring devices should be protected fm
the d i k c t rays o f the sun and from wind by means o f tarpaulins or other
forms o f shelter; errors of measurement can eas17y arise fnxn these causes.
A comparable arrangement for performing the test in an adit is given in
BSI (1981a).
29.1.5 Measurements
/fl Ap~liedForces. The load on the plate 13 best measured by means
o f a load eel4 which should be capable of readihg to an accuracy of 1%of the
maximum load I t ik advisable to have the cell calibrated over the anticipated
range o f loadihg before and after the test programme.
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(21 Displacements. Dikplacements ih the direcrbn of load appkatron
may be measured by didgauges or electri'cal transducers and the readings can
be taken continuously ifrequiked DikplaCements should be measured to an
accuracy o f 0.1 mm.
(31 Le.fiecords of tihe for the various stages o f setting-up and
testing are required parti'cu/ary where cycl~cloadihg and creep tests are
being carried out.
(41 Tem~erature. The measurement o f temperature will be required ih
the event that correctibns to the settlement or load readings are considered
necessary.
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29.1.6 Test Methods

(11 General. The test 13 most frequently used to measure the ultihate
bearing capacity. In cases where setdements and elastic deformaation
character13tiks o f the ground need to be detemined as in rock foundations.
care should be exeruked to work at stresses that are relevant. The
observatrbn of defomation, parti'cululy at low stress lev& requiies the
utmost care in sample preparation and settrig-up irmeaningful results are to
be achieved The errors that can be introduced by sample dikturbance and
inaccuracies of measurement can often be similar ii, size or greater than the
data sought.
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The effect o f sample dikturbance can be reduced, to some extent, by
carrying out prefiminary c y c k s o f loadhg and unloading. The maximum load
ii, these cycles should not exceed the intended load. The rate of loading
should be suffic~entlyrapid to prevent any s~gnificantconsofidation or creep.
A f t e r two or three cycles, the stress/sett/ement graph will g e n e r d y tend to
become repeatable, and the test can then be extended to the main t e s t h g
programme. The data from the preliminary load-cycles give an indicatlbn o f
the effect o f the sampfing disturbance. The undrained deformation modu4 as
measured after prefiminary load-cycfing, generally give a more refiable
1ndicar2bn o f the true properties of the undisturbed ground
(21 Maintained Load The load is u s u d y app/ied IR equal ihcrements,
with each increment being maintained untY a// movement of the plate has
ceased. or an acceptably low rate o f increase has been reached The
increments are continued up to some multipe of the proposed working load, to
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failure or to the full avdable load When the test is carried out to
ihves&yate the deformation characteristlics o f the ground, 12 13 preferable to
carry out preliminary load c y c h g . Cycles of unloading and reloading may a/so
be carried out at various stages in the main test to gain some indicatlbn of
the relative amounts o f reversible e. 'elasticY and irreversible deformt2on
that have occurred I f the rate o f unloading and reloading is sufficient/y
rapid, the s h e o f the load/deformatron curve may be used to determine the
undrained deformaobn modulus, or an approximaation to it. However, ~n
relatively permeable ground this may not apply.
3 Constant Rate of Penetration. Constant rate o f penetratlbn tests
are more suitable for soils. Such tests are descr18ed b y Marsland (19711 for
plates ranging from 38 mm to 868 mm diameter. using a penetration rate of Z.5
mm/mn. Where the maximum bearing capacity is not clearly defined, the
value o f the bearing pressure at a settlement o f 15 per cent o f the plate
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diameter is used I f the undrained deformation modulus IS required, the plate
diameter should be greater than 750 mm. but it is preferable to carry out a
separate test wi2h the load apphed increment&y a t a rapid rate.
4 Creep. The measurement of creep under sustained loads 12 some-

tlhes carried out i n connecfion with the design o f foundatlbns which are
highly stressed or where the structures concerned are p a r t i c u M y sensitive to
settlement /Meigh e t a4 19731. If the structure ik to be subjected to
fluctuating loads, the test programme will probabb include cycfic loading.
29.1.7 Analysis o f Results

The assumpOons made for the analysis are that the material is homo-
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geneous, elastk, isotropic and that the classic equation for the penetration of
a rigid c~rcularplate on a semi-infinite plane surface appfies :
where E I> the elasth modulus,

q is the pressure app/ied to the plate,
S I> the average setuement of the plate,
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B is the di-meter of the plate,
V is Poisson 3 ratio.
This equation can be used when the test is carried out either at the
ground surface or in a pit whose p h dihensions are at least five trines those
of the plate /Ireland e t a/. 19701. If the test ~k carried out at the end of a
borehole, the expressbn becomes :
where Id is a depth correctibn factor (Burland, 19691. when the test is

carried out in an adit, other modificatrbns to this equation will be required
depending on the extent and planarity o f the tested surface (Carter & Booker,
1984). Finite element ana/ysk can sometihes be appfied to problems where
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rigorous solutions are not available, although the problem o f cboos~hg
representative soil parameters to put into the analysis still remans. A n
equatrbn for cdculatihg the modulus at any depth beneath the centre line o f
the loaded plate is given elsewhere (Benson et al. 1970; Wallace e t al, 1970).
For johted rock, Poisson's ratio can be assumed to be between 0.10 and 0.25
for pracb'cal purposes.
For cohesive so& an estihate o f the undrahed shear strength, C,, can
be obtained from the plate test carried out ih a borehole by using the
following equation .'
C" = 9" - YH . . . . . . . NO1
N,
where q, ik the ultihate bearing capacity of the soil under the
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plate. When this is not dearly defined the bearhg
pressure at a penetration of 15% of the diemeter is
used,
Y is the bulk density of the soiX
X is the height of soil above test ]eve/.
N, is the bearing capacity factor. For a rigid ciicuhr
plate at the base of a deep shaft of the same diameter
as the plate, N, ~k assumed to have a value of 9.25.
However, IT the plate has a significantly smaller
dieameter than the shaft, or IT the depth is less than
four tihes the plate diameter. the value of N, may be
smaller and approaches 6.15 for a circular surface load
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Some dlowance should be made for side shear on the

plate where this is appropriate.
29.1.8 Interpretation of Resufts
The correct hterpretatibn of the behaviour of the mass o f ground

under investigation requires a careful examination of the results, not only of
the loading tests, but also o f other data concerning the ground ( Sweeney &
Ho, 1982). Dependihg on the objectives o f the investigation, such data m g b t
include the geological structure, the nature and d'ktribufion of disconthu~'tl'es.
and the variability of the ground
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Several deformation moduli can be obtained from these tests, depending
on the method used and the application (Brown. 1981). The results obtained
will r e f / c t the effects o f the width and frequency of the discontinu~'~es
and
wi'l give an indicatlbn of the mass behaviour under loading. The stress level
at which these parameters should be examined w17l depend on the working
stress levels. In the case o f tests on rock in adits, it may be necessary to
consider the insitu stresses in the test samp/e.
The moduli to be used for design purposes should be those which d a t e
to the ground at the t h e o f construction and after it has been affected b y
the construction procedures,. for example, a deep excavatlbn might affect the
deformation moduli of a so~Y,and blasting may affect the properfies of a rock.
Sometlhes, the effect of a construcfion procedure may be suf/li&ntly severe
to justify the examinatlbn o f alternative methods of construction.
O n completron of the test, full identifia&on of the material beneath
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the loaded area should be carried out b y samphhg and testing in the
laboratory. Results obtained from these tests w f l in many cases ass&t in
extrapolating the test results to other areas on the site.
29.2 HORIZONTAL AND INCLINED LOAD/NC TESTS
Basically, horfzontal and i n c h e d loading tests are the same as vertkal

loading tests, and are carried out and andysed li, a comparable way /see
Section 21.6.101. Loading tests at a preferred orientatlbn are carried out to
invesaqate particular characteristl'cs o f the ground They are frequently
carr~edout in rock for hvestljrations concerning tunnels and underground
excavations (Brown. 1981; Carter & Booker, 1984). A s ~ h p l elateral loading
test, carried out between the opposite sides of a trial pit or caisson using an
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hydraulic jack, forms a very convenient means o f measurhg the insitu modulus
and shear strength o f soils. Interpretatlbn o f the elastk modulus o f soil from
lateral loading tests shouh' follow the advice given b y Carter & Booker (1984).
Care should be taken to support the we~ghtof the jack and other loading
equ~pmentso as to prevent the applicafion o f shearhg forces to the test area.
29.3 PRESSURIZED CHAMBER TESTS
The test is carried out in an underground excavation or length of

tunnel and consists o f charging the chamber with water under various
pressures and measuring the deformathn moduli o f the surrounding ground
The test I> generally carried out for projects h v o l v h g tunnels carrying water
under pressure.
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The test site should preferably form part o f the actual excavation, or
be o f the same size and para//e/ to the axis in representative ground The
length o f a test sectlon should be at least five bhes the excavated diameter,
unless allowance can be made for the end effects. The method of excavation
used should be capable of producing a formed surface o f s ~ h i l a rquality to the
actual excavaoon. In order to ascertai, whether the modulus determhed is
drained, partlblly drained or undrained, it is necessary to know the draffage
conditlbns wh'ch applied during the test.
29.4 INSITU CALIFORNIA BEARINC RATIO fCBR) TESTS
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29.4.1 General
The CBR method of flexible pavement design is ementidy an empirical
method in which design curves are used to estimate a pavement thickness
appropr~ateto the CBR of the so11 There is no unique CBR of a soil and ih
any CBR test the value obtained depends very much on the manner in which
the test is conducted The design curves are usually based on one carefully
specified method o f measur~hg the CBR, and this is usuafly a laboratory
method. The parameter r e q u ~ i e dfor the des~gnof flexible pavements is the
C&? attahed by the soil at formation level after al/ necessary compactkm has
been carried out, the pavement has been laid and sufficient time has elapsed
for equilibr~ummo~sturecontent to become established. Before embark~hgon
insitu CBR tests, it is therefore necessary to consider carefufly how relevant
they wi'l be to the proposed design method, and whether the condition of
equi/irium moisture content I> M e l y to pertah.
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29.4.2 Test Method
The test is carrled out by the method described in Test 16 of BSI
f1975b) excluding the compactrun, and subject only to those alteratJons
necessary to enable it to be carrfed out in the field The load is generally
applied through a screw jack using the weight of a vebkle as j;lcking
resistance, and deflectrons are measured by dial gauges carried on a bridge
with ~hdependentfoundatrons resting on the ground we// clear of the test area.
A circular area of about 300 mm diameter is t r i m e d flat, spec~alcare being
taken with the central area on whkh the plunger w12 bear. A thin layer of
fine sand may be used to seat the plate but the use of sand to seat the
plunger itself should be avoided. I f it is rinpossLble to trim the soil
suffiaently to obtah good seatrhg of the plunger, a thin layer of plaster of
paris may be used, care being taken to remove any plaster extend~hgbeyond
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the area of the plunger. Further deta& of the ihsitu test are given elsewhere
(Road Research Laboratory, 195.2,).
29.4.3 Llinitatrons and U s e o f Test

The test is unsuitable for any soil contah~hgpartr'cles o f longest
dimens~ongreater than 20 mm because the seating of the plunger on a large
stone may lead to an unrepresentative result. The test 13 of dubk~usvalue
with sands because it tends to give results much lower than the laboratory
tests on whkh the design charts are based. T h h because o f the confining
effect o f the mould h the laboratory tests. The test is most suited to clay
sois, subject always to the soil under test being at equZbrium mohture
content. The moisture content at a depth o f I to 2 m below ground surface.
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where the soil is normally unaffected by seasonal mokture content changes,

often gives a good indication of the equfZbrium moisture content, provided
that there is no s~gnificantchange o f soil type. A n alternative is to carry out
the test directly beneath an existrhg pavement having identr'cd subsoh'
conditions to those o f the proposed constructron; t h ~ kmethod has been used
with some success for the deslgn of mifield pavements.
I&u CBR tests have sometimes been carr~edout lh conj#nc&on with
i m i t u density and moisture content tests and then /inked with laboratory
compacthn tests. A careful study o f all the resulohg data may allow a
reasonable design parameter to be chosen for suitable soils. Attempts have
somet/mes been made to use the test as a means of controlfing the compaction
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of fi// or natural formatlbns, but they have not usually been successful and the
procedure cannot be recommended.
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30, INSITU DIRECT SHEAR TESTS
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In t h i s t e s t , a sample of soil o r rock is p r e p a r e d a n d s u b j e c t e d t o d i r e c t

s h e a r i n g insitu. The applied s t r e s s e s a n d b o u n d a r y conditions a r e similar t o
those in t h e laboratory direct s h e a r test. The t e s t is generally designed t o
measure t h e peak s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e intact material, o r of a discontinuity
(including a relict joint in soil), a s a function of t h e normal stress acting on
t h e s h e a r plane. More t h a n one t e s t i s generally r e q u i r e d t o obtain
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e design parameters.
The measurement of residual shear strength can present m a & -practical

problems in arranging for a sufl'iiently large length of travel of the shear
box. but a usefulindication of residual strength may be obtained b y conthuing
the test to the limits of travel of the apparatus. In certain applications, the
test may be designed to establish the strength of the hterface between
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concrete and rock or soil
Insitu s h e a r t e s t s on soil may b e carried o u t e i t h e r within boreholes
(Bauer & Demartinecourt. 1982; Handy & Fox. 1967) o r near t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e
(Brand et al, 1983b). Equipment f o r testing close t o t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e in
trial pits may b e adopted t o enable testing t o b e c a r r i e d o u t within deep
excavations, l a r g e diameter s h a f t s o r caissons. Insitu s h e a r t e s t s on specific
discontinuities in rock may also be conducted using similar equipment; t h e
r e s u l t s may b e used t o confirm t h e s t r e n g t h of discontinuities derived from
laboratory t e s t s a n d field r o u g h n e s s s u r v e y s ( s e e Section 26.2).
30.2 SAMPLE PREPARA TIQN
Samples are generally prepared a t the bottom of pits or trenches in soA
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Adits are more common for rock testing. The excavathns permit access to the
material at the zone of interest, and i n many cases provide a suitable means
of setting-up the reaction for the applied forces.
The orientation of t h e sample a n d t h e forces applied t o i t a r e generally
governed b y t h e direction of t h e forces which will become effective d u r i n g a n d
on completion of t h e works, b u t modified t o t a k e account of t h e orientation of
significant discontinuities. In many cases, however, t o facilitate t h e s e t t i n g - u p
of t h e test, t h e sample is p r e p a r e d with t h e s h e a r plane horizontal. The
normal a n d s h e a r i n g s t r e s s e s a r e generally imposed a s forces applied normally
a n d along t h e s h e a r plane. However, a n inclined s h e a r force passing t h r o u g h
t h e c e n t r e of t h e s h e a r plane may be p r e f e r r e d a s t h i s t e n d s t o produce a
more uniform distribution of stress on t h e s h e a r s u r f a c e (Brown, 1981).
A s a rough guide, the sample dimension shoula' be a t least ten t h e s that

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of the largest partice; in rock, the sample s ~ z e

should reflect the roughness of
the rock discontinuity being tested For stronger rocks, the s a m e can be
rendered with suitably strong cement and reinforced concrete to ensure
adequate load distribut~on. The equipment shouM be of robust construcbon.
Samples between 300 mm and 1 500 mm square have been used for testing soil
and weak rocks. Larger samples may be requked in ground containing
boulders or in coarse fi// material.
Great care h a s to be exercised in preserving the environmental
conditions when fording the excavation. Excavaton techniques whkh would
affect the dikconthuites in the sample test area shouh' be avoided, e.g. t h e
which give r ~ k eto crumbling, fracturing or excessive dynam~kshock loading.
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Hand sawing, cuttihg and dfeamonddr17ling should be used to prepare and trim
the sample. Adequate protection from the elements should be provided F~hal
exposure and trimming of the sample to fit the loading frame and the testing
itself should all be completed with m~himumdelay to a void possible significant
changes ih the moikture and stress conditbns of the sample. I f tests are
carried out below the water table, precautons should be taken to avoid the
effects of water pressure and seepage fsee Section 29.1.21.
m e r e it I> htended to test one d~kcontinuityonly, care has to be taken
to avoid d~kturbanceto the surface o f the discontinuity, and to prepare the
sample so that the forces are a p p W correctly in the plane o f the
discontinuity. The spat'al orientathn of the discontinuity should be defined by
dip d2-ectbn and dip measurements.
Where draned condhlbns are required, suitable draihage layers can be
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inserted around the s d e and on the loaded upper surface.
With the borehole shear device, there is no sample preparation a s such.
but care i s required during the formation of t h e borehole s o a s to limit
disturbance of the surrounding soil (Bauer & Demartinecourt, 1985).
30.3 TEST ARRANGEMENT
The equipment for app/ying the norma/ load can consist of weights,
kentledge, hydraulic rams, flat jacks acting agahst the excavaton m o X or an
anchor system. The reacton system should ensure the unl'form transfer of the
normal loads to the test sample and minimum resistance to the shear
displacement, e.g. by the use of low-friction devices such as ball seathgs or
&ers s( Brown, 1981). A porous phton or other suitable medium can be used
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to d~ktributethe load where drahed cond~'tbnsare required The alignment o f
the force needs to be maintahed during the test.
The shearing force apphkation system should ensure that the load I>
applied un~Yormlyover the p h e of shearing, and that the load and geometrical
centroids are matched to eliminate movement. &%erean i h c h e d shear force
is required, the resultant o f the.sbear force shouMpass through the centre o f
the base of the shearing plane (Brown. 198 1 1. I f a constant norma/ load lk
required for this type of test, suitable reducton has to be made to the applied
normal load durihg testing to compensate for the increase in vertkal
component with increashg shear force. The shear force application can be
developed by sim17ar means to the normal loading. In both cases, care has to
be taken to ensure that the ground reactbn does not extend to the san?d .e.
The reacton system can frequently be provided by the excavation sidewalls.
In certah cases, it may be necessary to provide the shear force by traction on
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a system anchored by pi& or cables. Suffic~enttravel in the shear force

application system should be provided so that the complete test can be run
without interruptrbn.
30.4 MEASUREMENTS
Prov~k~on
should be made for the following :
fa) The appled forces shouM be capable of being measured
with an accuracy of 92% of the mminum forces reached
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i n the test.
fb) Shear. no& and lateral displacements should be
measured Suflicibnt travel should be provided to run
the cmplete test without the need to reset the gauges.
The anchorage datum of each gauge needs to be rigid
and set up at a paint sufliuenffy remote that 12 is not
affmted by the forces appfied during testing.
fc) Steps should be taken to guard agahst tbe effects of
changes in temperature. Alternatively, temperatures
should be measured and any sensitive equipment shouid
be calih-ated.
30.5 TEST METHODS
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The s t r e s s e s applied in t h e testing programme should be within t h e
range of t h e relevant working stresses a t t h e site, including those applied by
t h e final structure. if appropriate. Where drained t e s t conditions a r e required.
a consolidation stage is necessary t o allow t h e pore water pressures t o
dissipate under each increment of normal load. The r a t e of consolidation
should be monitored. a s this is useful for determining t h e r a t e of shearing
(Brown, 1981). For drained tests, t h e r a t e of shearing has t o be sufficiently
slow t o e n s u r e t h a t induced pore pressure changes a r e a very small proportion
of t h e shear stress. A t best, t h e appropriate shear r a t e can only be estimated
prior t o t h e test, and experience gained in similar soil o r rock conditions and
with similar t e s t configurations is beneficial.
On completion of t h e test, full identification of t h e material sheared
should be carried out by visual examination. sampling and laboratory testing.
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Photographs of t h e shear surface form a useful record of t h e t e s t conditions
and may assist in t h e interpretation of results.
30.6 ANALYSIS OF R E S U L T S
Graphs of consolidation behaviour (if applicable) and shear force (or
s t r e s s ) plotted against both normal and shear displacements a r e prepared in t h e
analysis. The peak shear s t r e s s and corresponding shear and normal
displacements may then be obtained and related to t h e applied normal stress.
When failure occurs i n a plane dipping a t an angle to t h e applied shearing
force, this should be accounted for in t h e analysis (Bishop I Little. 1967).
For tests on discontinuities in rock, t h e results from individual tests
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should not be extrapolated to t h e rock mass without confirmation t h a t t h e

surface tested is representative of t h e overall roughness of t h e discontinuity
(see Section 26.2).
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31, LARGE-SCALE FIELD TRIALS
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31.1 GENERAL
Large-scale field trikls are carried out in such a manner that the ground
I> tested on a scale and under conditions comparable with those prevailing i n
the project under ~hvest~gatrbn. However, such trials are likely to be costly in
terms of instrumentation, the requirements for purpose-made equipment and
technical support. The methods and types of instrumentatrbn available for
monitoring t k l d tests are given in b r ~ e foutline in the fohwing sectrbns,
together with some of the more common large-scale fied trials used to obtain
geotechn~caldata for design and construction.
Large -scale fiild trials involve the princzples of site in vestigatlbn
embodied in this document, and wou/d usuafly include the use of ground
investigation techniques ah-eady described. Large-scale field trials are not
standard tests, and should be designed to suit the ~hdiv~'dualrequirements of
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the proposed works and the particular ground on wh~kbor within which they
are to be performed. On large pro/;ects, field tr~als
can provide the necessary
desfgn parameters, a s we// as valuable constructhn data on excavatron,
handling and placing, resu/ting in considerable savings and enhanced safety.
Such methods and trials can be usefully extended into the construction stage,
and also to the monitoring of the interrelated response of the ground and
structure after completion under the working conditions.
31.2 METHODS OF INSTRUMENTATION
Several techniques can be used in g r o u n d investigation t o monitor

displacements a n d s t r a i n s associated with known o r s u s p e c t e d g r o u n d move-
ments resulting from slope failures, foundation displacement, subsidence a n d
ground r e s p o n s e in large-scale field t r i a l s (BGS. 1973; Brown. 1981; BSI, 1981b;
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G C O , 1984; Hanna, 1985). A review of instruments commonly used in Hong
Kong is given b y Coleman (1984). Handfelt et a1 (1987) h a v e described t h e
performance of t h e instrumentation u s e d in a n offshore t e s t fill (see also Foott
et al, 1987).
Ground movements are generdy associated with stress redistribuaion and

pore pressure changes which are character~ktrcof the particuhr ground. Total
stress can be monitared using total pressure c e h /see Chapter 281, while
normal and shear stresses can be measured b y special transducers (Arthur &
Roscoe, 1961). The techniques for the measurement of pore pressure response
are covered in Sectrons 2O.Z.3 to 20.2.6.
Ground movements are generafly measured in terms of the displacement
of po~htswhich can be positioned on the surface of the ground or with~ff the
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ground mass. The absolute movement of a point has to be referred to a stable

datum, and sufficient measurements should be taken to define movement in
three d~hensionsif this is required. Some of the c o m y - u s e d techniques
pennit the movement or relative displacement of points to be referenced to
arbitrary hor~zontaland vertical planes. Tb~krelative movement can be used
to obtain strain.
S u r f a c e observations of g r o u n d movements c a n b e made b y a n a c c u r a t e
s u r v e y (Cole & Burland, 1972). An accuracy of 20.5 mm c a n b e achieved in
levelling (Froome & Bradsell. 1966) a n d t ( 5 mm + 5 ppm) f o r distance
measurement using electro-optical instruments (Mayes, 1985). Care has to be
taken to position datum points away from the effects of movements due to
load and water changes.
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Vertical movements can be observed b y means o f settlement gauges with
an accuracy o f 0 . 1 mm fEjerrum et a/, 19651; more detaih are given b y
Dunnicfiff (19711. Mulopoint displacement measurements can also be employed
fEurland e t a4 19721. The use of vertical tubes gives an accuracy o f about
t 3 mm fpenman, 19691. A f u / / profile-measuring technique which uses a
torpedo traversing a flexible tube i s described b y Penman & M12chell (19701.
Telescopic tubes, ~hcfinometersand tensioned wires anchored in boreholes at
stable points can also be used f o r measuring strains o r displacements.
Lateral movements can be measured b y offsets and triangulation. Rods,

telescopic tubes and tensioned wkes can also be employed Where a torpedo i s
used, access from both ends of the tubing i s preferable.
Photogrammetric techniques can be used to survey inaccessible sites such
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as steep slopes and ravines (Borchers. 1968). The accuracy of measurements
taken by a photogrammetric method is about ~1/10000of the camera to object
distance under normal working conditions (Cheffins & Chisholm, 1980).
31.3 TRTAL EMBANKMENTS AND E K A VAT/ONS
The construchon o f trial embankments may serve three purposes. &>st,

the quality and compaction characteristics of avdable borrow materials can be
determined at the field scale and compared with laboratory test results;
second, the characteristics and performance o f placing and compachhg
equ~pment can be investigated, third, the strength and settlement
characteristics o f the ground on which the embankment is placed can be
exdned. F d u r e o f a trLd embankment will usualy not be o f mdybr
consequence, and therefore a t r i a l bank may be constructed so as to h d u c e
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f a i h r e defiberately, either i n the embankment alone or i n the embankment and
the foundations. However, any lhstalled instrumentation may be destroyed
Such fa7ures sometimes occur i n an unexpected manner, and the engineer
shouM take precautions t o ensure that no i n j u r y to persons o r unexpected
damage i s caused. Tbe value o f such a f a i h r e i s that back analysis {see
Chapter 321, can be used t o check strength parameters. Bishop & Green (1973)
have described the development and use o f t r i a l embankments.
Compaction tria/s can h c l u d e experiments with variable borrow materials,

layer thicknesses, amounts o f watering and amounts o f work performed in
compacthn, Measurements should be made o f insitu density and water content;
the results should be compared with those from laboratory compaction tests, to
obtain a specificathn standard, and with ins12u borrow p i t densities, so that
the degree o f bulking o r volume reductkn can be estimated f o r given
quantitres fESL 198161. Trials o f equipment can also be undertaken. Care
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should be taken not to vary too many factors at the same time, otherwke the
effects o f variathn o f an hdividua/ factor cannot be esthated
Trial excavathns yieM informathn on the material excavated and the

performance o f excavating equipment,' they also permit more detailed
examination o f the ground than is possible from borehole samples. Exca va&ons
can be cons2ructed such that falures are caused defiberateh; hence they can
sometlines be used to test the short-term stability o f excavated shpes.
However, fa7ures i n deep excavations are correspondingly more dangerous than
failures of filk and increased vigilance is needed
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I f the maximum information is to be gained, adequate instrumentation of
trial embankments or excavations is essentid together with continuous
observation (see Secthn 31.21. The scale of trid embankments or excavatJons
needs careful consideration. Clearly, the more closely the size of the trial
approaches that of the prototype, the more directly app/icab/e w17l be the
results obtaned from the trial.
31.4 CONSTRUCTION TRIALS
In many projects, considerable value can be derived from trials carried

out before the commencement of the permanent works. Such trids permit the
evaluation of the procedures to be adopted and the effectiveness of the
various aupedients. A s with all large scale testing, a prior knodedge of the
characteristics of the ground 13 essenth/. The resufts of the trial will often
permit an assessment of the properties of the ground and hence enable a
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correlation to be made with other results obtained from routhe ground
investigation methods.
A wide range of construction methods is c o d y tested i n trials, e,g.
pile tests, ground anchor tests, compaction tests for earthworks, ekperihentaf
shafts and adits for tunnels, grouting, tr~alblasts for explosives and
dewatering.
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32, BACK ANALYSIS
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32.1 GENERAL
Natural or man-made condihbns on a site sometimes create phenomena

which may be used to assess parameters that are otherwise difficult to assess
or which may be used as a check on laboratory measurements. Examples of
such phenomena are slope failures and settlement of structures. It may then
be possiMe, starting from the observed phenomena, to perform a back ana/yss,
for example, in the case of a slope failure, to arrive at shear strength
parameters which fit the observed facts. Back ana/ysis of settlements is also
possible, but care is required i n assessing actual loadings and the hhes for
which they have acted
All applications of back analysis should b e accompanied b y rigorous

geological a n d geotechnical investigations, which should include a t h o r o u g h
review of t h e history of t h e problem a n d examination of relevant climatic a n d
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groundwater records. Back analysis should only b e u s e d if i t i s applicable t o
t h e problem in hand a n d t h e g r o u n d conditions encountered. All parameters
t h a t can have a significant effect on t h e analysis should b e carefully
considered. Since i t is v e r y r a r e f o r a unique analytical solution t o be
obtained, sensitivity s t u d i e s a r e normally c a r r i e d o u t t o a s s e s s t h e effect of
parameters t h a t cannot be obtained b y d i r e c t means. The pitfalls of back
analysis a r e discussed f u r t h e r by ~ e r 6 u e i l& Tavenas (1981).
32.2 FAILURES
I n Hong Kong, numerous landslides a r e caused b y i n t e n s e rainfall e v e r y

y e a r , a n d back analysis i s sometimes carried o u t t o d e r i v e s h e a r s t r e n g t h
parameters a s p a r t of t h e design p r o c e d u r e f o r slope remedial or preventive
works. However, a note of caution is necessary r e g a r d i n g t h e interpretation
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a n d u s e of t h e results. Although t h e failure itself can be s t u d i e d i n g r e a t
detail a f t e r t h e e v e n t , i t i s extremely r a r e t o have a c c u r a t e information on t h e
specific g r o u n d conditions a t t h e time of failure, particularly with r e g a r d t o
pore water p r e s s u r e s (Hencher e t al. 1984). For t h i s reason, back analysis may
b e j u s t a s useful in permitting a rational, qualitative assessment of t h e failure
mechanism as in deriving information specifically on s h e a r s t r e n g t h parameters
f o r use in design (Hencher & Martin, 1984).
32.3 OTHER CASES
Although back analysis i s carried o u t typically when slope failures o r

significant ground movements have o c c u r r e d , i t can b e useful i n o t h e r cases
where conventional predictive methods may not lead t o realistic design
solutions. An example of t h i s application in Hong Kong is in t h e design of
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preventive works f o r existing s t e e p slopes formed in soils derived from insitu

rock weathering. I n such cases, conventional slope stability analysis will often
yield factors of s a f e t y l e s s t h a n unity even when a slope h a s stood safely
without s i g n s of d i s t r e s s f o r many years. S h e a r s t r e n g t h parameters obtained
from back analysis of hypothetical failure s u r f a c e s t h r o u g h t h e existing slope
often allow a more realistic form of stability improvement t o be made t h a n
would be possible from conventional analysis. However. i t is v e r y important t o
check t h a t t h e assumptions made i n t h e back analysis a r e valid; f o r example,
t h e failure s u r f a c e s selected should be realistic a n d t h e proposed works should
not r e s u l t i n a n y s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e t o t h e form of o r loadings on t h e slope.
Similarly, in t h e prediction of settlements in variable g r o u n d , o r in g r o u n d
from which i t i s impossible t o r e t r i e v e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples, back analysis of
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settlement d a t a from a n a d j a c e n t s i t e i n similar materials may b e t h e only
satisfactory means of producing sensible predictions.
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33, GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING
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33.1 GENERAL
Geophysics a speciafized method of ground investzgation. Where a

geophyskal investigation is required, the engineer directing the ground
investigation (see Section 15.21 would n o r d l y entrust it to an organ~zatrbn
speciafizing in this work. This organliatzon wdl usua/ly adv13e on the detays
of the method to be used and will interpret the results once they have been
obtained into a form that can be used directly by the dziectzhg engineer.
There 13 advantage in mahtaining a close hison between the directing
engineer and the geophysicist since difficultground conditions may give rise to
problems of interpretation and hence a need for further zhvestigatzon.
Engineering appficationsof geophysics have sometzines been disappointing, and
it is important that the type of hformatzon supp/ied by the investzgation is
suitable for the project (Griffiths & King, 1983; Ridley Thomas, 19821. The
htention of the following sections is to fist the various geopbysicd methods
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whkh are currently a vazhble, to give some indicatzon of the problems they may
help to solve and to indicate the fimz'tation of each method. The appficabifity
of the various geophysica2 methods is summarized lh Table 11.
Adequate borehole control is essential for the interpretation of
geophysicaf observathns, which are best included in a ground investzgation
employing more con ventzonal methods.
The aim of most geophysical methods of ground investigatzbn is to locate
some form of subsurface anomaly where the materials on either side have
markedly dzyferent physical properties. These anomdies may take, for example,
the form of a boundary between two rock types, a fault, underground services,
or a cavity. I n the initial stages it win almost &ays be necessary to check
the true nature of these anomales by physical means, n o r d l y by boreholes.
Once a correlatzon between the geophysical test results and the underground
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phenomena has been established, the geophys~'calinvestigation may then yield
useful results rap~Idlyand economically. It foLhws that, where there 13 no
distinct change in physical propertkc across the anomaly, the geophysical
investigatzon may not detect a boundary. Geophysid methods can also be
used to deduce soil and rock parameters; when this is done. the results
obtained shouki always be confirmed by directly measured parameters.
Geophysical survey techniques are based on determining variatzons in a
physical property, such as electrical conductivity fresktivity1, variations in
density fgra vimetrlk1, magnetic susceptz'bifity fmagneticl or velm2y of sonic
waves fsezkmic1. Anomafies such as near surface disturbance (often known as
Woz3e9 are common in the urban environment and may Mt the usefulness of
geophys~ksin these areas. Moreover, a geophysical anomaly does not always
match an engineer~hgor geological boundary, and often there is a transitzon
zone a t a boundary. Thzk may lead to a margin of uncertaznty, for example, in
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detemuning the depth of sound rock that has a weathered boundary or

overlying boulders.
Good results in geophysical techniques are obtained when the geo/ogcal
conditions are relativey szhple, with large clear-cut contrasts in the relevant
physical properties between the formatzons. However, less favourable ground
condithns may st271 warrant consideratrun of geophysics, partzcularly a t an
ear@ stage in an investigatzon, because of the relatively low cost and h~gh
speed of the methods, e.g. to assist in ehhhatrirg alternative explanations of .
the geology. It may a t t i m be necessary to use two or more methods on a
trial and error basis to ascertain which yie& the most reliable results.
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Geophysical surveying is genera& used in a ground inveshgation to
make a prefiminary and rapid assessment of the ground conditions. In
favourable condZions, a geophysical technique may jhdicate varjatlbns and
anomalies which can be correlated witb geological or man-made features. The
results of geophysical survey can then be used to ~hterpolatethe ground
condihons between boreholes, and to indicate locations where further boreholes
are needed so that the significance of a geophys~kal anomaly can be
investigated
33.2 LAND GEOPHYSICS
33.2 1 Resistivity
This technique is used for in vestigating the simper geological problems.
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A current is usuafly passed into the ground through two metal electrodes, and
the potential difference is measured between two similar electrodes fBS/, 1965).
With suitable deployment of the electrodes, the system may be used to provide
information on the variation of geo-electrical properties witb depth (depth
probes), lateral changes in res~stivity(constant separation tra versing) or local
anomdous areas lequipotenhhl survey). e.g. karst features, disused tunnels or
shafts. The unsuspected presence of electrical conductors, e.g. pzpes or cables,
under the site wili of course, render the results unrelkble. The interpretation
of the results obtained b y this method does not always provide a definl'te
solution, particuMy as the number of subsurface l a y e r s increases, because it
involves a curve matching technique which requh-es the assumption of idealised
conditions.
33.2.2 Gra v~inetric
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In ground investigation, the gravity survey is nerdy fimited to
locating large cavitles or faults. Precision levelfing and positionlirg of the .
instrument a t each station is essentiaL With the more accurate instruments
now available, it is possible that the gravity survey method wi// become a
useful tool in Iocatlirg hidden shafts and smaller cavities.
33.2 3 Magnetic
Local changes in the earth's magnetic field are assoc~htedwith changes

in rock types. In suitable circumstances, the technique may locate boundaries
fe.g. faults or dykes) between rocks which display magnetic contrasts.
However, its main use in the civd eng~neeringfield is the location of buried
metafliferous man-made objects, such a s cables or pipelines. It can sometimes
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be used for locating OMmine shafts and areas of fij% In using this method to
detect the locatlbn of faults or dykes, it is, of course, essenhhl to ehinhate
the poss1E17ity that the anomaly detected is in truth buried metal.
33.24 Seismic
The seism~ctechnique, either refection or refraction, may be used to

locate subsurface boundaries which separate materials havlhg dXferent values
o f sonic wave velocities. In carryhg out geophysical surveys on land, the
refraction method is the one most frequently used. It involves producing
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seismic waves, either from a snm7 explosive charge or from a mechanical
source fe.g. a hammer), and measuring accurately the time taken for them to
travel from the point o f origin to vibration detectors fgeophones) at varying
distances away.
The greatest use o f th& technique is in the determ~naationof bedrock
level (McFeat-Smith et al. 1986). Therefore, 12 IS commonly used i f f the
estimation o f quanti'ties o f soft mated& avadable from a borrow area site.
One limitaation o f seismic refraction, however, IS that when the velocity o f
transmiss~onin the upper layer is greater than that below fe.g. if very
compact gravel overhks a clay), then the intervening boundary cannot be
detected and false layers may appear to be present. Another use of this
technique I> to provide wave velocity data for the assessment of h s i t u
dynamk modulus values of rock masses fMeigh, 1977). O n l y rarely will the
dynamic and static modulus values be the same. Environmental consideratibns
sometlines limit the applicatibn o f this test. For example, exp/sives cannot be
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used in urban areas, and where the site lies near to the source of vibrations,
such as a busy road, the lnduced vibration may not be detectable.
By travershg a seismic refraction survey configuration, the resulting
variation o f velocity along the traverse can be used to indicate areas o f
different rock types or fracture zones. This information is useful in dec~'ding
the type of equ~bmentto be used for rock excavation.
Direct seismic measurements can also be taken between two boreholes.
or from surface to borehole or borehole t o surface. These techniques may be
useful for assessing the properties of the intervening rock mass, and in
detecting geological features such a s cavities. Cross hole surveys, i.e. between
boreholes. may provide the best geophysical means for detecting cavities a t
depth (McCann et al. 1987). but results can only be confirmed by subsequent
drilling.
33.3 MARINE GEOPHYSICS Table of Contents
33.3.1 General
lu'ih suitable md~ficationso f equipment, the land survey techn~bues,

such as s e k m ~ crefraction, magnetik and gravimetric techniques, may be
extended to the marine environment. Of greater use, however, are the
techniques that have been developed specifically for offshore work; these are
described ~n the fofloowing three sections. It is necessary to a p d y tidal
corrections to the data obtahed, reduchg them to an appropriate datum level
for proper interpretation. I t is also important to establish preche survey
control 17the capacity for detailed structural identZcafibn I> to be explo12ed
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fully. Where appropriate, electronic naviqation systems should be employed.

In Hong Kong, the presence of sewage-rich seabed layers and certain
naturally gassy marine mud deposits results in 'masked zones', which can
severely limit the effectiveness of a geophysical survey.
33.3.2 Echo -Soundhg
A continuous water depth proflye dong the track o f a survey vessel is

obtmhed b y using an instrument that measures the t h e taken for a short
pulse o f a high frequency sound wave to travel from a transducer attached to
the survey vessel down to the seabed and back again. Such profies are
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combined to produce a bathymetric chart. However, additronal control may be
required to ascertain whether the sounding is reproducing reflectrons from soft
surface sediinents or higher density m a t e n 2 underneath, and dual frequency
sounders may be useful for th~i.
33.3.3 Continuous Seismic Reflechon Profiling

The use of continuous s e ~ k m irefiecoon profizng should always be
~ 0 f l s ~ ' d e as
~eda complementary aid to exploratory boreholes in major offshore
investigations. A n extension of the echo-sounding principle is used to provide
informaobn on sub-seabed acoustic reflectors which usually correspond to
changes ~hmaterid types. The instrumentation required, especially the types
of acoustk source, depends on the local ground cond~'tronsand its choke
should therefore be left to a geophysickt who has suitable exper~ence. A s a
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guide. the higher frequency sources such as pingers' and 'high resoluthn
boomers' are generally suitable for resolving near surface layering, whereas
'standard boomers' and 'sparkers' are more suited for coarser and t h ~ i k e r
layers. Typically, h g h r e d u t i o n boomers have a resolution of about 0.5 m
and a depth penetrahon o f about 80 m.
The results may give a vkual representaoon of geologfid features. but
quantitative data on depths to interfaces can only be determined if vel0c1.oe.s
of transm~isionare known.
There are two m a h M t a t l o n s to the technique. Firstly. 12 cannot
u s u d y delineate the boundary between two different materikls that have
s1in17ar geophysical characteristhx; secondly, in water depths of less than about
2 m, near-seabed ref/ctors may be obscured b y multlkle reflectlbns originathg
from the seabed. O t h e r problems are described in Table 11.
33.3.4 Side Scan Sonar Table of Contents

This is an underwater acoustk technique analogous to oblique aer12
photography, enabling dz>conthu~'oesand profiles offset fm the line o f
traverse to be recorded for subsequent bathymetric charthg by echo-sounding
or other techniques. It is based on the reflctlbn o f high frequency p u b o f
sound b y the seabed. The results provide a quantitative guide to the posioon
and shape o f seabed features and a qualitative gukfe to the type o f seabed
material. The system is partkularly useful in searches for rock outcrops,
pipelines, trenches and seabed obstruct~ons,such as wrecks.
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W12h suitable instrumentaoon, certain geophyskd techniques may be

adapted to provide logs o f boreholes that are anahgous to convenfional
geologial logs. These borehole logs may be used for geologial correltrbn
purposes across a site. ~dd~%ionally, analysh o f the data can assist ih the
assessment o f insitu values o f parameters such as dynamic moduli and density.
The normal techniques cons~kt o f sehmic /structural data), eleceical
fstratigrphical data), gamma gamma fdensity datal, natural gamma
fstrahgraphical datal and cal~;Oer fborehole diameter datal; all these techniques
are d~kcussedby Brown ( 1981 ). Experience in the use of these methods I> at
present relatively lim'ted and the data obtruned should always be correlated
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agahst the examinathn and testhg of borebole samples and against the results
of other insitu tests.
33.5 CURRUSIDN TESTING
Electrical res~ktrkitymay be used to assess the corrosivity of sods

towards ferrous materials. Convenobnal traverses with fixed hterva/s between
electrodes enable rapid coverage of the ground and the locaoon of areas of
low res~ktivjty. The spacing between electrodes should be appropr~kteto the
depth of bur12 of the ferrous materfa. The conventibnal 'expansion'
technique using "depth probes" (see Secfion 33.211 may also be used to
determine the var~athnin so17 resistivity with depth. Generdy, the likelihood
of severe corros~bndecreases as the resistivity rises (see Chapter 13 and
Table 1 2 ) .
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34, PRINCIPLES OF LABORATORY TESTING
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The ams of laboratory testing of samples of soil and rock may be
summarized as follows :
fa/ to identify and classify the sampfes with a vfew to

making use of past experfence w~2hmater~klsof similar
geofoqical age, origin and condition, and
fb/ to obtain soil and rock parameters relevant to the

technical objectives of the investigation.
A thorough discussion of laboratory testing is beyond t h e scope of t h i s

Geoguide. However, some basic a s p e c t s a r e briefly reviewed i n Chapters 35 t o
38 a s laboratory testing is considered t o be a p a r t of t h e g r o u n d investigation,
a n d t h e overall s i t e investigation would normally not be complete without it.
F u r t h e r guidance on laboratory testing of r o c k s a n d soils is given i n Brown
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(1981) a n d BSI (1975b3 respectively. The Geotechnical Manual f o r Slopes ( G C O .
1984) discusses t h e testing of Hong Kong r o c k s a n d soils in particular.
Guidance on t h e description a n d classification of Hong Kong r o c k s a n d soils is
given i n Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
A general u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e ground conditions a t a s i t e i s essential

before embarking on a programme of soil a n d rock testing. I t is also
necessary t o consider carefully how t h e d a t a obtained from t h e tests a r e t o be
used, a n d whether t h e information can a s s i s t in t h e solution of t h e engineering
problems concerned. As general guidance. t h e t e s t method t o be used should
have d i r e c t relevance t o t h e engineering problem at hand a n d should simulate
t h e field conditions a s closely as possible.
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35, SAMPLE STORAGE AND INSPECTION FACILITIES
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35.1 HANDLING AND LABELLING
The general procedures for handling and labelling o f samples in the field
are given in Sec&bn 19.10. Samples should be treated with equal care on
arrival at the core store or at the laboratory.
35.2 STORA CE OF SAMPLES
A n orderly procedure shou/d be established so that each sampfe is

registered on arrival and is then stored away in such a manner that it can be
located readily when required for examinalbn or testing. Disturbed samples
should be stored on shelves, and, where jars are used, they should be placed
in purpose-made carrirs. General purpose 100 mm diameter samples shou/d be
stored on their sides in purpose-made racks, while thin-walled or piston
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samples containing soft clays shouM be stored ver&bally with the same
orientation as in the field prior to sampling. The sample storage area should
be of sufficient size to cater for the number of samples being hand/ed. without
overcrowding (see also Secoon 19.10.1).
35.3 INSPECTMh' FACILITIES
A n important feature is a sufficient area for the temporary stacking of

the samples, and an adequate amount of bench space for the actual inspection.
The fohwing equipment should be provided :
(a) an extruder for removing general purpose 100 mm

diameter samples from the sampler tubes,
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fbl an adequate number of trays to enable disturbed samples
of granular soils to be &;Oped out for inspection, and
some means of returning them quickly to the]>containers
afterwards,
fcl spatulas and knives for splitthg general purpose 100 mm
diameter samples,
fd) dilute hydrocMoric acid for the ia'en&Zcation of soils and
rocks,
fel a water supply and appropriate sieves for washing the
fines out of samples of soils to facilitate descr~ptionof
the coarser particles, and for cleaning rock cores and
block samples,
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ffJ a balance suitable for check~hgthat the weight of bulk

samples I> adequate for testing,
fg) a sufficient number of dustbins, or other means of
disposal, to contain samples not required after inspec&on,
fhl means o f resealing samples required for further use,
fi) washing facifities for the person inspecting the
samples, so that notes can be kept as tidy as
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possible,
lj) hand lens, geological hammer, penknife, metre scale and

protractor for logging cores,
fk) simple stereo-microscope with magnification to x30,

where necessary,
f/l adequate photographic facilihes (see Section 36.4).
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36, VISUAL EXAMINATION
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36.1 GENERAL
The exam~hraOonand d e m p t i o n o f samples o f so17 and rock i s one o f the

most linportant aspects o f ground investigation. The results o f a ground
investigatlbn may need to be used long after the disposal o f the samples, i n
which case the descriptions are, i n many cases; the only remaining evidence
o f what was discovered.
Detailed guidance f o r t h e description of soils and r o c k s is given in

Geoguide 3 ( G C O , 1988).
36.2 SOIL
All disturbed soil samples, both j a r and bulk, shouh' be examined
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individually and described b y means o f a permanent record made either on site
or short& after the samples arrive i n the laboratory. It i s customary during
sample descript~onto examine the ends o f undisturbed samples o r to examine
the j a r sample obtained from the cutting shoe where it has been used, or both.
However, all undisturbed samples shou/d be re-examined each time a specimen
i s taken f o r testing as colour changes o r drying o f the s a m e may have taken
place. m e n it i s known that no further soil testing i s likely to be required,
the remaining undisturbed samples shou/d be extruded and split down the
midde f o r examinatlbn, description and photographing.
36.3 ROCK
A complete rock descriptlbn should cover both the rock material and rock
mass characteristics. The latter cannot be determined from individual samples,
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but may be deduced to some extent from many sampfe descriptions and other
data. Where the mater~hlcharacteristics are not obvious, thin sections are a
valuable aid to f i r s t assessments made with a hand lens.
I n t h e examination a n d description of l a r g e rock samples a n d rock cores,

particular attention should be paid to t h e location a n d n a t u r e of
discontinuities. The reduced level of s h e a r zones a n d o t h e r major discon-
tinuities should be deduced a n d recorded. Other details s u c h a s orientation.
r o u g h n e s s and infilling should also be noted. If t h e discontinuities contain
infilling material, both t h i s a n d t h e a d j a c e n t materials should be described.
Where possible, a n u n d i s t u r b e d sample of both t h e infill a n d i t s surroundin,g
material should be extracted f o r testing purposes. For projects where t h e
n a t u r e of discontinuities i s particularly important, a s e p a r a t e detailed
discontinuity log should be p r e p a r e d (Figure 35).
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36.4 PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDS
Photographic records, particulary if they are in colour, are a most

valuable supplementary record, althaugh they cannot reflace visual descripoon
comp/ete/y. Where the purpose of the photographs i s to provide a continuous
record, the same scale should be used throughout. The photographs shou/d be
free from distortlbn norma/ to the surface and should contain a clear scale.
A s t a n d a r d colour c h a r t should be included in all colour photographs.
When photographing rock core, t h e b e s t effect can often be obtained b y
wetting t h e s u r f a c e of t h e c o r e first. Soil samples should be photographed a t
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natural moisture content w h e r e v e r possible, particularly if testing is t o be
u n d e r t a k e n on t h e samples. In some instances, allowing a soil sample to d r y
o u t partially may make differences in composition o r s t r u c t u r e clearer (see
Section 22.2).
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37, TESTS ON SOIL
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37.1 GENERAL
Laboratory tests on soil are undertaken on a routine basis to determine

classification, strength, deformation, permeability, compaction and pavement
design parameters. Dispersion, collapse potential, chemical and corrosivity
tests may also be carried out. Table 12 lists the range of laboratory tests on
soil and groundwater, together with references and remarks on their use.
Some of these tests are reviewed in more detail in the Geotechnical Manual
for Slopes ( G C O . 1984). It is important to ensure that tests are carried out
on samples that are truly representative of the materials a t the site. For this
purpose, a full and accurate description of all samples tested should always be
recorded. When laboratory tests are not likely to be representative of the
mass behaviour of the ground a t the site, the laboratory tests should be
supplemented or replaced by appropriate field tests.
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fn many cases, a field test wifl give more reafistic resufts than a
laboratory test because of reduced problems of sampfe disturbance. However.
there is a large body of practr'cal experience behind some o f the common
laboratory tests, and when the data derived from them are used w11h skdL
reliable predictions can be obtahed. The general consideratlbns set out in the
following four sections should be borne in mind.
37.2 SAMPLE QUALITY
Quah2y classes are defined in Secbon 19.2 It is essenttkl that the

sample used is of sufficiently h~ghquality for the test in questlbn. HaffdHng
o f samples ~ i ,the field is described li, SectJon 19.10. When samples arrive in
the laboratory, dl necessary steps should be taken to ensure that they are
preserved and stored at their natural moisture content and suffer the minimum
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amount o f shock and disturbance. Very often tests are carried out on
'undisturbed' samples whlich are far from undisturbed. In addition, the
samp/ing process itself will have released the ii71'21kl state of stress in the
samp/e.
In preparing the laboratory test specimen, there is further disturbance
and unavoidable change in the stress conditons, and hence the test is not
g e n e r d y carried out under the same stress C O ~ ~ J - ~asOthose
~ S which exist in
the natural ground (see Section 37.41.
37.3 SAMPLE SIZE

For disturbed sampfes, the amount o f so17 required for any partjcular test
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I> given in Table 7. A s the behaviour of the ground I> greaffy affected by
discontinuioes, 'undisturbed' samples should ideafly be sufficiently large to
include a representative pattern of these discontinuities. ThLs can often be
achieved by the use of large 'undisturbed' samples.
37.4 T E S T CONDITIONS
Where the test can be carried out under severaf d~yferentsets o f

conditons, e.g. in the determinoon o f soil strength, the parb'cular test
selected should be the one in which the cond~'&onscorrespond most closely to
t h e that win exist i n the field at the particular t h e which i s being
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considred ~h the des~gn.
37.5 RELEVANCE OF TEST RES'UL TS
Some laboratory tests are suitabl.. on& for p a r t k u l ' r types of sod In
cases, where a test has been carried out and it i s found later that the test
was not relevant to the actual sample used, the result shouh' be discarded.
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38, TESTS ON ROCK
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The behaviour of rock masses is often controlled by the nature of the
discontinuities present and their orientation to the stresses created b y the
works or during their construction. In most cases, the scale of disconthuitlis
is such that tests on laboratory specimens may yield results whch cannot be
appfied directly to the behaviour of the rock mass. In considering laboratory
tests on rock, a clear distinction needs to be made between tests which relate
to the behav~burof the ruck mass as affected b y the proposed constructhn
and tests which are relevant only to the rock materid.
Laboratory t e s t s on rock material a r e u n d e r t a k e n t o determine classi-
fication. s t r e n g t h a n d deformation parameters. Tests t o determine t h e basic
s h e a r s t r e n g t h of specific discontinuities may also be undertaken. Table 13
lists t h e r a n g e of common laboratory t e s t s on rock, t o g e t h e r with r e f e r e n c e s
and remarks on t h e i r use. Some of t h e s e t e s t s a r e reviewed in t h e
Geotechnical Manual f o r Slopes (GCO, 1984) a n d BSI (1981a). The significance
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of t h e size and quality of t h e sample, t h e t e s t conditions a n d t h e relevance of
t h e r e s u l t s , a s discussed in Chapter 37 f o r soils, also apply in general t o tests
on rock.
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REPORTS AND INTERPRETATION
PART V I
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39, FIELD REPORTS
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The essential requirement of a field r e p o r t i s t h a t i t should contain all
t h e d a t a necessary f o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t interpretation a n d u s e of t h e borehole
o r field test. Field r e p o r t forms should b e e a s y t o fill in a n d well laid o u t s o
as t o encourage t h e o p e r a t o r o r field s u p e r v i s o r t o record all necessary data.
Such forms can in many cases be based u p m t h e illustrative logs contained in
t h i s Geoguide, b u t t h e s e need not b e r e g a r d e d a s s t a n d a r d a s o t h e r forms may
also be satisfactory. Examples of o t h e r field r e p o r t forms can be found in BSI
(1981a).
The existing g r o u n d level, t h e location of a n y boreholes, a n d t h e location

a n d level of a n y points of sampling o r t e s t i n g , should always be recorded.
Where possible, t h e locations should t a k e t h e form of r e f e r e n c e coordinates
based on t h e Hong Kong Metric Grid a n d levels should b e r e f e r e n c e d t o t h e
Hong Kong Principal Datum.
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Daily r e p o r t s form t h e basis of good field r e p o r t s on r o t a r y drilling. I t
is not uncommon f o r drillers t o keep t h e i r r e c o r d s on odd s c r a p s of paper
while drilling i s in p r o g r e s s a n d t o make u p t h e i r daily r e p o r t forms from
t h e s e notes at t h e e n d of t h e day. This practice should b e s t r o n g l y
discouraged a n d t h e driller should b e provided with a s t a n d a r d notebook which
c a n , if necessary, be checked against t h e daily r e p o r t a t a l a t e r date.
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197
40, SITE INVESTIGATION REPORT
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Interpretation is a contrhuous process which shouM begin in the
prehhinary stages o f data coflectron and should proceed as information fm
the ground invesligation becomes available. By using this information J? 13
often possible to detect and resolve a n o d e s as fied and laboratory work
progresses. Engineering problems should be considered as the data becomes
available so that the engineer in charge of the ~nvestigationcan decide what
additional exploration and testing needs to be carried out or conversefy, where
appropriate, what reductions in his original programme are possible.
When an engineer~hginterpretatrun and recommendations are r e q u ~ i e d
the report is best prepared in two distinct and separate parts, one a
descriptive report covering theprocedures employed and the data obtained, and
the other the analysis, conclusions and recommendations. A general account o f
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the style and format of a report is given ekewhere (Palmer, 19571.
40.2 DESCRIPTIVE REPDRT

40.2.1 Report as Record
In preparing a report, it should always be remembered that a few

months after it is written, when all the samples have been destroyed or
rendered unrepresentative, the report w1jr1 be the o d y record of what was
found Generdy, the results will be presented in an appropriate format ln a
formal report, which shouh' be bound and issued in a number of copies. This
f o r d report wi// contain a description of the site and the procedures used,
together with tables and d~kgramsgiving the results. In additrbn, there w~jrl
be the field and laboratory report forms and data sheets, whkb provide a
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detaiM record of the data that were obtahed These forms are sametlines
not included in the f o r d report, but shoufd i n any case be preserved for a
suffic~entlylong periad so that they can be made a va~Yablefor reference when
necessary at a later date.
A copy of all descriptive reports should normally be lodged in t h e data
bank of the Geotechnical Information Unit ( s e e Appendix B).
40.2.2 Introduction
The report should have an introductron stating for whom the work was
done, the nature of the in vestigatron and its genera/ /ocatron, the purpose for
which the investigatrbn was made and the period o f trine over which the work
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was carfled out.
40.2.3 Description of Site

The report should contain an unambiguous description of the geogra-
phical location of t h e site, s o that the area covered by t h e investigation can
be located readily a t a later date. This should include street names together
with Hong Kong Metric Grid references and a location map a t an appropriate
scale. The description should also include general statements on site
conditions at the time of investigation.
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40.2.4 Geology
A n account should be given o f the geology o f the site, and the sources
from which the information was obtahed should be stated (see Section 4.21.
The amount of the data included w i l depend upon the nature of the work
being planned and also upon the amount of data available. The soil and rock
types identified and described in the report should be linked with the known
geology o f the site, see Geoguide 3 ( G C O , 1988).
40.2.5 Field Work
A n account should be given of the methods of investigation and testing

used. It should include a description o f a// equipment used. e.g. types o f
dr17iing rigs and took. A note should be made o f any d2Yficu/tls exper~enced.
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e.g. problems i n recovering samples. Tbe dates when the exploratory work was
done should also be recorded. together with a note about the weather
conditions where appropr~ate. The report shouh' contan a drawing indicating
the positions o f all pits, borehoks, field tests, etc. I t should contain
sufficient topographkal ~nformathnso that these positlbns can be located a t a
later date.
4#,2.6 Borehole Logs
1 Genera/. The final borehole logs should be based on the visual

examination and descriptrbn o f the samples, the laboratory test results where
appropriate, the drifler's da7y report forms and what I> known o f the geology
o f the site. Being an interpretation o f ground data which may at times be
confiicting. the logs should be finaiised only when the appropriate field and
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laboratory work has been conpleted. It IS important that dl relevant data
collected b y the driller, once checked and amended where necessary, shouM be
recorded.
The method of presentation o f the data IS a subject on whkh there can
be no hard and fast rules. In prhcip/e, the borehole logs shouh' give a
picture in diagrams and words o f the ground profi/e at the particular point
where the borehole was formed. The extent to which minor variations in soil
and rock types should be recorded. together with any disconthuities and
anomaiies, will depend on the various purposes for which the information wifl
be used.
Most organizations carrying out site investigation have standard forms
for borehole logs. It IS se/dom practicable in these to make aflowance for all
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data which may possibly need to be recorded. It is therefore h p o r t a n t that

an adequate space for remarks is available to allow a record to be made o f
items that are not specifically covered. An expedient which makes a standard
form rather more flexible is to leave one or more columns without headings so
that they can b e used according to the data to be recorded.
A l l borehole logs are a compromise between what it is desirable to
record and what can be accommodated. lu%ratis actually presented will need
to be considered i n d ' u a f l y for each inves&gatzon. Where the data are
copious, it may be preferable to record part o f them elsewhere ~hthe report,
with a cross-reference on the logs. The subsechons whkh follow indicate the
data which a well-prepared borehole log may contain.
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f2l General Data Common to A l l Logs. The foflowing should be
recorded on all logs :
/a) title of inveshgation,
/bl job number or report number.
fcl location detailed by grid references,
/a') date of exploration,
/el borehole number and sheet number. e.g. sheet 2 of 2
/// method of forming borehole, e.g. cable percussion or
rotary,
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fgl make and model of plant used,
( h ) ground level related to the Hong Kong Principal Datum,
fil d~ameterof borehole,

fJ'I dimeter of casing and depth to which the casing was
taken,
fkl a depth scale such that the depth of sampfing, tests and
change I R ground conditions can be readily determined,
/I, depth of termination of borehole,
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fml depths of observatlbn wells or piezometers, where these
have been ~hstalled, together with details of the
installation, preferably in the form of a diagram,
fnl groundwater levels measured subsequent to the com-
pletion of piezometers, unless recorded separately.
(3) Le.qend and Symbols. The ground profiles shouh' be illustrated by
means of a legend using the symbols ii'lustrated on figures in this document,
andmore fuflypresentedinGeoguide 3 (GCO, 1 9 8 8 ) . The legendis most
commonly placed near the centre of the sheet, which enables reduced levels,
depths, thicknesses and sampling data to be arranged conveniently on either
side. An alternative i s to have it a s the extreme right hand column, which
enabfes the logs of adJhcent and nearby boreholes to be readily compared
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wit3out fold~hgor cutting the sheets.

Apart from the symbols referred to above, no recommendahons are given
for the many other symbols required for the preparation of borehole logs.
Many different types are in use, and provided an adequate key is given with
every set of borehole logs, there shouh' be no difficulty in interpreting them.
The symbols may be given on a separate sheet or on each sheet Both
methods have advantages and corresponding disadvantages. The first saves
space on the actual logs, thus enabling a greater depth to be logged on each
sheet or a larger 'remarks' space to be provided. It does have the
disadvantage that the reader may need constantly to refer back to the key.
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f4l Light Cable Percuss~onBoring. For light cable percussion bor~hg,in
addition to the items referred to in Sections 40.2.6f21 and 40.2.6f3, the
foflowinq information should be recorded in the log :
fa/ A descr~bfionof each zone or materid type together
with its thickness.
fbl The depth and level of each change of zone or material
type.
fcl The depth of the top and bottom of each tube sample, or
bulk sample and its type (see Chapter 191; the depth of
each small disturbed sample.
/dl The deith at the top and bottom of each borehole test,
and the nature of the test.
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( e ) For standard penetration tests, it should always be noted
if the sampler has not been driven the full 450 rnrn
required for the test ( s e e Section 21.2.3).
ffl The date when each section was bored.
fgl A record of water leveh, including rate of rise of water

/eve/, depth of water in the borehole a t the start and
f i n i s h of a shift, and the depth of casing when each
observation was made.
fhl A record of any water added to facilitate boring.
5 Rotary Dr17fing. For rotary drilling, in additon to the items
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referred to i n Sectlbns 40.2.6f21 and 40.2.6f31, the following information should
be recorded in the log :
fa) A description of a// ground cond1Zi0n.s encountered

fbl The depth and level of each change in ground conditions.
fcl The depth of the start and finish of each core run.
fdl The core recovery for each run, usuafly expressed as
percentage total core recovery( G C 0 . 1988) .
fel For rock, the fracture state, expressed in terms of one

or more of the foflowing : rock quality designation
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/ROD), solid core recovery or fracture index ( G C O ,

1988).
ffl The date when each section of the core was drilled
fgl An indication of the drifling water recovery for each
core run, with a note on any change i n colour.
fhl A record of the depth of water in the hole a t the start

and finish of a shift and the depth of the casing, where
used, at the t h e the observafions were made.
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0 A record o f tests carried out, such a s permeability and
packer tests.
fj, The or~entationof the boreholes.

(8) Summary or Condensed Log. Where an investigation contains a
large number of deep boreholes, the full logs can add up to a substantial
weight of paper, and to include all of these in each copy of the report may be
unnecessary. An alternative i s to include only summarized o r condensed logs
in the report itself, provided these are sufficiently comprehensive and
significant details are not omitted.
An example of a borehole log is given in Figure 4 4 .
40.2.7 Incidence and Behaviour o f Groundwater
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/n order to obtain a clear understanding o f the incidence and behavbur
of groundwater, it is essential that al/ data collected on the groundwater
shouh' be included and that, where no groundwater was encountered, this too
should be recorded. &%ere the informaatlbn derived from boreholes is not too
voluminous, it is best included i n the logs. When this is not possible, the data
should be given elsewhere in the report and cross-referenced in the b o r e m e
logs. m e r e the pos12ion o f the borehole casing at the time o f an observation
is relevant, 12s positlbn should be stated All other data, including those from
separate observation wells or piezometers, should be given separately. Where
drMng with water or air flush has been used, this should be recorded and 12s
effect on groundwater levels should be assessed.
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The report should contan a plan showing the prec~selocation and top
level o f each borehole (see Chapter 39).
40.2.9 Laboratory Test Results and Sa&e Descr~pfions

Where test procedures are covered b y recognized standards, the
reporting o f the results shouM be in accordance with those standards, where
they are not so covered, relevant data should be given. For example, i n a
triaial compression test the actual numerical result on each specimen should
be given and not only the hterpreted parameters, Where an extensive
programme o f testing has been undertaken, a summary should be provided in
addition to the detailed results. The precise test carried out should a/so be
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stated without ambiguity. Where the test is reasonably standard, for instance
"consoLidaated drained t r ~ k i a compression
l test on 100 mm diameter samples';
the name alone wAl suffice, but where the test is not standard, a full
d e s ~ r ~ p should
t ~ ~ n be given.
The visual descriptions o f a// samples tested should appear i n the report.
The precise method o f recording them wifl depend upon circumstances. I t may
be convenient to show them on the same sheets as the results o f the
laboratory tests, or a separate table may be preferable.
In a n y e v e n t , t h e descriptions should all a p p e a r in one place. A t times,
t h e r e s u l t s of t h e laboratory t e s t s . a n d in particular t h e identification t e s t s ,
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will indicate a soil different from t h a t indicated b y t h e visual description.
The original description should not be discarded on t h a t account b u t should b e
p r e s e r v e d a s a record of t h e o b s e r v e r ' s opinion. If soil descriptions h a v e been
modified in t h e l i g h t of laboratory t e s t data, t h i s should b e indicated clearly
in t h e r e p o r t , s e e Geoguide 3 ( G C O , 1988). The laboratory r e p o r t forms a n d
d a t a s h e e t s should b e filed f o r possible f u t u r e r e f e r e n c e ( s e e Section 40.2.1).
40.3 ENGINEERING ZNTERPRETA TION
40.3,J Matters to be Covered
Methods o f analysing ground data and apply~hgthem to the solution o f

engineering problems are not covered ~n this Geoguide. Guidance on analysis
and application o f ground data may be found in various Britsh Standards (e.g.
BSI. 1965; 1973; 1974b; 1975a; 1977; 1981b; 1986) and localguidance documents
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(e.g. Geotechnical Manual f o r Slopes a n d Geoguide 1 ) . Sections 40.3.2 to 40.3.9
deal w12h the form o f the report, and fist the most common topics on which
advice and recommendations are required. Tbese sectJons also contain some
guidance on what shou/d be included. The topics are listed briefly under the
general headings :design, construction expedients, sources o f mater~als,and
f i e . It is M e l y that ~ i zmany cases the d e n t commiss~oning the
investigation wz7l indicate those aspects of the project on which he requires
advice and recommendations; the topics fisted below are intended as a guide
where t h z s may not have been done.
40.3.2 Data on which Interpretation is Based
fie data on which the analysis and recommendations are based shouh' be
clearly indicated. The information generafly comes under two separate
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head'ngs :
(a/ Information related to the project (which is usually
suppfied b y the des~gnerl.For example, for buiMings and
other structures this should include full details on the
/Oadlhg (including dead and five loadsl, column spacing
(where appropriate/, depth and extent of basements and
details o f neighbouring structures. For earthworks, the
he~gho t f embankments, the materials to be used and the
depths of cut slopes are relevant to the interpretatJon.
fb1 Ground parameters (which are usuafly selected from the
descriptive report by the engineer who performs the
analyszk and prepares the recommendatJbns). There is no
universally accepted method of selecting these
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parameters, but the following approach may he& to

arrive at refible values :
fil compare both laboratory and insitu test
results with ground descriptJons,
fiil cross-check, wherepossible, laboratory and
insitu results in the same ground,
hi2 colect individually acceptable results for
each ground unit, and decide repre-
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sentative values appropriate to the number
of results,
fivl where possible, compare the representative
values with pubfished data for similar
geological formathns or ground units.
40,3,3 Presentatrbn of Borehole Data
For the purpose of analys~s, it I> frequently necessary to make

simp/iying assumptions about the ground profile at the site. These are best
conveyed in a report by a series of cross sections i//ustrating the ground
profile, simpfified as requ~ked,and showing the groundwater levels. The
sections should preferably be plotted to a natural scale. I f it is necessary to
exaggerate the vertical scale, the mult~;Olyingfactor should be hinited to a void
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conveying a misleading impression. Mere the ground information is either
very var~kbleor too sparse to enable cross sechons to be prepared, indJ'v~'d~ia/
borehole logs plotted diagrammatically are an acceptable alternative. I f it is
particularly important to prepare cross sections, sparse and variable
informat~oncan sometimes be supplemented by means of hformation from
soundings and geophysical in v e s t i g a t h on areas between borehok. It can
be helpful to indicate relevant soil parameters on cross sechons, for example,
results of standard penetration tests, triaxial tests and representative
parameters from consoMation tests.
In certain engineering problems, i t may be useful t o c o n s t r u c t c o n t o u r s
of t h e bedrock a n d groundwater s u r f a c e s from borehole data. In marine
investigations, contours of t h e seabed. and contours a n d isopachs of t h e
various s t r a t i g r a p h i c units below t h e seabed, may b e c o n s t r u c t e d .
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40.3.4 Design
The following list, which is by no means exhaustive, fffdicatesthe topics

on which advice and recommendations are often requ~ked,and also what should
be included in the report.
(a) Slope stability: geological model; s h e a r s t r e n g t h
parameters; water p r e s s u r e s f o r t h e design condition;
assessment of risk t o life and economic r i s k ;
recommended slope angle. Comment should be made on
s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e a n d protection measures, a n d on a n y
s u b s u r f a c e drainage r e q u i r e d . For rock slopes, a n
assessment of potential failures d u e t o unfavourably
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orientated discontinuities should be made. Possible

methods of stabilizing local a r e a s of instability a n d
s u r f a c e protection measures should be recommended.
Advice on monitoring of potentially unstable slopes
should also b e given ( G C O . 1984).
(b) Retaining walls: e a r t h a n d water p r e s s u r e s ; passive a n d

frictional resistance; foundation bearing capacity, s e e
Geoguide 1 (GEO, 1993).
(c) Embankments: stabifity o f embankment foundahons;
assessment o f amount and rate o f settlement and the
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possibifity o f hastening 12 by such means as vertical
drains; recommendations f o r side shpes (see fa) abovel,.
choice of construction materiXs and methods.
fdl Drainage.' possible drainage methods during construction

f o r works above and below ground; general permanent
land drainage schemes f o r extensive areas.
(e) Basements: earth and water pressures on basement walls

and floor; comment on the possibility of flotation. An
estimate of the rise of the basement floor during
construction should be made. where appropriate.
If) P~i/es.' types o f piles suited to the ground prome and

environment; estimated safe working loads, or data from
which they can be assessed; estimated settlements o f
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structures.
fg) Ground anchors: bearing ground layer and eshhated safe

loads, or data from wh12 they may be calculated, e.g.
suitabifity tests (Brian-Boys & Howells, 1984).
/hl Pavement des~gn: design Cafiforn~kBearing Ratios; type

and thickness o f pavement; possibifity o f using soil
stabfization f o r forming pavement bases o r sub-bases;
recommendations, where appropriate, f o r sub -grade
drainage.
fi) Tunnels and underground works. methods and sequence

o f excavation; whether exca vahun is likely to be stable
without support,. suggested methods o f f i n g i n unstable
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excavahons; possible use o f rock bolting; possibi/ity o f
encountering groundwater, and recommendatrons f o r
deafing with it.. specia1 features f o r pressure tunnels.
fj) Safety o f neighbourhg structures: fikely amount o f

movement caused b y adbcent excavations and
groundwater lowering, compressed air working, grouhng
and ground freezing or other geotechnical processes.
The possibifity o f movement due to increased loading on
adjacent ground may also need to be considered
fkl Monitoring o f movements: need f o r measuring the

amount o f movement taking place i n structures and
slopes, together w12h recommendahons on the method to
be used (see Sectian 16.4); recommendahons f o r taking
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photographs before the commencement o f works (see

Section 4.1.21.
1 Chem~ealattack: protechon o f buried steel or concrete

against attack from aggressive soils and groundwater.
40,3.5 Construction Expedients
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comments and recommendabons are often required on the points listed
below. Safety aspects should be included where appropriate.
/al Open excavations; method and sequence o f excavabbn;
what support is needed; how to avoid 'boiling' and
bottom heave; esbhated upward movement o f floor of
excavation; relative merits o f sheet pihng and diaphragm
or contiguous bored p17e wa//s where appropriate.
/bl Underground excavations; method and sequence o f
excavation and the need for temporay roof and side
support.
/cl Groundwater: M e l y flow, head and quantity and how to
deal with 12.
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/d/ Driven piles, bored piles and ground anchors: methods o f
driving or construction suited t o the ground profile,
environment and neighbouring buildings.
/el Grouting: types o f grouts M e l y to be successful in the
ground and recommended method o f injecbon.
ftl Mechanical improvement of so17 below ground /eve/.
suitabifity of techniques for the consolidation o f loose
soils.
40.3.6 Sources o f Materjals

The foflow~hgare suggested :
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fa) F i f l possibility o f using excavated mater~hlfor filfing
with an assessment o f the proportions of usable materiak
methods and standards o f compaction; possible off-site
sources o f filk bulking factor.
(b) Filter materials, concrete aggregates, road base and
surfacing materials: possible sources and the suitability
of the materials from these sources.
Where site ~hves&gabonhas been undertaken ~han attempt to ~'denbyy

the cause o f faii'ures the undermenboned points may be relevant.
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fal Foundations: nature and d'hensions of the foundabbns;

idenbficathn o f the cause o f faihre and, where
appropriate, an estimate of the amount o f settlement
which has already occurred, together with an assessment
o f how much more is likely t o occur and its probable
effect on the structure; cause o f excessive vibrations of
machhe foundabbns; recommendations for remedial
measures.
fbl Landsfides: cc/assificatJbn o f the type o f movement and
locatfun of the fa~jrure planes; recommndathns for
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immediate stabifizing expedients and long term measures.
fcl Embankments: identification o f whether the seat of

faihre f i e within the embankment itself or the
under/yig foundatJun, the probable cause and suggested
method o f repair and strengthening.
fdl Retaining waLls; cause of failure or excessive defectJon;

forecast of future behaviour of wall and recommendations
where appropriate for strengthening it.
fe) Pavements; determfnation o f whether the f a k - e is

within the pavement itself or the sub-grade and
recommendations for repairs or strengthening or both.
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Where cdculations have been made, they shouM be included as an
append~k,or a clear indication o f the methods used shouM be given.
40.3.9 References
A l l pubfished works referred to h the report shouM be fisted.
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REFERENCES
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Addison, R . (1986). Geology of Sha Tin. 1:20 000 S h e e t 7. Hong Kong
Geological S u r v e y Memoir No. 1, Geotechnical Control Office. Hong
Kong. 85 p.
Akroyd. T.N.W. (1969). Laboratorv Testing in Soil Engineering. Soil Mechanics

Ltd. London, 249 p.
Allen. P.M. & Stephens. E.A. (1971). Report on t h e Geological S u r v e y of Hong

Kong, 1967-1969. Hong Kong Government P r e s s , 116 p, plus 2 maps.
American Public Health Association (1985). S t a n d a r d Methods f o r t h e

Examination of Water a n d Wastewater. (Sixteenth edition). P a r t 427-
Sulfide. American Public Health Association. Washington D.C.. p p 470-
478.
Table of Contents
Anderson. M.G. (1984). Prediction of Soil Suction f o r Slopes in Hong Kong.
G C O Publication No. 1/84. Geotechnical Control Office. Hons Kons,
Anderson, M.G., McNicholl, D.P. & Shen, J.M. (1983). On t h e effect of

topography in controlling soil water conditions. with specific r e g a r d t o
c u t slope piezometric levels. Honq Kong Engineer, vol. 11. No. 11.
p p 35-41.
A r t h u r , J.R.F. P Roscoe. K.H. (1961). An e a r t h p r e s s u r e cell f o r t h e

measurement of normal a n d s h e a r s t r e s s e s . Civil Engineering a n d Public
Works Review, vol. 56, p p 765-776.
ASTM (1985a). Standard test method f o r penetration test a n d s p l i t - b a r r e l

sampling of soil. Test Designation D1586-67. 1985 Annual Book of
Table of Contents
ASTM Standards. American Society f o r Testing a n d Materials.
Philadelphia, vol. 04.08, p p 298-303.
ASTM (1985b3. S t a n d a r d test method f o r density a n d u n i t weight of soil i n -

place b y t h e r u b b e r balloon method. Test Designation D2167-84. 1985
Annual Book of ASTM S t a n d a r d s , American Society f o r Testing a n d
Materials. Philadelphia, vol. 04.08, pp 342-347.
ASTM ( 1 9 8 5 ~ ) . S t a n d a r d t e s t method f o r triaxial compressive s t r e n g t h of

undrained rock core specimens without pore p r e s s u r e measurements.
Test Designation D2664-80. 1985 Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
American Society f o r Testing a n d Materials, Philadelphia, vol. 04.08.
p p 429-434.
ASTM (1985d). S t a n d a r d t e s t method f o r laboratory determination of pulse

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velocities a n d ultrasonic elastic c o n s t a n t s of rock. Test Designation

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81 p.
Ward. W.H., Burland, J.B. & Gallois. R.W. (1968). Geotechnical assessment of a
s i t e at Munford, Norfolk, f o r a l a r g e proton accelerator. ~ g o t e c h n i a u e ,
vol. 18. p p 399-431.
Table of Contents
Way, D.S. (1978). Terrain Analysis - A Guide t o Site Selection Usinq Aerial
Photoqraphic Interoretation. (Second edition). McGraw Hill, New York,
438 p.
Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M. (1983). Site investigation manual. Construction
I n d u s t r y Research & Information Association Special Publication no. 25 /
PSA Civil Enqineerinn Technical Guide no. 35. 144 p.
Whiteside, P.G.D. (1986). Horizontal plate loading tests in completely

decomposed granite. Hong Kong Engineer. vol. 14, no. 10, p p 7-14
(Discussion, vol. 14, no. 10, p. 1 4 a n d vol. 15, no. 2, p p 37-39, 48).
Whyte. I.L. (1984). The quality of U l O O sampling. Proceedinqs of t h e 20th

Renional Meeting of t h e Enqineering Group of t h e Geological Society,
Table of Contents
Guildford. U K . p p 419-423. (Published as Site Investiqation Practice :

Assessinn BS 5930. edited b y A.B. Hawkins, Geological Society,
Engineering Geology Special Publication no. 2, 1986). (Also published
in p r e p r i n t vol. 1, p p 485-494).
Wilson, N.E. (1963). Laboratory v a n e s h e a r t e s t s a n d t h e influence of pore

water s t r e s s e s . Laboratory S h e a r Testing of Soils. American Society of
Testinq a n d Materials. Special Technical Publication no. 361. p p 377-385.
Windle, D. I Wroth. C.P. (1977). The use of a self-boring pressuremeter t o
determine t h e undrained properties of clays. Ground Enqineerins.
vol. 10. no. 6, pp 37-46.
Table of Contents
Winter, E. (1982). Suggested practice for pressuremeter testing in soils.
Geotechnical Testina Journal, vol. 5, no. 3/4, pp 85-88.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
TABLES
[BLANK PAGE]
227
Table of Contents
L I S T OF TABLES
Table Page
No. No.
1 Selected Maps, Plans and Aerial Photographs
Available from the Lands Department
2 Aerial Photographs Available from the
Lands Department (two sheets)
3 Guidance on Site Investigation for Slopes and
Retaining Walls in Hong Kong
4 Content of Site Investigation for Slopes
Table of Contents
Retaining Walls in Hong Kong
5 Sizes of Commonly-used Core-barrels, Casing
and Drill Rods Used in Hong Kong
6 Principal Causes of Soil Disturbance
7 Mass of Soil Required for Various Laboratory
Tests
8 Expected Sample Quality from Different
Sampling Procedures for Hong Kong Materials
9 Soil Sample Quality Classification
Table of Contents
10 Evaluation of Piezometer Types
11 Field Geophysical Techniques Used in Ground
Investigations
12 Tests on Soils and Groundwater (four sheets)
13 Tests on Rock
Table of Contents
[BLANK PAGE]
- -
229
Table 1 - Selected M a ~ s .Plans and Aerial Photographs Available from the

Lands kpartment
Table of Contents
Number Price
Size Series
Coverage of (mml No. Per COPY
Sheets 1987 HK$
Full HPlC
NT & Islands -
Table of Contents
Urban
Urban & NT
Urban &
NT Townships
Urban, Shatin,
Tsuen Wan &
Tsing Yi
Kowloon
Hong Kong
Table of Contents
Full HM2OC
Full HM50CL
HM50CP
Full HMlOOCL
Full HMZOOCL
Full
Map Sheet 7 HGM2O

& 11
Table of Contents
Full
*
-
I Legend :
See Figure 3 for full programme of the new geological survey

See Table 2 for further details
Table 2 - Aerial Photographs Available from the Lands Department
(sheet 1 of 2, large scale photographs)
Table of Contents
*
I
p~
Approximate
Year
4
Coverage 1%) Remarks
1924 Approx. I:1L 000

I30
Medium t o l o w r e s o l u t i o n . s i n g l e f r a m e s
w i t h incidental stereo overlap.
Medium t o good resolution.

1945 Almost a l l a r e a s except east - w e s t s t r i p
f r o m Tuen Mun t o Sai Kung.
19L9
30 1 Good r e s o l u t i o n . Excellent coverage of
north-west New Territories. Good coverage
of lowland areas.
1956
I Good resolution some s t e r e o overlap.
Table of Contents
;
1959
1961
lo 1 Good resolution ; small relief exaggeration.
Excellent resolution. f u l l stereo coverage.

1963 Coverage of a l l areas except M a i Po t o
Sha Tau Kok.
1964 40 I Coverage o f t r u n k r o a d s .
1967
20 1 Coverage o f m a i n Urban Area o n l y .
1
Table of Contents
1968 - 1971 Coverage of Urban Areas.
20
1972
30 I Coverage of trunk roads.
1973
90 I Urban Areas only
Most of Territory.
1974
30 1 Coverage of n o r t h - w e s t and west
New Territories .
1975
30 1 Coverage of north west and west
New Territories.
-
Table of Contents
1976
b0 I Coverage of Urban Areas and New Towns.
1977
I Detailed coverage of north-west and north
New Territories plus New Towns.
1978 Annual coverage of Urban Areas i n c l u d i n g

t0 60
present New Towns and lowland areas.
Table 2 - Aerial Photographs Available from the Lands Department
(sheet 2 of 2, high altitude photographs)
Table of Contents
Approximate
Year Coverage (%) Remarks
HKI I K
1954 Good resolution
Excellent resolution. Mosaic of aerial

196L photographs available. East to west
flight lines. L to 5 k m a p a r t .
1973 Good resolution. East to west flight lines

3 to Skm a p a r t .
Table of Contents
1974 - 1976 Good resolution. Annual coverage.
East to west flight lines. 1 to L k m apart.
Obliques Obliques only of Urban Area. Coverage of

1977 only Lantau, west New Territories and Sha Tin.
1978 Complete coverage.
1980 Southern h a l f of Territory only
Table of Contents
Complete coverage.
1981
Urban Area and Lantau only
1982 Complete coverage
Complete coverage.
1983
Almost complete coverage.
Coverage of Urban Area. Clearwater Bay

198L
and S a i Kung Peninsula.
Table of Contents
1986 Complete coverage

Table 3 - Guidance o n Site Investigation for Slopes and Retaining Walls
in Hong Kong
Table of Contents
S. I. Class Boundaries for Different Features
Other Features
Soil F i l l Slope
S.I.Class
Table of Contents
Rock Retaining Wall
I
Legend :
H Height of feature
Table of Contents
0 Angle o f feature
oc Angle of natural hillside
(Table L)
Cut slope Retaining wall

....
Notes : ( 1 ) This Table i s intended t o provide general guidance o n l y . I t should be read

Table of Contents
in conjunction w i t h Table 4 . Each situation must be a s s e s s e d on i t s own

merits t o decide on the appropriate scope o f the S . I . . More or l e s s intensive
S.I. than that recommended m a y be required, depending on t h e particular
site conditions.
1 2 ) Irrespective o f t h e above S.I. c l a s s boundaries, the l e a s t stringent
5.1. c l a s s for different r i s k categories should be Class 1 for 'High' r i s k .
Class 2 tor ' L o w ' risk and Class 3 f o r 'Negligible' r i s k . The risk categories
are those given in t h e Geotechnical Manual for Slopes IGCO, 198LI and
should be assessed w i t h reference t o both the present use and the
development potential of t h e s i t e .
Table 4 - Content of S i t e Investigation for Slopes and Retaining Walls
in Hong Kong
Table of Contents
Angle of Natural Hillside in the Vicini of the Site, oc
Greater than 40"
A 61 C1 D E l F1 GI
8 2 C2 E2 F2 G2
E3 G3
Detailed topographical and As for 0 ' t o 20'. Survey of As for 20' t o 40'. Extend
geological survey o f t h e s i t e boulders and hydrological investigation more widely
and i t s surroundings. Stabilit: features affecting the site. outside Limits of s i t e t o
analysis of features w i t h i n Extend investigation Locally permit s t a b i l i t y analysis of
the site, using strength and outside Limits of s i t e t o features above and below
groundwater parameters permit s t a b i l i t y analysis of the slte.
obtained f r o m the investigation features above and below
the site.
Table of Contents
Topographical and geological AS f o r 0' t o 20'. Survey of As f o r 20' t o 40'. Extend
survey of t h e s i t e and i t s boulders and hydrological investigation outside l i m i t s
surroundings. Stability analysis features affecting the s i t e . of s i t e t o permit s t a b i l i t y
of features within the site. analysis o f features above
For f i l l slopes steeper than and below t h e s i t e .
1 on 3 , remoulded strength
tests on f i l l should be carried
out.
B1 D A B1 C1 D
8 2 C2 G2 82 C2 E2 F2 G2
E3 G3 E3 G3
Assessment of surrounding As for 0'to 20'. w i t h survey As for 20'to 40'. Area outsidc
topography and geology f o r o f topography and geology, t h e s i t e boundary should
mdication of s t a b i l i t y . Visual including survey of boulders also be examined for potentia
Table of Contents
examination of geologica 1 and hydrological features instability.
materials . affecting the site.
4. Examination of terrestrial photographs. E. Sampling

a e r i a l photos and geological maps 1 . q u a l i t y c l a s s Io r 2
3. Survey o f 2 . quality class 3
1. boulders and hydrological features 3 . quality class G
2. topographical, geological and F. Field measurements o f
s u r f a c e drainage features 1 , permeability
:. Mapping o f 2 . pore pressures
1 . geological structures G. Laboratory t e s t s
2 . s u r f a c e features I . i n t a c t strength t e s t s f o r soils and
r o c k j o i n t s , remoulded s t r e n g t h
1. Ground i n v e s t i g a t ~ o n ,such a s t r i a l
Table of Contents
t e s t s for f i l l
p i t s , boreholes, c o r i n g , probing and
2 . d e n s i t y t e s t s for f i l l materials
piezometer installations. as appropriate
3 . classif icationlindex t e s t s
Notes: ( 1 1 T h i s t a b l e i s intended t o provide general guidance o n l y . It should

be read in conjunction w i t h Table 3 .
( 2 ) Installation of instruments f o r long t e r m monitoring o f ground
displacements and pore pressures should be considered during
t h e s i t e investigation s t a g e .
Table of Contents
Table 5 - Sizes of Commonly-used Core-barrels, Casings and Drill Rods Used in Hong Kong
Core - barrels Casings Drill Rods
-
Double tube Triple -tube Flush - jointed -
Flush coupled
I
43%
Nominal Diameter Nominal Diameter Coupling
Design
n;i; Design
Table of Contents
NMLC
*
Mazier 7L 101
**
3C-MLC 76 11 1
Table of Contents
Legend :
* With retractor shoe OD Outer diameter
** With or without retractor shoe ID Inner diameter
Notes : ( 1 ) This l i s t i s not exhaustive and should not i m p l y t h e exclusion of other recognised core b a r r e l s and
Table of Contents
casing I r o d s systems.
( 2 ) For additional information, reference can be made t o BS LO19 : Part 1 (BSI 197La) on r o t a r y core d r i l l i n g
equipment and Figure 29 of BS 5930 ( BSI ,1981a 1 .
( 3 I A l l dimensions are rn millimetres.
23 5
Table 6 - Principal Causes of Soil Disturbance
Table of Contents
Before Sampling During Sampling After Sampling
Stress relief Stress relief Stress relief
Swelling Remoulding Migration of water

within the sample
Compaction Displacement Loss of moisture
Displacement Shattering Overheating
Table of Contents
Base heave Stones at the cutting shoe Vibration
Piping Mixing or segregation Chemical changes
Caving Failure to recover Disturbance during

extrusion
Note : Table adapted from Clayton et a l (1982).
Table 7 - Mass of Soil Required for Various Laboratory Tests
Table of Contents
Mass of
Purpose of Sample Soil Type
Sample Required
Soil indentification. including Clay, silt, sand

Atterberg limits; sieve analysis;
moisture content and
sulphate content tests Fine and medium gravel
Coarse gravel
Compaction tests All

Table of Contents
Comprehensive examination Clay, silt, sand

of construction materials,
including soil stabilization
Fine and medium gravel
Coarse gravel
Note : Table taken from BS 59: 0 ( BSI, 1981a

Table 8 - Expected Sample Quality from Different Sampling Procedures
for Hong Kong Materials
-
Table of Contents
xpectec
Material Type Typical Composition Sampling procedure Quality
of Materials Class
Soils derived Composition of soils varies Hock sample fr'om dry excavation
from insitu depending on the nature of Large diameter triple-tube core-barrel
rock weathering parent rock material. S o i l s 1102mm diameter cores) w i t h retractor
derived from granitic rock are shoe, air-foam f l u s h
usually s i l t y and clayey sands
s o i l s derived from volcanic Iriple-tube core-barrel ( 374mm
rock are usually sandy and diameter cores) with retractor shoe
clayey s i l t s . UlOO sampler
SPT split barrel sampler w i t h or
without liner
3ulk samples and jar samples from
dry open excavation
Light percussion shell and chisel
for boulders
Table of Contents
Colluvium Fresh or variably decomposed The sampling procedures for soils
rock fragments (boulders. derived from insitu rock weathering
cobbles and gravels) within PPP~Y.
a matrix of varying proportions
of sand, silt and clay
Alluvial and The following materials

marine deposits can be found :
[ a ) Granular soils (sands, Piston sampler or compressed air
silty sands or sandy s i l t s ) sand sampler
UlOO sampler ( w i t h core-catcher)
SPT split barrel sampler
Light percussion shell
(b) Very s o f t to soft cohesive Piston sampler
soils (sandy clays, s i l t y Thin-walled sampler
clays or c l a y s )
UIOO sampler
Table of Contents
Delft continuous sampler
Light percussion clay cutter ( d r y
boreholes) or shell ( w e t boreholes)
t c ) F i r m to very stiff Triple-tube core-barrel w i t h
cohesive s o i l s retractor shoe
UlOO sampler
Light percussion clay cutter
[ d l Cohesive and granular The sampling procedures for s o i l s
soils containing boulders. derived from insitu rock weathering
cobbles or gravel apply.
Fill Variable material. which can See sampling procedures for relevant
include compacted or soil type and composition under 'Alluvial
uncompacted soil, rock and Marine Deposits' above.
I fragments and building
debris mixtures
IRock
Table of Contents
A l l rock types found in Hong Diamond core drilling with double or

Kong, including boulders in triple-tube core-barrel. The latter
colluvium generally causes less disturbance and
gives better core recovery, especially in
highly fractured or jointed rocks.
Notes : ( I ) The typical composition of materials should only be taken a s a general guide.
( 2 ) The quality c l a s s e s are defined i n Table 9.
( 3 ) The expected q u a l i t y c l a s s e s g i v e n should only be t a k e n a s a guide. a s
sample quality i s highly dependent on workmanship and on the compactness
tor consistency) and grading of the s o i l .
Table 9 - Soil Sample Quality Classification
Table of Contents
Soil Properties that
Sample Quality
Can Be Reliably Determined
Class 1 Classification, moisture content, density,

strength, deformation and consolidation
characteristics
Table of Contents
Class 2 Classification, moisture content, density
Class 3 Classification, moisture content
Class L Classification Table of Contents
Class 5 None (approximate sequence of

materials only 1
Table of Contents
Notes : I1 1 Large diameter class 1 and class 2 samples are often sufficient
to allow the ' f a b r i c ' of the soil to be examined. Sometimes
t h i s moy also be done using class 3 and class L samples.
(21 Remoulded properties c a n be obtained using class 1 to class L
samples.
( 3 I Table taken from BS 5930 ( BSI ,1981a 1.
Table of Contents
Table 10 - Evaluation of Piezorneter T y p e s
-
U
m
$ 1 Piezometer
Type I Pressure
Range I
Responsc
Time
De-airing
Capability
Remote
Reading
Capability
Long-term
Reliability
Advantages
Other
Disadvantages
Recommendations
First choice for measurement

Cheop, simple to
Open-
hydraulic
''z,"idpipe
Atmospheric
Of
Slow
Self
de-airing
Not normally.
but possible
with bubbler
Very good
reod 8 maintain;
Vandal damage
insitu permeability often irreparable,
within positive pressure rangc
unless rapid response or remot'
reading required; response
(Casagronde) measurement peaks can be detected by us1
system
possible. of Halcrow buckets system.
Depends on pressure
measuring system Gauqe house usually
Table of Contents
Closed- 1) Mercury manometer -
insitu
Fairly permeability
cheap ;
required; regular
hydraulic Any very good de-airing necessary;
tan be Useful when remote reading.
[Low air positive Moderate Yes 2 ) Bourdon gauge - poor uncovered tubing
de-aired ~ ~ , " be ~ m ~ ~ n for artesian pressures.
entry pressure in humid atmosphere liable to rodent
pressure) 3) Pressure transducer - made attack or damage
moderate but easily if required' if left exposed.
reploced
Fairly cheap;
insitu permeability AS very
Useful for meosuring small
[High oir to ony Moderote Can be Yes As above mwsurements ,n regular de-airing
de-alred required when suctions.
a entry positive low permeability
measuring suctions.
pressure) pressure soil are
Cann-ot be Yes No method of
CC Pneumatic positive Rapid

de-o,red;only
partipt!y self
some head
loss over
Moderate to poor, but
very littlelong term
Fairly cheap;
no gouge house
checking jf pore water
Or 'Ore 'Ir pressure
Only suitable when tip almos'
always below groundwater leve
Table of Contents
pressure de-alrlng experience available required. i s measured. and no large suctlons occur.
long
Signal quality degenerates
Electric Yes, but w ~ t htime; instrument As above; expensive;
Any life about ten years, but -
vibrating positive Rapid As above special cable reliability of instrument ~Z';~/;;'J$# Not generally recommended.
wire type pressure requlred that cannot be checked be checked.
is always suspect
Yes, but with
As core because Poor - As above. Not recommended.
of transmission
pressure losses
Cheop. simple to
Vandal damage Often First choice for meosuring
Can be
de-owed Yes Good read and maintain. irreparable; pore suction.
Table of Contents
de-airing required.
Instrument life one to
Not Short two years; little long Not accurate
Below -1 -
Variable between 0 and -1 Research stage at the momer
relevant distances only term experience
available atmosphere.
Table of Contents
Table 1 1 - Field Geophysical Techniques U s e d in Ground Investigations
Technique Application Remarks

-- - -- - - -
Seismic refraction Mapping of subsurface m a t e r ~ a linterfaces (including A hammer impulse may be used for shallow Investlgatlons, but
groundwater table). Determination of compression explosive charges are needed for deep investigations (>30mJ.
wave velocities. Location of geological features Excessive background 'noise' may preclude surveys a t some
(e.g. f a u l t s a n d caverns ). sites. May be unreliable unless velocities increase with depth
and bedrock surface i s regular. Variable weathering patterns
often complicate interpretation. Data are indirect and represent
averages.
Table of Contents
Seismic direct methods Determination of m a t e r i a l properties of the ground Uphole, downhole and crosshole surveys are carried out.
(sonic wave velocities, dynamic moduli and rock- Data are indirect and represent averages, and may be affected
mass q u a l i t y ). Location of geological features. by other m a s s characteristics.
Electrical resistivity Mapping of subsurface material interfaces (including Variable weathering patterns often complicate interpretation.
saltwater boundaries). Estimation of soil resistivity Water t a b l e location often limits the depth for practical study
(hence corrosivity). Location of geological features. a s conductivity rises sharply i n saturated m a t e r i a l s & makes
and underground cavities, e.g. disused tunnels. differentiation between horizons impossible.
Gravimetric I Location of geological features. I Normally used only to locate cavities, e.g. i n k a r s t terrain.
Magnetic Location of buried metalliferous man-made objects Large scale surveys are generally carried out from an aircraft.
(e.g. cables and pipelines) and geological features.
Table of Contents
Seismic reflection Mapping of the seabed and material interfaces Long continuous traces can be obtained. Background 'noise',
below t h e seabed. s o l i d waste on the seabed, gas bubbles trapped within
sediments, and variable weathering patterns often complicate
interpretation. Does not provide sound velocities. Computation of
depths to interfaces requires velocity d a t a obtained by other
means, e.g. borehole correlation. laboratory tests (Table 13).
Side scan sonar

I Mapping of the seabed (surface only). Location of rock The technique does not give accurate distances or depths to an
---I
Magnetic
-
outcrops, gravel deposits, pipelines, wrecks, etc.
Location of metalliferous man-made objects on or

below the seabed (including sunken vessels).
object, and i s generally used a s a search tool only.
Sunken objects on the seabed can render the location of

specific objects d i f f i c u l t .
Table of Contents
Echo sounding Bathymetric mapping to determine water depths. Suspended sediments created by dredging the seabed can render
the dredged levels obtained by t h i s method unreliable.
The trace obtained by the echo sounder should be checked
against depths obtained by conventional methods, e.g. by the
use of a gravity corer.
Table of Contents
Table 12 - Tests on Soils and Groundwater (sheet 1 of 4 )
Name Recommended
Remarks
of Test References
Moisture content .
BS 1377 IBSI 1975 b l Frequently used i n the determination of soil properties. e.g, dry density. degree of saturation.
Test l ( A l , Soils containing halloysitic clays. gypsum or calcite con lose water of c r y s t a l l ~ s o t ~ owhen
n heated.
Geotechnlcal Manual for Slopes and should be dried o l various temperatures ta assess the effect on determination of moisture content.
(GCO. 198LI.
Seclion 3.2.2
Table of Contents
Liquid and p l a s t ~ cl l m ~ l s BSI 11975b) Test 21AI Used to classify fine-grained soils and as an aid i n classifying the fine fraction of mixed soils
(Atterberg limits) or 2181 and Test 3; Soils containing halloysitic clays must be tested o t natural moisture content.
Geotechnical Manual for Slopes
Section 3 2 . 3
Lineor shrinkage BSI 11975bl Test 5 Used to detect the presence of expansive clay minerals. Limited application i n Hong Kong.
Speclftc gravity BSi l1975b) Test 6 ; Frequently used i n the determination of other properties. e.g. void ratio, particle size d t s t r ~ b u t i o n
Geotechnical Manual for Slopes. by sedimentation
Section 3.2.L;
Lambe 11951 1 Chapter 2
Table of Contents
Particle size d i s t r l b u t ~ o n: Wide application i n Hong Kong i n the classification of s o ~ l s .
lo1 Sieving la1 BSI 11975 b l Test 7 I A ) ; l a ) Sieving gives the groding of so11 coarser than silt. Care is required with soils derived from insitu
Geotechnical Manual for rock weothermg, to ovold crushing of soil grains during disaggregation. The standard method of
Slopes, Section L.6; dry slevlng IBSI, 1975 b Test 7 I B l I i s not recommended for general use In Hong Kong. As a variation
B r ~ a n -Boys e t a l 119861 to the standard method of wet sieving 1851. 1975b Test 71AI). i t will be appropriate to exclude the
Clause 5.1 use of dispersont when determining particle size distribution for certaln appllcatlons. e.g. for
designing filters. and i n selecting fill for reinforced fill structures.
I b l BSI I1975 b l I b l The proportion of the soil passing the finest sleve 163 p m l represents the combined silt and cloy
Test 7lC) or 71D); fraction. The relative proportions of silt and clay can only be determined by sedimentation.
Geotechnical Manual for
Slopes. Section 3.2.5
Table of Contents
Laboratory vane shear Wilson 11963) A useful test for c l a s s ~ f y l n gsllts and clays i n term of consistency See also Geoguide 3 (GCO. 19881.
Table of Contents
Table 12 - T e s t s on Soils and Groundwater ( s h e e t 2 of 4 )
--
Category Name Recommended
Remarks
of Test of Test References
- - --
Organic matter content 851 11975bl Test 8 Detects the presence of organic molter. which can :
l i t interfere with the hydration of Portland cement In soil -cement pastes.
i i i ) influence shear strength. bearing copocity and compressibility.
l i i i ) influence the magnitude of the correction foctar require when using nuclear methods to estimate the
insitu ma~sturecontent of sails IASTM. 1985hl.
L
0 l i v l promote microbiological corrosion of buried steel.
*
:
u Sulphate content : These tests assess the aggressiveness of soil and groundwater to burled concrete ond steel. Local
Table of Contents
C
2 'a) Totol sulphate content of la1 BSI 11975 b l Test 9 experience indicates that sulphate content of Hong Kong soils is generally low. Therefore Test 9 of
e
0
so11 8.51 11975 b l IS normally adequate.
Ib) Sulphote ion content of I b l BSI 11975 b l Test 10
'D groundwater and oqueous
C sod extracts
0
-In
.-
0 Total sulphide content of American Public Health Assesses the aggressiveness of soil and groundwater to buried steel
V) groundwater and aqueous soil Association 119851 Part 427
extracts
C
-
0
In
m
0
pH value BSI ( 1975 b l Test 11 IA1 Assesses the aggressiveness of sol1 and groundwoter to buried concrete and steel.
I-
X Chloride Ion content Department of Transport Assesses :
Table of Contents
L 119761 Clause 2 7 2 2 lil the aggressiveness of soil to buried concrete and steel
.-> l i i ) the suitability of tone aggregate for use i n concrete.
;
In
e
L
0
0 Carbonale content Road Research Laboratory The reference describes the method using the Collins calcimeter
'D (19521
C
-
0
0
Resistivity Brion- Boys et a1 119861
Clause 5.L
Assesses the potentiol far electrochemical corroston of buried steel. The quoted reference gives a test
method for compacted f i l l . a s opposed to field measurement using the four electrode method (see Section
.-0 33.2 11. Corrosion of steel i n soils is discussed i n BSBOOL IBS1.1986) and King 119771.
E,
r
0 Redox potential Brian - Boys et a l (1986 1 Assesses the likelihood of sulphote reductng bacteria' being present, which promote microbiological corrosion
.
Table of Contents
Clouse 5.5 of buried steel. The quoted reference gives a test method for compocted fill 0s opposed to field measurement.
which is described i n CPt021 iBS1.19731.
Bocter~ological tests BSI 119731 Undisturbed specimens should be stored ~n olr-sealed, sterilized containers.
Table of Contents
-
ategory Name Recommended
Remarks
)f Test of Test References
Trioxlol compression tests The qulck undralned test gwes undrolned shear strength I n terms of t o t a l stresses, and has appl~catlont o
s h o r t - t e r m s t a b ~ l ! t yand b e a r ~ n gcapaclty analyses E f f e c t ~ v estress onalysls 15 relevant t o most solls and
la1 Quick undrained
( b l Consolidated drained
la1 BSI 11975 b l Test 21
( b l Bishop 8 Henkel 119761
engmeertng appllmtlons ln Hong Kong . consequently the consolldated dramed test or consalldated undrolned
test w ~ t hmeasurement of pore water pressure should generally be used Tests should be c a r r ~ e dout In
l c l Consolidated undrained I c l Geatechnlcal Manual for t h e stress range appropriate to the analysls
w i t h measurement of pore Slopes, Sections 3.7 and For saturated cloys w ~ t hundra~nedshear strength less than about 75 k P o , the l n s ~ t upenetratlon vane test
water pressure 3.8 ; Heod 119861 1 see S e c t ~ o n21 3 1 , used I n conjunction wlth the cone penetratlon test I see Sectlon 23 3 I. will normally
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be the best method for measuring undromed shear strength
A number o f other t r m x l a l tests are possrble. e g follure by mcreasmg pore pressure. decreasing KT3 e t c
T r l a x ~ a l tests can also be used t o f m d KO
Direct shear test Akroyd 119691; ASTM 11985 il A u s e f u l and practical alternotwe to the consolldoted drotned t r ~ a x ~ otest
l for sheor strength measurements
Geotechnical Manual for Slopes on fill c o l l u v ~ u mand 5011s derlved from weather~ng of rock ~ n s l t u The test speclmen can be orlented to
Sections 3.7 and 3.9 ; measure shear strength on o pre-determmed plane The m o p l l m l t o t ~ o no f the test I S t h e speclmen
Heod I1986 1 thickness whlch governs the maxlmum portlcle srze that c o n be tested Common speclmen slzes ore 60 mm
and 100 mm square by 2Omm thlck The less common 60mm dlometer by 20mm thlck and 300mm
square by 160mm thlck dlrect sheor boxes hove olso been used In Hong Kong
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Consolidotion These tests yleld soil parameters from whlch the amount and time scale of settlements con be calculated
l o 1 One-dimensional la1 BSI 11975 b l Test 17 The simple oedometer test 15 the one i n general u s e . Although reosonoble assessment of settlement can
consolidotlon be made from the results of the test, estimotes of the time scale hove been found t o be extremely
( oedometer test I
inaccurate for some s o i l s . This i s particularly true for cloy s o ~ l scontaining layers and partings of slit
and sand, where t h e horizontal permeability 1s much greater than the uertlcal . I n these cases, more
I b l Triaxial consolidation I b l Bishop 8 Henkel (19761 reliable data moy be obtoined from tests In tho Rowe c e l l , which i s ovolloble In slzes up t o 250 mm
I c l Rowe c e l l I c l Rowe B Barden 119661; diameter and where a larger and potentially more representative sample of soil can be tested
Head 119861 (see Section 1 2 . 5 1 . Another olternotrve 1s to obtain values of permeobility. k from rnsltu p e r m e o b ~ l l t y
tests, and combme them w i t h coefficients of volume decrease, m, obtained from the simple oedometer test
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Modulus of deformation Heod 11986 1 Values of the modulus of deformatlon of sol[ can b e obto~ned f r o m t h e s t r e s s - s t r a l n curves from trloxlal
compression tests, where the test specimens hove been consolldated under effective stresses wrrespondlng
t o those In t h e field However, values obtolned In thls way frequently do not correlate well w l t h
I n s ~ t uobservot~ons I t IS now generally considered t h a t the p l a t e test ( s e e Sectton 21 6). the pressuremeter
I see Sectlon 21 7 ) and back onalysls of exlstmg structures y ~ e l dmore rellable results
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Nome Recommended
Remarks
of Test References
Permeability :
la1 Constant head f a ) Akroyd 119691 The constant head test is suited only to soils of permeability roughly within the range l ~ - ~ r n ltos 10-*mls.
permeability test For soils of lower permeability the falling head test is opplfcoble. For various reasons, principally sample
I b l Falling head f b l Akroyd 119691 size and ground varlobllity, laboratory permeability tests often yield results of limited value, and insitu
permeability test tests should generally yleld more representative data l s e e Section 21.L). The Rowe cell allows the direct
measurement of permeability by a constant head, with a bock pressure and confining pressures more closely
I c l Triaxial permeability test f c l Bishop 8 Henkel 119761; consistent with the field state, and by both vertical and radial flow.
Head 119861
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I d ) Rowe cell Id1 Head 119861;
Rowe Borden 11966)
Dry density 1 moisture content 851 11975b1 Tests 12. 13 Indicates the degree of compaction that can be achieved at different molsture contents and with
relationship and 14 different compactive effort. Test 12 is commonly used i n Hong Kong. It is carried out in conjunction
with determinotions of insitu dry density I ASTM. 1985b; ASTM. 1985e; ASTM. 1985h; 851. 1975b Test 15;
see also Chapter 271.
California bearing ratio ICBRl Akroyd f19691. This is an empirical test used i n the design of flexible pavements. The test con also be curried out
051 (1975 b l Test 16 lnsitu l see Section 29.6 I, but the results may be substantially different from the laboratory test due
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to the difference i n the confining condition. especially for sands.
Double oedometer test Hilf 119751; Holtz f19f.81 Assesses the potential for soils to collapse on wetting
Double hydrometer test Decker 8 Dunnigan 11977 1 Used to identify disperswe soils. i n order to assess the potential for dispersive piping and internal
ldispersion lest l eroslon to occur i n slopes and earth structures. The different tests M y not give consistent indications
Exchangeable sodium Flanagan 8 Holmgren 119771 of dispersion. consequently i t i s advisable to use more than one test method.
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percentage test
Emerson crumb test Standards Association of
lturbidity test 1 Australia 11980 1
Pinhole test Sherord et a l 119761
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Table 13 - Tests on Rock
Name Recommended
Remarks
of Test References
Water content, porosity. Brown 119811 pp 79 - 9L Used for classification and choracterisat~on of rocks
density, absorption. swelling.
and slake durability
Sonic wave velocity ASTM 11985d1; Used to measure v e l o c ~ l ~ eofs compresston and shear waves for the determlnatmn of elostac constants of
(sound velocity 1 Brown 119811 pp 105 - 110 ~sotroplc and sl~ghtly omsotrop~c rocks The test results ore used I" conjunct#on wdh geophys~cal survey data
(Table Ill, and to assess dynamlc properties of rock Tests are usually carrled out on small specimens
usmg u l t r o s o n r frequencies
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Thin section Brown 119811 p p 73 - 77: Used for petrographic descript~onof texture. fabric and state of alteration in rock material.
Oearman 8 lrfan 119781
Point load Gamon 11984b); Used to meosure the p o ~ n tload strength index and strength anlsotropy The results are used a s an ~ n d e x
l r t a n 8 Powell 119851; test for strength classification of rock material, and to predict i t s uniaxial compressive strength.
ISRM 119851; see Geogulde 3 (GCO. 1988).
Lumb 119831 The test can be carried out on pleces of drlll core or ~ r r e g u l a rlumps of r o c k . I t can also be carried out In
t h e field ( s e e Section 24 2 1 I
Unioxml compresslve strength ASTM 1198591; Used for direct determination of uniaxial compresslve strength. and for determination of static
and deformability ASTM 11985il; Young's Modulus of Elasticity and Pmsson's r a t i o .
Brown 1 1 9 8 i i pp 113 - 116. The results can be used in conpnctlon w ~ t h~ntormationon the nature and spacing of d i s c o n t ~ n u ~ t ~to
es
Cbpullo 8 lrfan 1198L I. assess allowable bearing stress and settlement i n rock foundation deslgn. stability of underground excavations
Gamon 8 Szeto 119841. and to design rock support measures. They may olso be used for classification of rock materlal
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Haas 119831. IDeere 8 Miller. 19661. Unioxial compressive strength can be used to classify rock moterml for descr~pfive
Howkes 8 Mellor 119701 purposes. see Geogulde 3 IGCO. 1988).
- -- - - -- -
Triaxial ComDression ASTM 1 1 9 8 5 ~I; Used for determmat~onof trmxlal compresswe strength, stotlc Young's Modulus of E l a s t l c ~ t yand
Brawn 119811 pp 123 - 127; Po~sson's rotlo Test results are used to assess the stablllty of underground excovatlons and
Franklin 8 Haek 11970 1; to deslgn support measures
Hosk 8 Franklin 119681
- -
D ~ r e c tand ASTM 11985 f 1 ; Used ~n s t a b t l ~ t yassessment of underground excavat~ons Specimens for dlrect tests are dlfflcult to prepare,
indirect tensde strength Brown 11981I pp 119 - 121 ; and m d ~ r e c ttests such a s the 'Brazll Test' a r e more commonly performed
Hawkes 8 Meltor 11970 1
D ~ r e c tshear Brown 11981 1. pp 135 - 137; Used to determine the shear strength character6stics of rock discontinuities. The Robertson Shear Box
Franklin 119851; and the Golder Associates Shear Box are routmely used. Both are sufficiently portable far f i e l d use,
Geotechnical Manual for Slope but specimen preparation time i s a disadvantage. The results are used i n rock slope stability analysis,
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IGCO. 19841 Section 3.10; and for local stability calculations i n tunnels.
Gyenge 8 Herget 119771;
Hencher 8 Richards 119821;
Hoek 8 Broy 119811;
R~chards8 Cowland 119821;
Ross-Brown 8 Watton 119751
FIGURES
[BLANK PAGE]
247
LIST OF FIGURES
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Figure Page
No. No.
1 S t a g e s of a Site Investigation
2 Locations of t h e Mid-levels Scheduled Area
a n d Mass T r a n s i t Railway
3 Programme of t h e New Geological S u r v e y
4 The Geotechnical Area S t u d i e s Programme
5 Examples of Maps Available in t h e
Geotechnical Area Studies Programme
Table of Contents
6 Comparison of Geological Map a n d Aerial
P h o t o g r a p h f o r Identifying Major S t r u c t u r a l
a n d Lithological F e a t u r e s
7 Trial Pit Log (Example 1)

8 Trial Pit Log (Example 2)
9 Example of a Log S h e e t f o r Slope S u r f a c e
Stripping
10 Example of a Caisson Log
11 Typical Configuration of a Rotary Drilling Rig
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12 Typical Arrangement of Air Foam Mixing a n d
Flushing System
13 General P u r p o s e Open-tube Sampler
14 Thin-walled Sampler
15 Thin-walled Stationary Piston Sampler
16 Example of a Double-tube C o r e - b a r r e l
(Craelius T2-101)
17 Example of a Non-retractable Triple-tube
Core-barrel (Triefus HMLC)
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18 Example of a Retractable Triple-tube

Core-barrel (Mazier)
19 Typical S t a n d p i p e a n d Open-hydraulic
Piezometers
Figure Page
No. No.
Table of Contents
20 Typical Twin-tube Closed-hydraulic Piezometer
Tips
21 Typical Installation Details of a Piezometer in

a Borehole
22 Example of Piezometer Record
23 Piezometer Buckets (British P a t e n t

No. 1538487)
24 Example of Piezometer Bucket Data
25 Split Barrel Sampler f o r S t a n d a r d Penetration

Test
Table of Contents
26 Vane S h e a r Devices
27 Typical Arrangement f o r Field Permeability

Test
28 I n t a k e Factors, F, in Borehole Permeability

Tests
29 Relationship between Dimensionless I n t a k e
Factor a n d Length t o Diameter Ratio of
Piezometer
30 Example of Results from Falling-head

Permeability Test
Table of Contents
31 Typical Arrangement f o r Packer (Water
Absorption) Test
32 Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test

Data
33 Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test
Calculations
34 Impression Packer Device
35 Impression Packer S u r v e y a n d Discontinuity

Log
Table of Contents
36 G C O Probe
37 G C O Probe Record
38 Mechanical Cone Penetrometers
39 Electrical Cone Penetrometers
40 Point Load T e s t e r a n d Example Data

Figure Page
No. No.
Table of Contents
41 Typical Arrangement for Double-ring
Constant-head Field Infiltration Test
42 Example of Results from Field Infiltration

Test
43 Typical Arrangement for Plate Load Test
44 Example of a Borehole Log (two s h e e t s )
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
[BLANK PAGE]
-
-
-
-
-
I
Site lnvestigation Investigation j Design and Construction

Stage Activities Progress
Table of Contents
I
+
Recognition o f need for project
I INITIAL PROJECT CONCEPTION

I
J
Desk Study I
Desk study, to obtain
basic knowledge of Basic project
+
ground conditions concept designs
Recognition of
+
major problems
Site reconnaissance Confirmation or
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and preliminary amendment of
field investigations design concept
Preliminary
t
Design of main
4
prelimindryl ~ e t a i l e d
ground investigation Design
t
+
Ground lnvestigation
l nformation recovered Modifications to

Main during investigation detailed design
I
Report on Mam
.
Finalise Design of Project
Ground l nvest igat ion
I
Table of Contents
CONSTRUCTION
1
Construct ion
t
4
I
I
+
Recording actual
ground conditions
I
Further inv&tigation 4
I +
Modifications to design
Modifications to design
i ! I
I COMPLETION OF CONSTRUCTION I
-
Post construction
Monitoring behaviour
in operation Maintenance works
Table of Contents
Legend :
) Exchange of information
Note : Figure adopted from IAEG (1981 ) .
Figure 1 - Stages o f a Site I n v e s t i g a t i o n

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NEW TERRITORIES
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HONG KONG
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
(r/J@ Mid-levels Scheduled Area ---- Mass Transit Railway

Figure 2 - Locations of t h e Mid-levels Scheduled Area
and Mass Transit Railway
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Table of Contents
Geological Memoir Nos. 1 : 2 0 0 0 0 Map Sheet Nos.
Map Coverage Date

1 : 2 0 0 0 0 Sheet Nos. Available
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
I Legend :
* M i n o r p a r t o n l y . p u b l i s h e d i n Memoir No. 2
I Note : 1 : 2 0 0 0 0 M a p S h e e t No. I w i l l n o t be i n c l u d e d in t h e new

geological s u r v e y .
Figure 3 - Programme of the New Geological Survey

Table of Contents
Table of Contents
I Boundaries of the GASP Areas
Geotechnical Area Studies Programme Date

(GASP) Reports and Maps Available
Table of Contents
( 1 : 20 000 scale mapping]
I - Hong Kong and Kowloon

II - Central New Territories
I11 - West New Territories
IV - North West New Territories
V - North New Territories
VI - North Lontou
VII - Clear Water Bay
VIII - North East New Territories
IX - East New Territories
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X - Islands
X1 - South Lantau
XI1 - Territory of Hong Kong
Note : Reprints o f all maps are held in the Geotechnical Information Unit.
Figure 4 - The Geotechnical Area Studies Programme

Geotechnical Land Use Map Engineering Geology Map
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Table of Contents
0 200 400 600 800 1 OM)m
Scale :- 1 : 20 000
Legend :
Class I - Low Geotechnical

Limitations 1-1 Colluvium lunditterentiated
mi Class I1 - Moderate Geotechnical

Limitations E d Hong Kang Granite
v{
Table of Contents
F d Class I11 - High Geotechnicol
Limitations
Dominantly broclastic Rocks with
some Lavas
Class I V - Extreme Geotechnicat

Limitations
m] Quartz Monzonite
VTA General instability
--- Geological boundary Isolid I
---- --- Geological boundary 1 superficial I
--- Photogeologicol lineament
- -.. Catchment boundary

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5% S t r i k e and dip of beds
Note : Examples taken from GASP Report I - Hong Kong and Kowloon.
Figure 5 - Examples of Maps Available in the Geotechnical

Areas Studies Programme
Slope No. : -
11SW B ICR685 Trial Pit No.
Location : Garden Road I TP -6
Table of Contents
Sheet 1 of 1
Logged by : A.N. Chan Method of Excavation : Hand ( timber shoring Date Excavated : 1.1.1983
Checked by : A.N. Lau f u l l height)
Date : 5.1.83 Co-ordinates : E 3 4 4 4 4 . 4 4 N 15555.55 Date Backfilled : 20.1.1983
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
- -
egend Description
a..
..
Loose. dry, light brown,gravelly silty SAND ( F i l l )
Loose, dry. light brown.grovelly silty SAND with
many roots ( F i l l )
Loose t o medium dense, dry, reddish brown, slightly
SAND,with pieces of glass
Sott,moist,dark brown.orgnnic, slightly gravelly.

SILTICLAY (Old Top S o i l
Soft, moist.reddish brown, gravelly, SILTICLAY
"
(Colluvium-matrix I . Slakes easily. Hand
penetrometer strength = 40 k P a I -LTlnsitu density
test
Moisture
I Undisturded
sample, hori.
Undisturbed
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3 Angular t o sub-angular cobbles of moderately content test I sample, vert.
"
-
rn
strong, dry. dark greenish grey. inequigranular.
moderately decomposed coarse a s h TUFF
-
( CoIIuvium rock f ragrnent )
Contractor : A.N. Company I

A
. Water sample
Seepage
Small disturbed
sample
+
El Block sample
C-I Photograph
Bench mark
Works Order No. : 2 11 193 Engineer : A. N. Lau L Partners
Figure 7 - Trial Pit Log (Example 1)

I Trial Pit NO. : TRN 6
Face C Sheet 3 of 4
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Area A
Type of Excavation : Hand-dug Contractor : A.N. Company Study Area :
Location : King's Park
Date Excavated : 171 3 1 8 2 87.1 mPD
Ground Level :
: Nil Date Backfilled : 2 / 4 \ 8 2 Co-ordinates : E 4238112 N 19234.75
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Table of Contents
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Figure 8 - Trial P i t Log (Example 2)

Ptoiect : Slope Datum (toe) Datum (crest Strip NO. :
~ c k e d i Ia Works Co-ordinates : Co-ordinates : s4
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LocatiorI : E 33 320.12 E 33331.23 Slope No. : Slope a
Ap Lsei Chau N 11 302.43 N 11 302.11 Ch. 4 + 9 5
Contrac to1
A.N. I I
--
Date S t ted :
12. 83
Date Completed :
19.12.83
Date Reinstated :
26.12.83
Logged by :
A.N. Chan
Checked by :
A. N. Lau
I k--
listance disc on ti^
from Slope [educed Description
Level Legend Dip Directio~ Nature 0
Datum Angle and Sample Data
[mPD) Infilling
(ml - I I
14
18.0-
Drainage channel (300 x 250mm ) I I
Natural slope covered with small trees
and grass with colluvium below.
Boulder of strong to very strong, dry. dark
30' greenish grey, slightly decomposed f i n e
a s h TUFF, 600 mm i n diameter.
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Too of chunamed cut slooe
14.6-
~
Loose. dry, light yellowish brown, silty SAND -

with some sub- rounded boulders of highly te
moderately decomposed f i n e a s h TUFF
I Colluvium 1 . The boulders are up t o 3OOmm -'t)'-.:'
i n diameter and their proportion decreases -. - .
12.4 -
in an upward direction on the slope.
Extremely weak, dry. light yellowish brown,-

-:.----
highly decomposed fine a s h TUFF ( v e r y
dense, slightly gravelly sandy SILTICLAY 1. -
11.3-
Moderately strong, dry, dark yellowish brown,
moderately decomposed fine ash TUFF with Grade
very closely-spaced, persistent lover 15 rn I Is!
10.0- rough and planar, tight and dry joints
-
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dipping 10' 20'. Very weak highly
decomposed material exists adjacent to
isome joints.
I
Very strong, dry. d a r k greenish grey, 23C/71,
slightly decomposed fine ash TUFF. 215167. Surface
Joints are medium-spaced, persistent, 23015 6, staining
rough and planar, t i g h t and dry, with 302115,
235172
yellowish brown surface staining.
6.0 - ~ a s eof the slope 1 1 !J

Remarks :
Legend :
Small disturbed sample
Sketch Plan :
>-\ 4 ,". Sketch Section :
Nalural slope
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inage channel
Large disturbed sample
Block sample
lnsitu density test b ~ h u n a r n e dslope
Moisture content test
Water sample
k ~ o c slope
k
Seepage
Photograph
Figure 9 - Example of a Log Sheet for Slope Surface Stripping

q o j e c t : New Territories Trunk Road Caisson No: 1 of Bridge 18
.ocation: North Tai Po to Lam Kam Road Diameter : 1 . 2 5 rn
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rtethod of Excavation : Hand- dug
Weathered
0.0 l o 29.5m
Co-ordinates: E m
Ground Level: 4 9 . 0 3 rnPD
N 34 902
Discontinuities
- -
iheet 2 of 2
inishI Tests
Mass
Zone
T
The joints are medium-spoced, rough
md planar and dry. Some joints
:ompletely :ontain quartz veins. 2-3 mm thick.
i sub-vertical fault of less than
weathered
00 mm t h i c k containing s o f t
lranodiorite
:ohesive soil i s present.
18.0
31.03
The joints are closely t o medium-
spaced, rough and planar and d r y .
Some joints contain quartz veins,
-
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1 3 mm t h i c k .
Highly
weathered Ground
lranodiorite water
level
26.53 H
V
24.5
24.53
The joints ore closely t o medium-
;paced, rough and planar, very narrow
~ n ddry. and contain extremely weak
.
Table of Contents
iighly decomposed rock. F I = 4
Moderately 22.83
weathered The joints ore dominantly vertical or
rub-vertical , medium-spaced, rough
lranodiorite
~ n plonar.
d extremely narrow and d r y
with brown-stains. Occasional joints
:ontain extremely weak highly decomposed
.ock, 2-5mm thick. Some horizontal
28.4 oints are widely-spaced. F I = 3 .
20.63
Slightly
weathered
The joints a n medium t o widely-spaced
.ough and planar, tight and dry with
-
jranodiorite wown-stains.OccasionaL joints contain 1 A1
rxtnmely weak highly decomposed rock,
29.5-
30 I Base of Caisson 1 19.53 2- 5 mm thick. F I=2 . 2 1
Legend : d by :
Material grades
(1) Mixtures of Grades A.N. Chan
D v Completely decomposed - Joint I V and V materials
present are shown
IV q-m Mineralized quartz vein
Highly decomposed using overlapping
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ma
onor I
Moderately decomposed
Slightly decomposed
F I
,,
Fracture index
Schmidt hammer test
at 0 . 9 m c l c
symbols.
( 2 ) Discontinuity data
are given separately. late :
or Fresh
-- --
f Fault AD Air d r i l l test
I 2 9 - 6 - 84
Contractor : A. N. Company
. .
Date S t a r t e d : 4 6 8 4 - - D a t e Finished: 2 6 - 6 - 84
Figure 10 - Example of a Caisson Log

Table of Contents
Bolt and clevis
Double sheave
Water swivel
Table of Contents
Wire drum hoist
Cathead hoist
Pressure hose
Swivel drill h e a d
Table of Contents
' -rod
Drill 'mcoupling ~ m f -
Diamond casing shoe
Drill rod
Rock
Core- barrel
Reamer
Table of Contents
Diamond bit
I Note : Figure adopted from Acker Drill Co. Inc. data.
Figure 1 1 - Typical Configuration of a Rotary Drilling Rig

Table of Contents
Valves :
A Air supply control
B Foam pump speed control
C Drilling supply fluid control
D By - pass control
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Rotary
Air Air from
swivel
pressure
Water and Table of Contents

foam additive
Suction hose
200 litre drum-

Table of Contents
Figure 12 - Typical Arrangement of Air Foam Mixing and Flushing System

Table of Contents
- Sinker bar
02, - D:
Area ratio 1%) = ( 1001
D2C
Inside clearance 1 % 1 = Ds - Dc (1001

Dc
Outside clearance 1% 1 = Dw -- D~ (1001

Sliding hammer
Table of Contents
Sample tube
Drive head
Vents to ball
valve assembly
1'
Sampler head with
overdrive space
Sample tube 100mm Cutting shoe

diameter by 500mm
Table of Contents
Length
Cutting shoe
(see detail 1
(a) Ul00 Sampling ( b ) Detail of Cutting Shoe and

Arrangement Definition of Sampler Proportions
Notes : ( 1 ) The open-tube sampler may also be attached to drill rods and driven or pushed into
the ground by the drilling r i g or SPT hammer.
Table of Contents
( 2 ) Two sample tubes may be coupled together to provide a Longer sample or additional
overdrive space.
( 3 ) The vents in the sampler head should have a minimum collective cross sectional area
of 600 mmz t o allow tree exit of air and water above the sample.
( 4 ) A core-catcher device (not shown) may also be included with the cutting shoe.
( 5 ) Samplers smaller in diameter than the U 100 are available which are of similar
design.
Figure 13 - General Purpose Open-tube Sampler

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- -
Non return valve with parts
having a minimum cross sectional
area of 600mm2 to allow free exit
of water and air above sample
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Screws attaching sample
tube to drive head
- Thin -walled sampler tube, samples

commonly 75 to 100mrn diameter
by I m long
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Table of Contents
Figure 14 - Thin-walled Sampler

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Coupler to hollow drill rods
- Piston rod screw clamp,

left hand thread
- Spring-loaded cone clamps
- Exit ports
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-Piston rod
- Thin-walled
Table of Contents
sample tube, samples
commonly 75 or 100mm diameter
by Irn long
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Piston with rubber sealing ring

and vacuum release screw
F i g u r e 15 - Thin-walled Stationary Piston Sampler

Table of Contents
Drill rod coupling
Water flush duct
B e a r ~ n g housing
Table of Contents
Inner tube, cores
commonly 61 to
79 mm diameter
by I m long
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E x t e n s ~ o n tube
Table of Contents
Core l ~ f t e rcase
Figure 16 - Example of a Double-tube Core-barrel (Craelius T2-101)

Table of Contents
- Drill rod connection
- Plug to blow out valve

Water f l u s h duct
. Bearing housing
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Blow o u t valve
Split inner tubes,

cores commonly
52 t o 102 mm diameter
Table of Contents
Reaming shell
Table of Contents
Core lifter
Adaptor
Drill b i t
Figure 17 - Example of a Non-retractable Triple-tube

Core-barrel (Triefus H M L C )
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Drill rod coupling Drill bit
Table of Contents
Flush water
(a) Coring Soft Material

( Inner tube extended )
Retractor spring
Table of Contents
( b ) Coring Harder Material
(Inner tube retracted 1
Liner, core 7Lmm

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diameter by I m long
Inner barrel cutting shoe, 72mm internal

diameter ( max. protrusion 50 mm
Figure 18 - Example of a Retractable Triple-tube Core-barrel (Mazier)

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Ventilated plastic cap --1
Protectwe drained metal
surface box (lockable ) -PVC pipe. 19mm I.D.
lower part perforated
19mm 1.0.plastic pipe Cement - bentonite
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. ,.
Gravel or sand ,
Tamped bentonite pellets

or bentonite balls
Perforated plastic
pipe
filter wfabric
r a p p , i d A ,
'Io 1 1 Low air entry porous
plastic f ilter-or similar,
300mm x 3 5 mm 0.13.
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( a ) Standpipe (b) Open- hydraulic Piezometer (C ) Casagrande - type
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Open- hydraulic Piezometer
I~ o tto scale
Figure 19 - Typical Standpipe and Open-hydraulic Piezometers

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Twin plastic
tubes
Rubber
Filter
75 mm x 50 mm O.D.
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(a) Piezometer Tip for Use in Borehole
Twin nylon- polythene

tubes. approx. 3 mm I.D.
5 mm O.D.
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Rubber gasket
Fine - pored high air

entry pressure stone,
100 mm long by
37 to 50 mm diameter
Rubber gasket
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(b) Piezometer Tip for Use in Embankment

Note : Figures based on BS 5930 ~BS1.198la) and Penman (1986) .
.
F i g u r e 20 - Typical Twin-tube Closed-hydraulic Piezometer Tips
500 sq.
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Ground level iron
in urban area
Ground level
2 1 n rural area
with vent hole
Drain conduit laid to
daylight face
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Bottom of hole
v
Notes : (1) Scale is diagrammatic.

( 2 ) All dimensions are in millimetres.
Figure 21 - Typical Installation Details of a Piezometer in a Borehole

Project : Slope Remedial Works Piezorneters : P1 & P 2
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Location : Royal Observatory Co-ordinates :
I L ~ . S ~1P [
150 -
Ground level. 1L9.3mPD Top of standpipes P I & P 2 0
1L8
Installed
ILL
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132l I I I I
I I
April May June JULY August
Raingauge : R 0 1
Distance from site : 0.1 km
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-
-
Legend :
Observed piezometric response
pierorneter tip level
-
Figure 22 - Example of Piezometer Record
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Rigid plug.
2 5 0 by LO approx.
Non -slip
bowline knots
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Auxiliary
draingge
Nylon
fishing line Intake hole
Halcrow bucket.
British patent
No. 1 5 3 8 ~ 8 7
(See detail ) Plastic float for easy
visual observation of
water level in bucket
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6 number lead
weights (min.
total weight 1009 1
Figure 8 knot
FRONT VIEW
0
- 10
Scale
20mm
SIDE VIEW
(a) Assembled Bucket String (b) Bucket Detail

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Notes: (1 ) Scale is diagrammatic.

( 2 ) Assembled bucket string must fit into a 19 mm internal
diameter standpipe without sticking.
Figure 23 - Piezometer Buckets (British Patent No. 1538487)

Piezometer Buckets Record
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Piezometer No. : P1 Design (Critical) Depth of Critical
Water Level : Water Level below
Top of Standpipe :
Location : Royal Observatory
Number : 5 145.5 mPD 4.0 m

Buckets :
Depth : 2.5 rn -
5.5rn
Spacing : 0.75 rn
Level of Top of Standpipe : 149.5 rnPD
Date Installed : 2 14 183
Tip Level : Ground Level :
Depth of Tip below Top of Standpipe : 6.4rn
143.lrnPD 149.3 rnPD
Measured Buckets Found G. W. L.

to Contain Water Depth* Recorded
Date G.W. L. lnd~cated Comments /Weather
Depth* by Buckets by
lml 1 2 3 4 5 (m)
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12.5.83 Dry > 5.5 Sunny HYC
'I.
20.6.83 5.9 4.8 - 5.5 Fine WPF
11.7.83 6.2 > 5.5 Sunny HYC
2.8.83 5.5 d J d 3.3 - 4.0 Cloudy HYC
14.8.83 4.6 J J 4.0 - 4.8 Cloudy CKC
After storm Ifine today

30.8.83 3.8 J J d J J
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<2.5 HYC
Exceeds critical depth
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Legend : Bucket No. : 1 2 3 4 5

Depth measured from top of
standpipe Depth* (m) 2.50 3.25 4.00 4.75 5.50
Figure 24 - Example of Piezometer Bucket Data

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Connection t o BW
or larger d r i l l rods
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Notes: (1IFigurebasedon B S 1 3 7 7 ( B S l . l 9 7 5 b ] .
( 2 ) A slightly enlarged inner diameter of the split barrel is permitted, provided
removable (iners are always used which have an inside diameter of 35mm.
( 3 ) A ball valve in the base of the coupling as shown in ASTM l 1 9 8 5 a 1 is also
permitted.
(4) All dimensions are in millimetres.
Figure 25 - Split Barrel Sampler for Standard Penetration Test

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Torque measuring
-
Sleeve (packed
with grease)-
Extension rods
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D
k 4
SECTION
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VIEW FROM
BOTTOM
( a 1 Borehole ( b ) Penetration ( c ) Details

of Vane
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Vane Test Vane Test
Note : Figure based on BS 1377 (051, 1975b).
Figure 26 - Vane Shear Devices

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Hollow drill rods or GI pipe
with watertight couplings
(or standpipe piezometer 1
The water level inside the

casing to be maintained a t
the same level a s the
Borehole casing
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Bentonite seal (Attapulgite
may be u s e d i n saline w a t e r )
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Graded filter material
Base of standpipe perforated
wrapped in filter fabric
-I
%
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100- 150 diameter borehole
Notes : ( I ) Scale i s diagrammatic.

(21 All dimensions are in millimetres .
F i g u r e 27 - Typical Arrangement f o r Field Permeability Test

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(a) Soil Flush with Bottom ( b l Soil Flush with Bottom (c) Well Point or Hole
at lmpervious i n Uniform Soil Extended a t
Boundary lmpervious Boundary
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2 n ~ 20
F= F=
l o g , [ ( ~ ~ ~ l + J hLID)^)^ 1+(8IT)(LIDl
( d l w e l l Point or Hole (el Soil i n Casinq with ( f ) Soil i n Casing with
Extended i n Uniform Bottom a t impervious Bottom i n uniform
Soil Boundary Soil
~ o t e s: ( 1 ) Expressions come from Hvorslev (1951 I; figure based on BS 5930 [BSI. 198la)
( 2 ) Values are primarily for tests carried out through the open ends of bore-
holes. Case I d ) may be used for tests carried out using piezometer tips,
but more accurate results w i l l be obtained by using Figure 29 especially
.
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for values of L 1 0 > 2

1 3 ) Cases (e) and (1) assume the permeability of the soil in the casing t o
be the same as that below it. Where this i s not so. see Hvorslev (1951)
(4)Cases [a) and l b ) tend to measure the mean permeability of the soil;
I c ) and ( d l the v e r t i c a l permeability; [ e l and ( f ) the horizontal
permeability. Where the horizontal permeability i s much greater than the
vertical permeability. a l l tests w i l l tend to measure t h e former .
F i g u r e 28 - I n t a k e F a c t o r s (F), in Borehole P e r m e a b i l i t y Tests

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For cylindrical piezometers
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L is t h e length
D i s the diameter
I 1 I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10
Length 1 Diameter Ratio of Piezometer (LID)
Notes : ( 1 1 Graph comes from Brand & Premchitt I1980 1 .

( 2 ) Where a piezometer tip i s surrounded by a granular filter material.
i t is the dimensions of this filter which should be used t o derive
valiles of F.
(31 Where L i s large compared with D . the test will tend to measure
the horizontal permeability of the soil .
[ L ) Where the horizontal permeability of the soil i s much greater
.
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than the vertical the test will measure the former. whatever
the relation between L and D .
(5) The intake factor may also be calculated from the expression
.
I Brand & Premchitt 1980 :
2.L7rL
F =
log, i1.2 LID +J(1 + 11.2 LID 12)1
Figure 29 - Relationship between Dimensionless Intake Factor and

Length to Diameter Ratio of Piezometers
-
Falling head Permeability Test
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BH1 18.12.86
FIELD DATA : Borehole D~~~
Drillhole D7 Observer A-N. Chan
Use only CLEAN water for test .

Has water been added during boring ? W I N O
.
Internal diameter of
casing 127 m m -
I-
Depth of casing = l.07n
above G.L.
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Depth of water
a t t i m e of l e s t
= 11.66 m below
G.L.
Depth of casing
E 10.67 m below
G.L.
Depth of hole
= 12.9 m below
G.L.
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Diameter of hole
D :160 m m
0.1
I
0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Time Imin)
CALCULATIONS :
.*
A
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K = , q
where : A :0.01539 m2
L
F = 2.s7(based on case ( d l i n Figure 28
T z 1 2 m i n x 60 z 720sec
Figure 30 - Example of Results from Falling-head Permeability T e s t

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By-pass valve
Surge
bottle
r Water
supply
control valve
::
lnf lating
pressure I X-
Top packer
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valve
O n Drill rod
Air line taped

to drill rods Uncased borehole
Control perforated r o d 7
I:
Airline connecting top
and bottom packers-
%
lnf lated single pneumatic
packer in testing position
/
Discontinuities /'
Table of Contents
5
Bottom packer
Bottom of borehole
v
( b 1 Arrangement of Double Packer
( a 1 Single Packer Test Arrangement
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F i g u r e 31 - T y p i c a l A r r a n g e m e n t for P a c k e r (Water A b s o r p t i o n ) T e s t
Field Data f r o m Water Absorption Test
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Borehole No. T3 T e s t No. 4
Date of test 2 4 . 11.75 Tested by A . N . Chon

Packer t y p e ( delete a s necessary ) 19.81 m
Tested S e c t i o n f r o m t o 22.86 m
St~gtel Double Depth Hole at T i m e of T e s t
of 33.86 m
D e t a i l s of Casing at T i m e of T e s t -
Packer pressure 276 kPa Gauge Height a b o v e Ground L e v e l 1.32 m
D e p t h t o C e n t r e o f Test S e c t i o n ( m e a s u r e d down l ~ n eof b o r e h o l e ) 21 34m
D e p t h t o Groundwater L e v e l ( m e a s u r e d d o w n line o f b o r e h o l e ) 21.34m
-- -- -
Gauge p r e s s u r e 1 2 4 kPa
Time minutes) 0 5 10 15 Average

Flow
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Flowmeter
reading ( 1 ) 218.6 229.3 239.9 250.7 (Ilmin1
.8y3skdt
Water take ( 1 ) 10.7 10.6 10.8 2.14
IS E C O N D PERIOD Gauge pressure 248 k P a
0 5 10 15
- T i me (minutes) Average
Flow
reading ( 1 ) 281.8 296.4 3 1 1 .2 326.3 ( Ilmin 1
-
Water take ( 1 ) 14.6 14.8 15.1 2.96
T H I R D PERIOD Gauge p r e s s u r e 372 k ~ a
T i me (minutes) 0 5 10 15 Average
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FI o w
F lowmeter
reading 1 1 255.9 276.6 297.5 318.5 llmin )
Water t a k e ( 1 ) 20.7 20.9 21.0 4.17
FOURTH PERIOD Gauge p r e s s u r e 2 4 8 kPa
T i me (minutes) 0 5 10 15 Average
FI ow
Flowmeter
reading ( I 1 54.5 69.9 85.4 101.1 ( Ilmin1
Q+F+='+
Water take ( I 15.4 15.5 15.7 3.10
-
FIFTH PERIOD Gauge pressure 124 kPa
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T ime ( minutes) 0 5 10 15 Average

Flow
Flowmeter r e a d i n g
( 1 1 377.3 388.6 400.0 411.5 (I/min)
Water take I 1 11.3 11.4 11.5 2.28
Figure 32 - Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test Data

Water Absorption Test
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Borehole No. T3 Test No. 4
Test Section from 19.81 rn to 2 2 . 8 6 rn
1
Date of Test 24.11.75 Depth of Hole at Time of Test 33.84 rn
Packer Type (delete as necessary) Diameter of Hole in Test Area 102 rnrn
S m g k l Double
Pneumatic,- Drillhole Inclination from Horizontal 90'
Packer Pressure 276 kPa Casing Deta~ls

Rock Type -
GRANITE GRADE I1
Flow I Gauge Pressure F r i c t i o n Headloss 1 Total Head

Legend of
Test Section
3.05m
Pipe
Work I
in Basic in Extra
Rods or
pipes 1 h
(2.3.6-7-8 1 1
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(1
Vertical Depth
to ground-
water from
S.L. 21.3Lrn ( 2 1
Height o t
Pressure
Gauge above
3. . 1.32m
(31
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From graph : q/h = 34/54 Tested by Calculated

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100 by
~ = - q = 2.06 lugeon units
Ih
where I = length of test section in metres 1 A.N. I A . N . Chan I
Note : If groundwater level unknown or below test section use depth to centre
of test section.
Figure 33 - Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test Calculations

Top body, connection
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to drill rod or cable
Blee
hole
Foam rubber pad i- Brass or
stainless steel leaves
4/- Pins to guide leaves
Brass or stainless
Impressionable
thermoplastic
film
steel leaf with
foam rubber pad
on outer surface
Drillhole
wall
Impressionable
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thermoplastic
film
/ -Inflatable
rubber
L Central perforated membrane
metal tube
Central perforated ( a 1 Deflated Position
metal tube,
approx. length 1.8m
Inflatable
rubber membrane
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Retraction rings
or springs
Bottom
body
( b ) InfIated Position
Nose cap or
orientation instrument
Notes : ( 1 ) Scale i s diagrammatic.

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( 2 ) The rubber membrane may be inflated either by water pumped down

through hollow drill rods or by compressed air ( a i r line connected
to top body). The latter arrangement must be used when the device
i s suspended from a cable.
( 3 ) Figure adopted from Triefus data sheet (Triefus Industries
( A u s t r a l i a ) Pty L t d ) .
Figure 34 - Impression Packer Device

Impression Packer Survey - Discontinuity Log
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Project : Stage 2 Studies I Sheet I of 3
Location : Slope no. llSW-C(C207, Mt. Davis Road I Logged by : A.N. ~ h a n lChecked by : A.N. Lau
Drillhole No. : Orientation : Co-ordinates : E 830 610 N 814 942
SBHI Vertical Ground Level : +127.65 mPD
Nature and orientation
of discontinuties
Extremely weak, dry, light brownish

red, inequigranular, completely
decomposed coarse a s h TUFF
(Dense. sandy clayey SILT1
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Stronq to very strong, dry, d a r k
g r e e n ~ s h grey mottled with black.
inequigranular, slightly decomposed
coarse a s h TUFF
Joint
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Joint
Type Dip direction. Aperture Nature of Infilling Consistency of lnfillinq Uneveness

D~D
D.Fault zone
1.Fault
- in
1.Wide 12200mml
2.Mod.wide160-200mml
O.Clran
1.Surlace staining
Soil strength Rock strength
l.yery soft
(small-scale roughness)
1.Rough stepped
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6,Extrcmely weak
2. Join1 3.Mod.narror(20-6Omm~ 2.Decomposedl 2.Soft 7.Very weak 2.Smooth sleppcd
degICeS
>.Cleavage &.Narrow 16-20mml disintcgraled rock 3.Firm &Weak 3.Slickcnslided stepped
L.Schistosity 5.VWY n a r r o w l l - 6 m m l 3.Granular r o i l *Stiff 9.Moderaldy weak &.Rough undulltinp
i.Shear plane 6.Ext. n a r r o w b 0 - 2 m m ) 4,Cohcsivc r o i l 5.Very s t i f f 1O.Moderatcly strong 5.Smooth undulating
8. Fissure 7.Tight I z r r o l 5.Buartz or hard 1l.Slrong 6.Slickenslided undulating
1. Tension crack 6.Calcilr 12,Yery strong 7.Rough planar
I.Foliation 7. Manganese I3,Extrrmely strong 8.Smooth planar
I . Bedding 8.Kaolin 9,Slickenslidcd planar
9.Othrr-specify
F i g u r e 35 - Impression Packer S u r v e y a n d Discontinuity Log

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L5' chamfer
Guide rod, 20 @
20 9
45' chamfer
10 kg sliding hammer
with handles.
Coupler
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Extension rod,
136 (tobeadded -
as required 1
f
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Coupler,
see detail
&- Point .
see .eta,[
Point
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Notes : ( 1 ) A l l dimensions are i n millimetres .

( 2 1 The hammer should be provided w i t h a 2 2 mm diameter central hole. The
hammer should be drilled out as necessary so that its weight (including
handles) is 10.0 f 0.1 kg.
( 3 ) The point should be sufficiently sharp that x + 1.5 mm .
( 4 I Only straight extension rods should be utilised j rods deviating Smm or more
from a straight Line at any point should not be used.
Figure 36 - GCO Probe

GCO Probe Record
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Site : Fill Slope along Slip Road No.1. Shatin I Probe NO. : P3
Job : FilL Slope Investigation Date : 16/3/83 Level 50.77 mPD
Contractor : A . N . company Co-ordinates
Logged by : A . N . Chan E 836600 N 825 100
Blows 1100mm
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F i g u r e 37 - G C O P r o b e Record
Table of Contents
35 9
lnner rod. w lnner rod.
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Friction sleeve
Mantle -
Cone angle 60'-
Mantle
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( a ) Collapsed (b) Extended
Dutch Mantle Cone
Cone angle 60"
( c ) Collapsed (d) Extended '3)

Dutch Friction Sleeve Cone
Notes : ( 1 All dimensions are in millimetres.
( 2 ) Details shown follow the ISSMFE (1977).
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.-.
131 The friction sleeve cone extends in two increments to reach the position shown in ( d ) . The mantle is first extended
35 m m , then the mantle and friction sleeve together are extended another 35 m m .
Figure 38 - Mechanical Cone Penetrometers

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Cable
/+
Electric
cable
Table of Contents
- Adjustment
ring
-Strain gauges
- Friction sleeve
-Strain gauges
Table of Contents
-Load cell
( a ) Electrical ( b ) Constricted- type ( c ) Constricted-type

Friction Cane Electrical Cone Electrical
Friction Cone
Table of Contents
Notes : ( 1 1 ( a ) after BS5930 ( B S I , l 9 8 l a ) . l b ) 8, ( c ) after Delft Soil

Mechanics Laboratory 11977).
( 2 ) Scale is diagrammatic.
( 3 ) A l l cones shown are 35.6mm drameter with 60' cone angle.
Figure 39 - Electrical Cone Penetrometers

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Adjustable crosshead
Conical platen (see detail)
Conical Platen Detail

Quick release valve
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Schematic Diagram of Point Load Tester
Point Load Test Borehole No. s4

New Territories Trunk Road
Test Machine : ELE PLT 3 l a t e Tested : 7 1 8 1 8 3
Project
: Contracl 529 180
-
Location : North Tai Po to Lam Kam Road
Test
- Ram Area : -
Gauge
rested by : KYC
-
NO. Rock Type Moisturc Type #ample Platen pressure Failurc quivalen orrectior
or and Conditio~ and Width, eparation. at Load, )iameter: Factor,
eptt W De F
Description irtctior Failure
-
Im) -
(mm) -
(mml -
Table of Contents
-
'10 Very strong ,dry - 83 1.26

greenish grey to grey, -
inequigranular, slightly 83 1.26
decomposed, medium 83 91.37 1.31
to coarse -grained
GRANODlORlTE ,with
reddish brown stains
from original joint
surfaces around the
edges.
- A
11 Mloiisture Condition
L
Diametral
d - air ary f
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5 - saturated
n - nalural moisture
21 Test Type and Direction Axial 0.3W < D < W
d - diametral
n - axial
D~~ E L W D I ~
L - irregular lump iJQ
/I - parallel to planes of weakness Irregular Lump
1 - perpendicular lo planes of weakness
r - random or unknown orientation 0.3W < D <W
Figure 40 - Point Load Tester and Example Data

t
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Test pit or
caisson
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I I 10 litre bottles
A .f I with calibrated
graduations
frame with
Constant head Stiff nylon
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of water for tubing supplyins
water
Outer steel ring,

Test surface, hand 600mm diameter
excavated and level
Inner steel ring,

300mm diameter
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Figure 41 - Typical Arrangement f o r Double-ring Constant-head

Field I n f i l t r a t i o n Test
Table of Contents
Settlement measurement Reference
Main loading frame
Table of Contents
gf column
Loading I Line of
tension piles
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Loading column
\I L Measuring column
Centralising fins
Skirt
Loading plate
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Bedding material
I Details of Loading Plate
Note : Figure adopted from Brown (1981 1 and BS5930 1 BSI, 1981a I .
Figure 43 - Typical Arrangement for Plate Load Test

Project :
Table of Contents
:
+
Co-ordinates : E 12197.74 N 19259 5 5 Sheet No Of
Locatmn Lom T I P I
Ground L e v e l : 9 1 6 mPD I Logged by : A N Chon I Checked by : A N . Lou
Contl(l~t0r A. N Cornpony Orlentatmn ' Vertical
-
~ o t eof w o r k s 2 2 / 2 / 8 6 to 2L 12186
epth
I
of
2s,ng Field Tests. Descrtptlon o f M o t e r m l s Grodr
%re1 Samples ond
-Imm
1LOl
Instrumentottan
0 50
1%)
nspectlon pot :ancrete s l o b , lOOmm t h l c k .

excovoted t o
1 5 m depth .o(rse. p ~ n k f s h grey. ongular COBBLES o f -
n e d w m t o c o o r s e - g r o ~ n e d slightly
jecomposed granite w i t h much coarse grovel. -
Fill 1
.oose. reddish b r a w n . s l l t y l clayey. sondY -

;RAVEL w ~ t h~ c c o s i o n o l ongular cobbles
2nd some r o o t l e t s
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: Fill 1
Medlum dense yellowish b r o w n silty SAND

~ t O h CCO s uSb -Io On g u~
l o rOgrovel
I ond
cobbles o f moderotely t o h l g h l y decomposed
coarse-grotned g r o n l t e
I Calluvlum 1
Extremely weok. i l g h t r e d d l s h brown.

completely decomposed c o a r s ~ - g r a i n e d
GRANITE I M e d u m dense t o dense, Sandy
SILT 1 CLAY 1 1
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Moderately weok. yellowish b r o w n
~ n e ~ u ~ ~ r a hmoderotely
lor, decomposed
\C
coarse t o medium-grolned GRANITE w i t h
-
8.2 sub- h o r ~ z o n t o l ,closely-spaced, smooth ond
11011 ~ L a n a r ,t l g h t . b l o c k - s t a i n e d jotnts 1
Strong. p m k l s h grey. inequigronulor, slightly
decomposed coarse t o m e d u m - g r o ~ n e d
GRANITE ' 4 1 t h generally wldely-spoCed lOltlt5
Smooth and planar. t g h t , b l o c k - s t o l n e d
j m t dlppmg a t 7 0 ' ot 9 1 - 9 3 m .
Sub-horrzontal, smooth ond planar. t l g h t .
brown-stained jolnts a t 9.6, 10.2 and 10 5 m
I see Sheet 2 I
Remarks :
F r o m s ~ t ef o r m a t i o n d r o w m g no A130791 o r l g t n o l
ground level before canstructmn of f l l l Platfarm
.
II t
S m o l l d t s t u r b e d eomple
L a r g e disturbed somole
I Plant used Longyeor
.. L3L
Type of b o r l n g l d r i l l l n g :
Rotmy d r l i ~ n g
a n d playground w a r a p p r a x 8 8 m P D
U76.100 Undasturbed dr , v e sample. of 76 mm
I ~,~h
,l, medium - w a t e r
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or 100 mm d o I b l o w c o u n t , d e p t h 1
8 20 - 11 5 0 m 101 mm
M o r n m p l w c n l n g water Level I SPT inner sample 11 50 - 1 2 t o m 89mm
12 10 - 18 1 0 m 76mm
a t 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2312 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2112 Stondord penetratton t e s t N value
3 H depth - 8 2 8 2 13 2 13 2 18 1
I Ib l o w count I p e n e t r a t ~ o n1 C w m g tubes
:arlng - 8 2 8 2 12 1 12 1 12 1 $ Permeab#lty lest

000 -
8 20m PW
8 20 - 1 2 I O m NW
Nalsr - 3 0 2 9 3 5 78 7 6
Figure 4 4 - Example of a Borehole Log (sheet 1 of 2)

Barehole No A 11
Table of Contents
Prqcct Project A Job No LTlDLl11
Sheet NO 2 01 2
Co-ordonotes - -
E 4 2 L 9 7 7L N 19259 55
Locot~on Lom Tin
I
Ground Level 91 6 mPD
Contractor A N Cornpony Or~enlotm- Verl8col

Date of w o r k s 2 2 1 2 1 8 6 to 24 1 2 1 8 6
Sample
Field Tests. eger

Samples ond
nstrumentat~on
-
+
i
S l ~ g h t l y decomposed GRANITE I see Sheet 1 -
+ + for deta1151 .. II
i
-+
Weak yellowish brown. m e q u ~ g r a n u l a r ,highly \-
X X
decomposed coarse-grained GRANITE from
-
< ' X , 107-llOm -
X NII recovery f r o m 11 0 - 11 5 m
. X. Small disturbed sample No 10 c o n t o l n s dense. !iZlP -
L X
. . pcnklsh brown sandy SILT w i t h some
X X rellct graolte t e x t u r e IHlghly to completely -
-
<.X
decomposed GRANITE 71 -
+ + Strong llght p m k l s h grey ~ n e q u t g r o n u l a r
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,+ sllghtly decomposed medlum to coarse-gramed - n
-
GRANITE with s u b - h o r ~ z o n t o l c l o s e l y - s p a c e d
+ + rough and pionor t l g h l b r o w n - s t o l n e d ]o,nts
Moderately to hbghly decomposed rock recovered
- 3
* + os angular gravel o t 12 5 12 a m - - n
-
. +
+ +
+
Very strong hght p m k l s h grey ~ n e q u ~ g r o n u l a r .
f r e s h . medwm to c a o r s e - g r a ~ n e d GRANITE
wtth generally widely-spoced p n t s
Smooth ond plonor tight b r o w n - s t a ~ n e dp n t s -
-
-
,+ dbppmg o t 40' o t 13 3 m and 1L 8 m
+ +
6 +
4
* + Closely-spoced. smooth and p l a n a r , t ~ g h t ,

b r o w n - s t o m e d p n t 5 dlpplng a t 10" a t
+ + -
15 0 15 5 m
,+
+ +
,+
+ +
,+
+ +
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* +
Sub-vertical medium-spaced. smooth and
+ + unduldt8ng d o r k green joints wbth 1 - 2 m m
Jlezometer + + -
t h ~ c k chlorite lnflll a t 17 1 17 6 m
Allb S u b - h o r ~ z o n t a l , s m o o t h a n d plonar tlght.
+ + w h l t e - s t a m e d p n t coated w l l h k a o l m
,+
-
o f 18 Om
Borehale complete a t 18 l m depth t
Remarks I Legend P l o d used Longyeor L 3 L

Small disturbed somple
Plezometer A t l b mstolled o t 17 3 m depth below ground
surfoce w l l h s a n d filter from 18 l m to 12 l m . b e n t o n l t e
s e a l f r o m 1 2 l r n t o 8 Zm, plezometer A110 l n s t o l l e d o t
7 5 5 m depth below ground surfoce w l l h sand filter f r o m
+ L o r g e d l s t u t b e d somple
Type of borlng I d r l l h n g
Rotary drlllkng
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8 2 m t o 69rn. bentonlte s e a l l r o m 6 9 m t o 4 5 m a n d U76 100 Undisturbed drlve s a m p l e s of 7 6 m m F l u s h ~ n gmedium Water

c e m e n t - b e n t o n ~ l c grout f r o m L 5 m to ground s u r f o c e
or 100 mm d m I b l o w count depth I
D ~ o m e t e rof b o r n g I drllllng
1 M o l t e r sample
0 00 - 8 2Om l4Omm
a SPT ltner somple 8
11
20
50
-
-
11 5 0 m
12 1 0 m
101 mm
89mm
12 10 - 18 1 0 m 76mm
Standard penetration test N v a l u e
I blow count I penetrotlon I
Casing tubes
$ Permeablllty test 0 0 0 - 8 2 O m
8 2 0 - 12 t o m
PW
NW
F i g u r e 4 4 - Example of a B o r e h o l e Log ( s h e e t 2 of 2)
PLATES
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299
LIST OF PLATES
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Plate Page
No. No.
1 Drilling i n U r b a n Areas of Hong Kong
2 Drilling i n S t e e p l y Sloping Ground
3 Ground I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o v e r Water
4 Drilling a n d Sampling Equipment ( t h r e e s h e e t s )
5 Block Sampling
6 Groundwater P r e s s u r e Measuring Equipment
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7 S t a n d a r d P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t Equipment
8 P e n e t r a t i o n Vane T e s t A p p a r a t u s (Geonor A/S)
9 Impression P a c k e r S u r v e y Equipment
10 P r o b i n g a n d P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t Equipment
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A : Drilling in a Densely -developed Urban Area
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B : Drilling. in the Middle of a Busy Road
Plate 1 - D r i l l i n g i n U r b a n Areas of Hong Kong

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A : Working P l a t f o r m f o r D r i l l i n g o n a Slope
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B : Timber Scaffolding for Access
Plate 2 - D r i l l i n g in S t e e p l y Sloping Ground

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A : Jack - up Platform
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B : Power Swivel Drilling System Mounted on a Barge
Plate 3 - Ground Investigations over Water

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I A : T h e ODEX D r i l l B i t B : The U100 Sampler
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Plate 4 - Drilling a n d Sampling Equipment ( s h e e t 1 of 3 )

s
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C : Thin -walled Stationary Piston D : Components o f a D o u b l e - t u b e Core-
b a r r e l ( C r a e l i u s T 2 - 101 I
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Sampler
Plate 4 - Drilling a n d S a m p l i n g E q u i p m e n t (sheet 2 o f 3 )

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E : Components Of a Non-retractable Triple- F : Components of a Retractable Triple - tube
tube Core - barrel ITriefus HMLC) -
Core barrel 1 Mazier )
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Plate 4 - Drilling and Sampling Equipment ( s h e e t 3 of 3 )
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A : Trimmed Block Sample
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B : Protection of Block Sample
Plate 5 - Block Sampling

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A : Casagrande B : S t r i n g of Piezome-ter C : Tensiometer Jetfill)
Piezometer Tip Buckets 1British
P a t e n t No. 1538L871
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Plate 6 - Groundwater P r e s s u r e M e a s u r i n g Equipment
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A : Torque Measuring Device
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B : Vane Body
Plate 8 - Penetration Vane T e s t A p p a r a t u s (Geonor A / S )

APPENDICES
- - - -
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-
INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR DESK STUDY
APPENDIX A
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317
CONTENTS
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Page
No.
TITLE PAGE 315
CONTENTS 317
A.l GENERAL 319

A.2 MAPS, PLANS AND CHARTS 319
A.3 GROUND CONDITIONS 319

A.4 METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION 319
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A.5 P A S T RECORDS 320
A.6 SERVICES AND UTILITIES 320

A.7 LEASE AND ENGINEERING CONDITIONS 320
A.8 PLANNING A GROUND INVESTIGATION 322

A.9 REFERENCES 324
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A.l GENERAL
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A d e s k s t u d y involves t h e collection and review of information required f o r
t h e planning of t h e p r o j e c t a n d of t h e s i t e investigation.
Sources of information a r e given in Appendix B.
A.2 MAPS. PLANS AND CHARTS
Topographic maps a n d plans a r e useful for s t u d y i n g t h e general f e a t u r e s

of t h e s i t e , a n d for identifying ground f e a t u r e s of engineering significance, e.g.
slopes, retaining s t r u c t u r e s , streams, t u n n e l s , burial g r o u n d s and obstructions
s u c h a s transmission lines a n d towers. They a r e also useful f o r t h e assessment
of t h e effect of t h e proposed works on a d j a c e n t properties a n d s t r u c t u r e s . a n d
f o r t h e identification of works a r e a s , s t o r a g e a r e a s a n d access, including
temporary access f o r construction purposes.
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For works t o be c a r r i e d o u t in a marine environment (e.g. seawalls a n d
piers). Admiralty c h a r t s a n d t i d e tables should also be r e f e r r e d to.
In some cases, old maps may be useful, e.g. t o check t h e location a n d e x t e n t

of a n old seawall o r a buried stream course. Archaeological maps may also b e
r e q u i r e d t o establish t h e boundaries of a n archaeological site.
A.3 G R O U N D CONDITIONS
The following information should b e r e f e r r e d t o f o r a preliminary s t u d y of

t h e g r o u n d conditions :
(a) Aerial photographs. These a r e particularly useful f o r

s t u d y i n g t h e s i t e history, p a s t instability of t h e ground.
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erosion, s u r f a c e hydrology, vegetation, photolineaments
and o t h e r s u r f a c e geological f e a t u r e s , a n d f o r identifying
t h e presence of colluvium, alluvium, fill a n d boulders ( s e e
Chapter 6).
(b) Geological maps a n d memoirs. These provide detailed

information on t h e geology of t h e district. a n d a r e useful
a s a basis f o r evaluating t h e likely influence of t h e local
geology on t h e proposed works and in t h e selection of t h e
g r o u n d investigation methods.
(c) P a s t s i t e investigation records. These should b e s t u d i e d

a n d useful information extracted. Availability of good s i t e
investigation r e c o r d s in t h e vicinity of t h e s i t e will greatly
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a s s i s t t h e planning of t h e ground investigation, a n d may

r e d u c e t h e scope a n d e x t e n t of t h e investigation r e q u i r e d .
A.4 METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION
Local rainfall r e c o r d s should b e collected where t h e proposed works

r e q u i r e slope a n d d r a i n a g e design. Hydrological information. w h e r e available, i s
useful i n d r a i n a g e studies. including t h e assessment of flooding r i s k a n d t h e
influence of t h e proposed works on t h e local a n d downstream d r a i n a g e regimes.
In t h e design of temperature-sensitive s t r u c t u r e s , o r w h e r e t h e p e r -
formance of t h e construction materials can be affected b y temperature, d a t a on
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ambient t e m p e r a t u r e s (including a i r a n d ground temperatures) a n d solar
radiation should be r e f e r r e d to.
A.5 PAST RECORDS
P a s t construction records. f o r both t h e s i t e a n d f o r a d j a c e n t properties.

should b e obtained w h e r e appropriate, t o provide information on t h e following :
(a) Site formation works s u c h a s construction of slopes,

retaining s t r u c t u r e s a n d basements.
(b) Foundation works such a s piling.

(c) Details of preventive o r remedial works a n d of a n y
continuing monitoring of, f o r example. g r o u n d a n c h o r
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installations. horizontal drain installations, building
settlements, a n d slope a n d retaining wall movements.
(d) Tunnels a n d disused t u n n e l s , including details of linings

and g r o u n d s u p p o r t .
Records of p a s t failure. flooding a n d settlement of g r o u n d a n d s t r u c t u r e s

should also be noted a n d s t u d i e d where necessary.
A.6 SERVICES AND UTILITIES
Details a n d locations of existing s e r v i c e s a n d utilities, including

stormwater d r a i n s , sewers, f r e s h a n d s a l t water mains, f i r e fighting mains.
electrical cables, g a s mains a n d telephone ducts. should be r e f e r r e d t o f o r t h e
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following p u r p o s e s :
(a) Assessment of t h e effect of t h e proposed works (including

g r o u n d investigation w o r k s ) on t h e existing s e r v i c e s a n d
utilities, e.g. t h e e f f e c t of dewatering settlement on a n old
water main o r gas main.
(b) Provision of s e r v i c e s a n d utilities f o r t h e project, e.g.

provision of cooling water f o r t h e air-conditioning system.
(c) Provision of temporary electricity a n d w a t e r supplies f o r

t h e g r o u n d investigation.
A.7 LEASE AND ENGINEERING CONDITIONS

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Except where a n investigation is being planned for a s i t e t h a t has not been

allocated t o t h e p r o j e c t (e.g. a n investigation t h a t is f o r t h e p u r p o s e of
selecting s i t e s o r establishing t h e suitability of a site). t h e r e should be available
a s e t of lease conditions o r engineering conditions. depending o n whether t h e
proposed project is t o b e u n d e r t a k e n privately o r b y Government. I t is
essential t h a t t h e s e conditions a r e s t u d i e d thoroughly d u r i n g t h e d e s k s t u d y o r
a s soon a s t h e y become available.
Engineering conditions a r e issued b y t h e appropriate District Lands Office
of t h e Lands Department, a n d lease conditions a r e normally issued b y t h e
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Registrar GeneraVLand Officer. These conditions govern t h e use of t h e site.
They also s e t down t h e requirements a n d restrictions on development, and
define t h e responsibilities of t h e related parties a n d authorities. The following
items a r e normally covered :
(a) Requirements. These normally include :
(i) formation a n d landscaping.

(ii) layout of t h e site.
(iii) access,
(iv) possession a f t h e site.
(b) Restrictions. Examples of common items covered a r e :
non- building a r e a s .
height of s t r u c t u r e s .
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removal of t r e e s ,
dumping on Government land a n d public
roads.
drainage r e s e r v e s .
pile driving.
blasting.
u s e of water s u p p l y ,
establishment of rock c r u s h i n g plants.
(c) Responsibilities. The conditions normally cover responsi-

bilities for :
(i) maintaining both t h e stability of t h e land

a n d i t s s u r f a c e condition. within, a n d
w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e , adjacent to t h e site.
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(ii) i n t e r f e r e n c e with o r damage t o roads.
services, drains, channels, etc.
(iii) water supply.
(iv) connections t o sewers a n d stormwater
drains,
(v) drainage.
The following local s t a t u t e s may be mentioned in t h e lease conditions :
The Buildings Ordinance and i t s s u b s i d i a r y Regulations

(Government of Hong Kong, 1985). governing t h e s a f e t y
a n d t h e design a n d construction s t a n d a r d s of buildings t o
b e erected, and t h e planning and administrative
procedures t o b e followed. This Ordinance also g o v e r n s
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s i t e investigation work within t h e Mid-levels Scheduled

Area.
The Fire Services Ordinance (Government of Hong Kong,

1981a). governing t h e provision of f i r e services.
installations a n d equipment. a n d t h e provision of access
f o r f i r e services. appliances a n d personnel.
The Waterworks Ordinance (Government of Hong Kong.

1974). governing t h e s u p p l y of f r e s h water a n d s a l t water.
and t h e s t a n d a r d s of plumbing, installations and
equipment.
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(d) The Dangerous Goods Ordinance (Government of Hong
Kong. 1983). governing t h e storage, transportation a n d use
of d a n g e r o u s goods.
In some cases, special clauses may also be p r e s e n t in t h e lease conditions.

For example, a geotechnical clause may be used t o indicate t h a t a s i t e is
considered t o b e geotechnically difficult t o develop, hence forewarning a
developer t h a t a high d e g r e e of skilled geotechnical engineering i n p u t will be
required.
A.8 PLANNING A G R O U N D INVESTIGATION
I n planning a ground investigation, t h e effect of t h e proposed works on

t h e ground. on a d j a c e n t properties a n d s t r u c t u r e s a n d on existing services a n d
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utilities, should be thoroughly examined. For example, t h e e f f e c t of flushing
water from drilling on existing slopes a n d retaining walls should be considered.
Requirements a n d restrictions imposed by local s t a t u t e s should b e studied

a n d observed in t h e planning a n d execution of t h e investigation. For example.
t h e Summary Offences Ordinance (Government of Hong Kong. 1981b) r e s t r i c t s
t h e u s e of powered mechanical equipment between 7 p.m. a n d 7 a.m.. a n d on a n y
public holiday, including Sundays. This Ordinance also controls t h e general
level of noise a t night, i.e. from 11 p.m. t o 6 a m . , even if powered mechanical
equipment i s not being used. S t a t u t e s governing safety, health a n d welfare of
workmen a r e given in Appendix E.
Land matters should be dealt with well in advance of t h e r e q u i r e d d a t e of

commencement of investigations. For t h i s purpose, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e District
Lands Office of t h e Lands Department, a n d , w h e r e appropriate, t h e relevant
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District Office. should b e consulted, s o a s t o a r r a n g e f o r unhindered access f o r
t r a n s p o r t i n g equipment t o site, a n d to enable work to be c a r r i e d o u t on site.
The land matters should include :
(a) confirmation of land ownership a n d lot boundaries.
(b) permission t o e n t e r i n t o a n d t o t r a n s p o r t equipment

t h r o u g h adjacent land,
(c) permission t o c a r r y o u t g r o u n d investigation work outside

t h e s i t e boundaries,
(d) allocation of a n y necessary works a r e a s a n d s t o r a g e areas.

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I t is important t h a t t h e exact locations of s i t e boundaries of private a n d

Government land. a n d of allocated works a r e a s a n d s t o r a g e a r e a s , should b e
ascertained from t h e a p p r o p r i a t e District Lands Office. The a p p r o p r i a t e District
S u r v e y Office of t h e same Department may also have t o b e consulted f o r
information on delineation of t h e g r o u n d , especially in t h e New Territories where
land demarcation h a s not been c a r r i e d o u t t o a high s t a n d a r d in t h e past.
The District Lands Office should also b e consulted on matters relating t o

'fung s h u i ' a n d burial g r o u n d s .
Where t r e e s need t o b e felled o r removed. prior permission should be
obtained from t h e appropriate District Lands Office. who will consult t h e
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Agriculture & Fisheries Department, Urban Services Department o r Regional
Services Department, a s appropriate. Whenever possible, permission should be
s o u g h t twelve months in advance, s o t h a t t h e root system of any t r e e suitable
f o r t r a n s p l a n t i n g may be p r e p a r e d f o r t h e move.
The approval of t h e Buildings Ordinance Office, must b e obtained f o r site

investigation work t h a t falls within t h e Mid-levels Scheduled Area. Plans
showing t h e b o u n d a r y of t h e Mid-levels Scheduled Area may be viewed in t h e
Buildings Ordinance Office a n d t h e Geotechnical Engineering ,Office. Pumping
test proposals f o r p r i v a t e developments must also be submitted t o t h e Buildings
Ordinance Office f o r approval.
Information on t h e as-built alignment of t h e Mass Transit Railway a n d i t s

"protection boundary" may be obtained from t h e Mass Transit Railway
Corporation, whose advice must b e s o u g h t where t h e proposed ground
investigation work falls within t h e protection boundary.
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If i t i s necessary t o excavate public roads, road excavation permits must
be obtained from t h e Utilities Section of t h e Highways Department. Where t h e
proposed g r o u n d investigation work may d i s r u p t t h e u s e of public footpaths,
s t r e e t s o r r o a d s , including high speed roads. t h e Highways Department should
be consulted.
In cases w h e r e i t is necessary t o d i s c h a r g e effluents into public d r a i n s o r

sewers, permission m u s t f i r s t b e obtained from t h e Drainage Services
Department. The Environmental Protection Department must also b e consulted
where toxic effluents a r e involved.
If it is intended t o u s e explosives. f o r example in a seismic s u r v e y , t h e

prior permission of t h e Commissioner of Mines a t t h e Civil Engineering
Department must be obtained.
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I n t h e case of marine investigations, t h e Marine Department must be
notified of t h e details of t h e proposals. s o t h a t notices t o mariners can be
issued. Special restrictions may b e imposed by Director of Marine where works
i s t o be c a r r i e d o u t in close proximity t o fairways, channels, typhoon s h e l t e r
e n t r a n c e s , terminals and piers. There may be circumstances w h e r e contractors
vessels will need t o provide mooring arrangements outside typhoon s h e l t e r s for
t h e i r vessels d u r i n g t h e passage of typhoons. Where investigations a r e
proposed close t o t h e runway of Kai Tak Airport. permission must f i r s t be
obtained from t h e Civil Aviation Department. Similarly, permission must b e
obtained from t h e Mass Transit Railway Corporation, t h e Cross Harbour Tunnel
Co. Ltd, t h e Water Supplies Department, o r t h e various public utility companies.
if investigations a r e proposed n e a r submerged t u n n e l s , pipelines o r utilities.
Where t h e proposed g r o u n d investigation works fall within a gazetted

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historical site, permission must be obtained from t h e Antiquities & Monuments

Office of t h e Government Secretariat before commencement of a n y work. The
Antiquities & Monuments Office should also be consulted before a n y historical
s i t e is e n t e r e d , e v e n if i t is not gazetted.
A.9 REFERENCES
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Government of Hong Kong (1974). Waterworks Ordinance ( a n d Waterworks
Regulations). Laws of Honq Kong. Chapter 102. revised edition 1974. Hong
Kong Government P r i n t e r . 45 p. (Amended from time t o time).
Government of Hong Kong (1981a). Fire Services Ordinance ( a n d Fire Services

Regulation). Laws of Hong Kong. Chapter 95. r e v i s e d edition 1981. Hong
Kong Government Printer. 45 p. (Amended from time t o time).
Government of Hong Kong (1981b). Summary Offences Ordinance ( a n d

Subsidiary Legislation). Laws of Honq Konq. Chapter 228. revised edition
1981. Hong Kong Government P r i n t e r . 26 p. (Amended from time t o time).
Government of Hong Kong (1983). Danqerous Goods Ordinance ( a n d Dangerous
Goods Requlations). Laws of Hong Konq. Chaoter 295, r e v i s e d edition 1983.
Hong Kong Government P r i n t e r . 278 p. (Amended from time t o time).
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Government of Hong Kong (1985). Buildinqs Ordinance ( a n d Building
Regulations). Laws of Honq Konq. Chapter 123. revised edition 1985. Hong
Kong Government P r i n t e r . 387 p. (Amended from time t o time).
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION
APPENDIX B
-
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327
CONTENTS
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Page
T I T L E PAGE No.
CONTENTS 325
B.1 MAPS. PLANS AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS 327

8 . 1 . Maps a n d Plans Produced b y t h e S u r v e y & Mapping
Office 329
B.1.2 Other Maps 329
8 . 1 . 3 Aerial Photographs
329
B.2 329
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B.3 GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND MEMOIRS 329
ADMIRALTY CHARTS, TIDE TABLES AND NOTICE O N SHIPPING 330

MOVEMENTS
B.4 METEOROLOGICAL AND SEISMOLOGICAL INFORMATION 330
B.5 HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION 330
B.6 PAST RECORDS 331

B.6.1 Records from Previous Investigations 331
B.6.2 Design a n d Construction Records 331
8.6.3 Other Public Records 331
B.7 SERVICES AND UTILITIES 332
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B.8 LOCAL LIBRARIES 332
8.8.1 The Geotechnical Information Unit of t h e 332
Civil Engineering Library
8.8.2 Other Libraries 333
B.9 ADDRESSES OF LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS 333
8.10 REFERENCES 336

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B.1 MAPS. P L A N S AND AERIAL P H O T O G R A P H S
B.l.l Maps and Plans Produced b y t h e S u r v e y & Mapping Office
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The Survey & Mapping Office o f t h e Lands Department provides basic
large-scale plans, derived medium-scale plans, approved town plans. and
topographic maps o f Hong Kong. A list o f t h e currently available plans and
maps, and their coverage, is given i n Table 1.
Services o f f e r e d b y t h e Survey & Mapping Office include t h e supply o f
negative or photographic copies o f available maps and plans, as well as
producing enlargements and reductions. These services are available from t h e
Office's Map & Plan Sales outlets. together with map catalogues, and leaflets on
t h e services o f f e r e d and on copyright. Orders for enlargements and other
nonstandard items should be placed well i n advance, t o allow time for production
and delivery.
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8.1.2 Other Maps
Other map sources include t h e following :
( a ) Early maps o f Hong Kong are held for r e f e r e n c e b y t h e
S u r v e y & Mapping Office and t h e Public Records Office.
( b ) The Antiquities & Monuments Office o f t h e Culture Division,
Municipal Services Branch holds a series o f large-scale
archaeological maps covering t h e whole o f Hong Kong.
which include historical buildings and boundaries o f
archaeological sites. The maps are not available t o
members o f t h e public, b u t t h e y can be examined b y
authorized personnel i n connection with Government
projects.
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( c ) The Hong Kong Archaeological Society holds selected maps.
B.1.3 Aerial Photographs

Aerial photographs may be purchased from t h e S u r v e y & Mapping Office's
Map & Plan Sales outlets. Services include t h e supply o f vertical and oblique
aerial photographs as contact, whole or partial-frame enlargement prints.
Indexes and contact prints of aerial photographs may be inspected only at t h e
Map and Plan Sales (Hong Kongf outlet. Once t h e reference numbers o f t h e
required photographs have been obtained, orders may be placed at either t h e
Hong Kong or Kowloon outlets.
The availability o f black and white vertical aerial photography is
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summarised in Table 2. Aerial photography exists f o r some parts o f t h e

Territory back t o 1924 and full coverage i s available from 1963 onwards.
8.2 G E O L O G I C A L MAPS AND M E M O I R S

A new geological s u r v e y o f Hong Kong i s being carried out b y t h e
Geotechnical Engineering Office o f t h e Civil Engineering Department. The
s u r v e y began i n 1982 and. when completed i n 1991. will comprise a series o f
fifteen maps a n d six memoirs, providing detailed descriptive a n d 1:20 000 scale
map coverage of t h e e n t i r e land a n d s e a a r e a of t h e Territory. The coverage.
relationship and phasing of t h e maps a n d memoirs a r e shown in Figure 3. The
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new publication s e r i e s will replace t h e c u r r e n t reference geological document,
namely t h e 1:50 000 scale maps a n d memoir b y Allen & Stephens (1971). Both t h e
new a n d existing maps a n d memoirs can be obtained from t h e Government
Publications Centre, o r from t h e Map & Plan Sales outlets of t h e S u r v e y &
Mapping Office.
The Planning Division of t h e Geotechnical Engineering Office is t h e

repository f o r geological r e c o r d s . These include t h e field observations
embodied in t h e geological maps a n d memoirs, manuscript geological maps a t
1:10 000 scale. a n d offshore data. Requests f o r information should be directed
t o t h e Chief Geotechnical Engineer of t h e Planning Division. The Geotechnical
Engineering Office also holds a collection of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e rock t y p e s a n d thin
sections. These a r e available f o r inspection b y arrangement. The superficial
deposits, weathering, stratigraphy, tectonic history, structure and
metamorphism of Hong Kong have been reviewed by Bennett (1984a. 1984b,
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1 9 8 4 ~ ) . A summary of t h e n a t u r e a n d o c c u r r e n c e of Hong Kong rocks a n d
superficial deposits is given in Appendix A of Geoguide 3 ( G C O , 1988).
B.3 ADMIRALTY CHARTS, TIDE TABLES AND NOTICES O N SHIPPING

MOVEMENTS
Admiralty c h a r t s may be obtained from t h e accredited a g e n t in Hong Kony.

namely George Falconer Ltd ( s e e Section B.9). Tide tables a r e readily available
in Hong Kong a t t h e Government Publications Centre and selected bookshops.
The Marine Department i s s u e s notices t o mariners regularly concerning

s h i p movements a n d h a r b o u r obstructions.
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B.4 METEOROLOGICAL AND SEISMOLOGICAL INFORMATION
The Royal Observatory collects a n d publishes meteorological information in

Hong Kong. Daily weather r e p o r t s a n d forecasts a r e issued t o g e t h e r with
individual tropical cyclone, t h u n d e r s t o r m , landslip a n d flood warnings. Rainfall
r e c o r d s a r e published monthly a n d annually. a n d a list of publications on
meteorological statistics is available from t h e Observatory.
The Royal Observatory also maintains a well-equipped seismological unit.

from which local information may be obtained.
B.5 HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION
The Water Supplies Department has a comprehensive system of stream

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gauging in t h e main catchment areas, a n d t h i s information is published in annual

r e p o r t s on rainfall a n d runoff.
B.6 PAST RECORDS
B.6.1 Records from Previous Investigations
The Geotechnical Information Unit of t h e Geotechnical Engineering Office

holds reports o f previous site investigations, which o f t e n include borehole logs
and results from laboratory testing o f soils and rocks. Reports are referenced
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b y means o f a simple map grid system.
The Geotechnical Information Unit also contains a large amount o f other
information o f direct relevance t o site investigation, and t h i s is described in
Section B.8.1.
B.6.2 Design and Construction Records

Several Government Departments possess information t h a t is o f value t o
t h e planning and execution o f site investigation i n Hong Kong. b u t this i s o f t e n
not readily accessible. However, arrangements can usually be made for specific
information t o be made available t o bona fide users.
Each Government Department retains i t s own files on projects t h a t are
carried out under i t s control. Copies o f design reports and record drawings o f
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completed projects are also k e p t . A brief summary o f information possessed b y
some o f t h e Government Departments is given below.
The Architectural Services Department maintains records o f Government
buildings.
The Buildings Ordinance Office o f t h e Buildings Department retains
records o f private developments for about seven years following their
completion, a f t e r which time t h e files are transferred t o t h e Public Records
Office. Permission t o view a particular set o f records may be obtained from t h e
Buildings Ordinance Office, who will require t o know t h e address o f t h e
property and t h e lot number.
The Civil Engineering Office o f t h e Civil Engineering Department maintains
records o f all known waste t i p s i n Hong Kong. The Geotechnical Engineering
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Office o f t h e same Department holds records o f all known disused tunnels and
quarries, and maintains records o f all known retaining walls and man-made
slopes, and some natural slopes.
The Highways Department holds records o f t h e majority o f public roads
and road tunnels.
The Mines and Quarries Division o f t h e Civil Engineering Department
maintains records o f all known disused mines.
The Water Supplies Department holds records o f water tunnels, catch-

waters, reservoirs and ancillary structures.
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B.6.3 Other Public Records

The Public Records Office o f Hong Kong is t h e central repository for t h e
permanent archives o f t h e Hong Kong Government. The majority o f i t s holdings
date from 1945. b u t i t does have some much earlier material. I t maintains
catalogued collections o f maps and photographs dating from 1860. together with
almost complete collections o f t h e Hong Kong Government Gazette. Blue Books,
Sessional Papers. Annual Departmental Reports. Ordinances and Regulations, and
Hong Kong Hansard. The Sessional Papers are o f particular interest because,
from 1889, t h e y include t h e Annual Reports o f t h e Director o f Public Works,
which give information on failures and remedial works. Also of great
value is the comprehensive newspaper collection held by the Public
Records Office.
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The Government Secretariat Library contains information that
could be useful from an historical point of view. This includes
Sessional Papers, Administrative Reports, Statistical Abstracts and
Legislative Council Minutes. The Photographic Library and Reference
Library of the Information Services Department holds sets of old
photographs, microfilm of newspaper cuttings and other useful
material.
A. list of gazetted historical sites is maintained by the

Antiquities & Monuments Office of the Government Secretariat.
B.7 SERVICES AND UTILITIES
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Information on gas, electricity, telephone, and similar
services, including both the locations and details of existing
facilities and the provision of further services, should be sought
from the private companies supplying these services. The addresses of
the major utility companies are listed in Section B.9.
Information on the location of water supply mains (including private

cooling water mains), public drains and sewers may be sought from the
relevant Government Department. The Water Supplies Department holds
records of public water mains, and applications for water supply should
be directed to the Department's Consumer Services Division. The Drainage
Services Department maintains as-built records of public drains and
sewers.
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B.8 LOCAL LIBRARIES
B.8.1 The Geotechnical Information Unit of the Civil Engineering Library
The Geotechnical Information Unit forms part of the Civil

Engineering Library, which is operated by the Geotechnical Engineering
Office of the Civil Engineering Department. In addition to records from
previous site investigations, the Geotechnical Information Unit contains
records of landslides, rainfall and piezometric data, Geotechnical Area
Studies Programme maps, a catalogue and records of existing cut, fill and
natural slopes and retaining walls, and factual reports and drawings
prepared by Government Departments and Consulting Engineers for a wide
range of large and small building and civil engineering projects. Notable
examples of the latter are the various Landslide Studies Reports and the
Mid-levels Study Report, which were commissioned by the Government. It
also contains a large collection of published and unpublished documents
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specific to Hong Kong (including references on site investigation),

together with geotechnical and geological textbooks and journals. '
Almost 1500 items are known to have been published specifically on

aspects of the geology and geotechnical engineering of Hong Kong.
These are listed in the Bibliography on the Geology and Geotechnical
Engineering of Hong Kong to May 1994 (Brand, 1994) produced by the
Geotechnical Engineering Office. A full copy of every 'short' publication
listed is kept in the Geotechnical Information Unit, together with copies
of the title and contents pages of the 'long' publications. These copies
are contained in bound volumes by year of publication and then in
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alphabetical order by authors' surnames. Full copies of some of the 'long'
publications are also available in the Geotechnical Information Unit, but
these are shelved separately. Copies of new publications are added to the
collection as they become available.
All the information in the Geotechnical Information Unit may be

consulted by bona fide users. Photocopying facilities are available.
B.8.2 Other Libraries
The City Hall Public Library and the Kowloon Central Library each
houses a reference section which contains a number of published documents
on the geology and geotechnical engineering of Hong Kong, together with
some unpublished reports. They also house Hong Kong Collections of
considerable interest. No direct access is permitted to the shelved
items, and items required for examination must first be located in the
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card catalogue syskems. Photocopying facilities are available for public
use.
The University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and
the Hong Kong Polytechnic University each has a large library which
contains a collection of general geological and geotechnical information.
All three, however, can only be accessed by special permission, although
this is usually not difficult for bona fide visitors to obtain. The
University of Hong Kong maintains an outstanding Hong Kong Collection,
which contains considerable unpublished information, as well as a large
number of master and doctoral degree theses on geological and geotechnical
topics. Photocopying facilities are available in the library.
B.9 ADDRESSES OF LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS
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Agriculture & Fisheries Antiquities & Monument Offices,
Department, 136 Nathan Road,
3rd,6th.8th8llth-14th Floors, Tsirn Sha Tsui, Kowloon.
Canton Road Government Offices, (Tel.: 2721 2326)
393 Canton Road, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2733 2211)
Architectural Services British Forces Hong Kong,

Department, HMS Tamar,
35th Floor, Hong Kong.
Queensway Government offices, (Tel.: 2588 3111)
66 Queensway, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2867 3628)
Buildings Department, China Light & Power Co. Ltd.,

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12th-18th Floors, 147 Argyle Street,

Pioneer Centre, Kowloon.
750 Nathan Road, Kowloon (Tel.: 2678 8111)
(Tel.: 2626 1616)
Chinese university of Hong Kong City Hall Public Library,
Library, City Hall,
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12% Milestone, Tai Po Road, Connaught Road Central,
Sha Tin, New Territories. Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2609 7301) (Tel.: 2921 2555)
City University of Hong Kong, Civil Aviation Department,

Run Run Shaw Library, 46th Floor,
Tat Chee Avenue, Queensway Government Offices,
Kowloon. 66 Queensway, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2788 8311) (Tel.: 2867 4332)
Civil Engineering Office, Cross Harbour Tunnel Co. Ltd.

15th Floor, Administration Building,
Civil Engineering Building, Hunghom, Kowloon.
101 Princess Margaret Road, (Tel.: 2333 4141)
Homantin, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2762 5111)
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Drainage Services Department, Electrical and Mechanical
43rd Floor, Revenue Tower, Services Department,
5 Gloucester Road, 98 Caroline Hill Road,
Wan Chai, Hong Kong. Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2877 06601 (Tel.: 2808 3620
2808 3817)
George Falconer (Nautical) Ltd., Geotechnical Engineering Office,

178-180 Queen's Road Central, 15th Floor,
Hong Kong Jewellery Building, Civil Engineering Building,
Hong Kong. 101 Princess Margaret Road,
(Tel.: 2854 2882) Homantin, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2762 5111)
Geotechnical Information Unit, Government Publications Centre,
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Civil Engineering Library, Ground Floor, Lower Block,
LG1,Civil Engineering Building, Queensway Government Offices,
101 Princess Margaret Road, 66 Queensway, Hong Kong.
Homantin, Kowloon. (Tel.: 2537 1910)
(Tel.: 2762 5148)
Highways Department, Hong Kong Archaeological Society,

5th Floor, Homantin Government C/O Museum of History,
Offices, lock 58, Kowloon Park,
88 Chung Hau Street, Kowloon.
Homantin, Kowloon. (Tel.: 2367 1124)
(Tel.: 2762 3333)
Hong Kong and China Gas Co. Ltd., Hong Kong Electric Co. ~ t d .
363 Java Road, 9th Floor,
Quarry Bay, Hong Kong. The ~lectricCentre,
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(Tel.: 2880 6988) City Garden, Hong Kong.

(Tel.: 2843 3111)
Hong Kong Polytechnic university Hong Kong Telecom.

Library, P.O. Box 9896,
Yuk Choi Road, Hong Kong Telecom Centre,
Hunghom, Kowloon. 979 King's Road,
(Tel.: 2766 6863) Quarry Bay, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2888 2888)
Hong Kong University of Science & Kowloon Central Library,
Technology Library, 5 Pui Ching Road,
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Clear Water Bay,
. Homantin, Kowloon.
Kowloon. (Tel.: 2926 4055)
(Tel.: 2358 6747)
ow loon-Canton Railway Lands Department,

Corporation, Mezzanine Floor,
KCRC House, 1st-4th.14th-15th Floors,
9 Lok King Street, Murray Building,
Fo Tan Station, Garden Road, Hong Kong.
Shatin, New Territories. (Tel.: 2848 2198)
(Tel.: 2688 1333)
Map Publications Centre (Hong Map publications Centre

Kong) , (Kowloon).
14th Floor, 382 Nathan Road,
Murray Building, Kowloon.
Garden Road, Hong Kong. (Tel.: 2780 0981)
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(Tel.: 2848 2480)
Marine Department, Mass Transit Railway Corporation,

Harbour Building, Chevalier Commercial Centre,
38 Pier Road, 8 Wang Hoi Road,
Hong Kong. Kowloon Bay, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2852 3001) (Tel.: 2993 2111)
Mines and Quarries Division, Post Office,

Civil ~ngineeringDepartment, General Post Office,
7th Floor, 2 Connaught Place,
Civil Engineering Building, Central, Hong Kong.
101 Princess Margaret Road, (Tel.: 2921 2332)
Homantin, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2762 5331)
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Public Records Office, Rediffusion(Hong Kong)Ltd.,
Tuen Mun Government Storage Flat C, 1st Floor,
Centre, Hang Fook Building.
1 San Yick Lane, 17-23 Shang Hai Street,
Tuen Mun, New Territories. Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2460 3736) (Tel.: 2730 0272)
Regional Services Department, Royal Observatory,

Regional Council Building, 134A Nathan Road,
1-3 Pai Tau Street, Tsim Sha Tsui,
Shatin, New Territories. Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2601 8500) (Tel.: 2926 8200)
Survey & ~appingoffice, Town Reading Centre,

6th Floor, West Wing,
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Lands Department,
14th-15th,21st Floor, Central Government Offices.
Murray Building, Hong Kong.
Garden Road, Hong Kong. (Tel.: 2810 3693)
(Tel.: 2848 2278)
University of Hong Kong Library, Urban Services Department,
Pokfulam Road, 42nd-45th Floors,
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Hong Kong. Queensway Government Offices,
(Tel.: 2859 2203) 66 Queensway,
Hong Kong .
(Tel.: 2867 5596)
Water Supplies Department,

Immigration Tower,
7 Gloucester Road,
Wanchai, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2829 4500)
B.10 REFERENCES
Allen, P.M. & Stephens, E.A. (1971). Report on the Geological Survey of
Hong Kong, 1967-1969. Hong Kong Government Press, 116 p, plus 2
maps .
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Bennett, J.D. (1984a). Review of Superficial Deposits and Weathering in
Hong Kong. GCO Publication No. 4/84, Geotechnical Control Office,
Hong Kong, 51 p.
Bennett, J.D. (1984b). Review of Hong Kong Stratigraphy. GCO

Publication No. 5/84, Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 86 p.
Bennett, J.D. (1984~). Review of Tectonic History, Structure and

Metamorphism of Hong Kong. GCO Publication No. 6/84, Geotechnical
Brand, E.W. (1994). Bibliography on the Geology and Geotechnical

Engineering of Hong Kong to May 1994 (GEO Report No. 39).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 202 p.
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GCO (1988). Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions (Geoguide 3). Geotech-
nical Control Office, Hong Kong, 189 p.
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NOTES ON S I T E RECONNAISSANCE
APPENDIX C
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339
CONTENTS
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Page
NO.
T I T L E PAGE 337
CONTENTS 339
C.l GENERAL 341
C.2 PREPARATORY WORK 341
C.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE 341
C.4 INFORMATION ON GROUND CONDITIONS 342
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C.5 S I T E INSPECTION PRIOR TO COMMENCEMENT O F GROUND 343
INVESTIGATIONS
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pp
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C.l GENERAL
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The purpose of t h e site reconnaissance is to confirm and supplement t h e
information collected during t h e desk study (see Section 4.2). The site
reconnaissance may include both site inspection and local enquiries concerning
existing and proposed features on and adjacent t o t h e site.
Although site reconnaissance is normally carried out after completion of
a thorough desk study (see Section 4.2 and Appendix A), an early site
visit/reconnaissance preceding t h e desk s t u d y may sometimes be very useful.
C.2 PREPARATORY WORK
Prior t o undertaking t h e site reconnaissance, t h e following preparations

should be made :
(a) Permission to gain access t o t h e site should have been
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obtained from both t h e owner and occupier.
( b ) The site plan, topographic and geological maps and t h e
necessary equipment should be available; for example,
notebook, pencil, large clip board, camera. measuring
tape, geological compass (compass and clinometer),
geological hammer, penknife and hand lens ( ~ 1 0 ) . For
large sites, a range finder and binoculars may also be
useful. Any equipment necessary to ensure t h e safety of
field personnel should also be included.
C.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE

Where appropriate, t h e following procedure may be adopted :
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The whole a r e a should be traversed, preferably on foot.
and photographs should be taken of selected features of
t h e site and its surroundings.
The proposed location of work shown on plans should be
set-out.
Differences and omissions on plans and maps (e.g. site
boundaries, buildings. roads, etc) should be recorded.
An inspection should be made of t h e details of all
existing structures, and. where appropriate, records
should be made.
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Potential obstructions (e.g. transmission lines. telephone

lines, historical features. large trees, gas and water
pipes. electricity cables and sewers) should be recorded.
Access, including t h e effects of construction traffic and
heavy construction loads on existing roads, bridges and
services, should be checked.
Water levels, direction and r a t e of flow in nullahs and
streams, and also flood levels and tidal and other
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fluctuations, should be noted where relevant.
Features of t h e adjacent property should be recorded.
and t h e likelihood of these being affected by proposed
works should be assessed.
Old structures, and any other features, should be
inspected and relevant records should be made.
Local inhabitants should be interviewed about t h e past
uses of t h e site, structural damage t o buildings on o r
near t h e site, flooding and land instability. Such
information should be treated with due caution, but
should be recorded and evaluated.
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C.4 INFORMATION O N GROUND CONDITIONS
Data on and relating to ground conditions should be gathered and
recorded, a s follows :
(a) Surface features, both on site and nearby should be
studied and recorded, preferably i n conjunction with
geological maps and aerial photographs. The following
should be noted :
(i) Slope angles. types of slope (convex o r
concave) and sudden changes in slope.
(ii) Comparison of topography with previous
map records o r aerial photographs t o
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check for t h e presence of erosion, c u t
slopes, fill o r buried stream courses.
(iii) Surface features which may indicate
geological faults. shear zones, previous
slope instability o r k a r s t formation.
(iv) Positions and extent of tension cracks o r
other features which may indicate
impending slope instability.
( b ) An inspection should be made of soil and rock outcrops

and c u t slope exposures, both on site and nearby.
Relevant details should be recorded.
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(c) Where relevant, groundwater levels. positions of wells

and springs, t h e occurrence of seepage, and any evidence
of seepage erosion, including soil pipes and sinkholes.
should be assessed and recorded.
( d l The surface drainage pattern and any evidence of active

soil erosion from surface water (e.g. gullies) should be
noted.
(e) The n a t u r e a n d distribution of vegetation on t h e site
should b e s t u d i e d a n d noted; t h i s information may
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provide a n indication of soil a n d g r o u n d w a t e r conditions.
(f) The condition of embankments, buildings a n d o t h e r
s t r u c t u r e s (e.g. t u n n e l portals a n d ventilation s h a f t s ) in
t h e vicinity should b e s t u d i e d a n d recorded.
( g ) On extensive o r more complex projects, a site
reconnaissance s u r v e y should b e c a r r i e d out, followed b y
t h e production of engineering geological maps a n d / o r
plans a n d a n evaluation of t h e t e r r a i n based on t h e
underlying soils, vegetation cover. a n d o t h e r f e a t u r e s
(see Chapter 9 ) . This t y p e of mapping should be c a r r i e d
o u t with t h e assistance of a n engineering geologist.
C.5 SITE INSPECTION PRIOR TO COMMENCEMENT OF G R O U N D
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INVESTIGATIONS
A supplementary s i t e visit will often b e necessary j u s t prior to
commencement of t h e actual g r o u n d investigations. Where appropriate, t h i s
should include t h e following activities :
(a) The locations a n d conditions of access to t h e working
s i t e s should b e inspected a n d recorded.
( b ) Obstructions, s u c h a s power cables, telephone lines.
boundary fences a n d t r e n c h e s , should b e located a n d
recorded.
(c) Areas f o r sample s t o r a g e should b e identified.
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( d ) Where applicable, suitable points of water s u p p l y a n d
electricity s u p p l y should b e located a n d recorded.
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INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
APPENDIX D
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CONTENTS
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Page
No.
TITLE PAGE 345
CONTENTS 347
D.l GENERAL 349
D.2 DETAILED LAND SURVEY AND ENGINEERING A S S E S S M E N T 349
D.3 HYDROGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC DATA 349
D.4 INFLUENCES OF WEATHER 350
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D.5 MATERIAL SOURCES 350
D.6 D I S P O S A L OF WASTE AND S U R P L U S MATERIALS 351
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D.l GENERAL
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In addition t o t h e determination of g r o u n d conditions at t h e site, which
are considered elsewhere in t h i s Geoguide. o t h e r information t h a t may be
r e q u i r e d f o r design a n d construction i s briefly summarised in t h e following
sections.
The items listed in t h i s Appendix a r e b y no means exhaustive, a n d

r e l e v a n t guidance documents on t h e information requirements f o r design a n d
construction should b e consulted f o r additional advice. Time c o n s t r a i n t s may
limit t h e extent of detailed s t u d y t h a t c a n b e given t o t h e project, in which
c a s e allowance should be made in t h e design, e.g. by adopting conservative
assumptions f o r design parameters.
D.2 DETAILED LAND SURVEY AND ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT
A detailed s u r v e y of t h e s i t e a n d i t s boundaries, showing means of
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access, utilities a n d services, easements a n d d r a i n a g e networks, will be
necessary. S u r v e y coordinates should b e referenced t o t h e 1980 Hong Kong
Metric Grid a n d levels t o t h e Hong Kong Principal Datum. Exact locations of
s i t e boundaries should b e ascertained from t h e a p p r o p r i a t e District Lands
Office (see Appendix A.8). The following may also be r e q u i r e d :
Particulars of existing s t r u c t u r e s o r obstructions, a n d

whether t h e y have t o be demolished o r maintained.
Particulars of a d j a c e n t o r n e a r b y s t r u c t u r e s t h a t may b e
affected b y works o n t h e site, including building heights.
floor levels, t y p e s of foundations, s t r u c t u r a l condition,
a n d o t h e r p e r t i n e n t information.
Particulars of a d j a c e n t slopes a n d retaining walls t h a t
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may affect t h e site, including assessment of stability a n d
details of a n y necessary s u p p o r t o r remedial works. This
assessment should include boulders t h a t may pose a
hazard t o t h e s i t e or t h e work.
Locations a n d d e p t h s of a n y u n d e r g r o u n d o b s t r u c t i o n s o r
f e a t u r e s , s u c h as t u n n e l s o r cavities, w h e r e known, with
s u p p o r t i n g details.
Locations of s u r v e y m a r k e r s a n d bench marks n e a r t h e

site, with accompanying details; documentation of s i t e
m a r k e r s a n d bench marks.
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D.3 HYDROGRAPHIC AND HYDRAULIC DATA
The design of s t r u c t u r e s in, adjoining o r n e a r t h e s e a , nullahs or

streams may r e q u i r e information on t h e following :
(a) Marine s u r v e y data, t o supplement t h e Admiralty c h a r t s

a n d o t h e r available data.
( b ) Detailed information a b o u t nullah o r stream flows, size

a n d n a t u r e of catchment areas. tidal limits, flood levels
and their relation to t h e Hong Kong Chart Datum.
(c) Observations on tide levels (referred to Chart Datum)
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and t h e r a t e of tidal fluctuations, velocity and direction
of currents, and wave data.
( d l Information on scour and siltation, movement of

foreshore material by drift; stability conditions of
beaches, breakwaters and training works.
(el Locations and details of existing nullahs, streams and
marine structures, wrecks and other obstructions above
and below t h e water line; t h e effect of obstructions and
floating debris on permanent and temporary works,
including clearances of obstructions.
(f) Observations on t h e condition of existing structures, such

a s attack by marine growth and borers, corrosion of
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metal work, disintegration of concrete and attrition by
floating debris o r bed movements.
( g ) Data on water quality.
D.4 INFLUENCES OF WEATHER
Information on t h e following may be necessary :
(a) Predictions of surface water flows and groundwater levels

resulting from rainfall events with r e t u r n periods of 10.
50 and 200 years, o r from more extreme rainfall events.
( b ) Groundwater responses t o major rainstorms, including
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~ r o-j e c t i o n so r assessments of response to a one-in-ten
.
year rainfall event.
(c) Local wind speeds and wave heights generated during
tropical cyclones.
( d ) Range of temperature, seasonal and diurnal.
D.5 MATERIAL SOURCES

Sources of materials for construction may need t o be located and
proven, including :
(a) fill and filter materials for earthworks and reclamation,
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( b ) road base and surfacing materials.

(c) concrete aggregates.
(dl stone for building, pitching, o r riprap,
(e) water.
351
(f) topsoil f o r landscaping.
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D.6 DISPOSAL OF WASTE AND SURPLUS MATERIALS
sites f o r disposal of wastes o r s u r p l u s materials may need t o b e located.

a n d methods of disposal resolved, f o r s u c h materials as :
(a) excavated soil a n d rock.
( b ) d r e d g e d materials.
(c) building d e b r i s a n d construction wastes,

(dl liquid wastes.
Access t o controlled t i p s a n d public dumping a r e a s m u s t be determined.
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as well as t r a n s p o r t requirements a n d environmental controls.
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[BLANK PAGE]
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
APPENDIX E
[BLANK PAGE]
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355
CONTENTS
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Page
NO.
TITLE PAGE 353
CONTENTS 355
E.l GENERAL 357
E.2 SAFETY REGULATIONS 357
E.3 SERVICES AND U T I L I T I E S 3 58
E.4 WORK DISRUPTING ROADS. STREETS OR FOOTPATHS 358
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E.5 REFERENCES 358
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[BLANK PAGE]
E.l GENERAL
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The prime factors required t o ensure safe working conditions a r e
supervision by a competent person and t h e engagement of a suitably
experienced contractor who possesses adequate resources for t h e project in
hand.
Emergency procedures should be decided a t t h e commencement of a job.

A first aid kit should be readily accessible. and should include items suited t o
t h e working conditions. Efficient communications with outside services (police.
fire and hospital) should be established. Safety helmets, gloves, safety
footwear, goggles and masks should always be worn when required.
Reference should always be made to relevant Ordinances and Safety

Regulations, and t o t h e British Standards and Codes of Practice for advice on
t h e manufacture and use of equipment.
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E.2 SAFETY REGULATIONS
A comprehensive set of regulations exists i n Hong Kong governing t h e

safety, health and welfare of personnel employed in construction works. For
construction sites generally. t h e principal statutory requirements a r e given in
t h e Factories and Industrial Undertaking Ordinance and its subsidiary
Regulations (Government of Hong Kong, 1985). and t h e Construction Sites
(Safety) Regulations (Government of Hong Kong. 1983a). These statutes cover
general a s well a s specific areas of construction works, including :
(a) Excavations, caissons and shafts, dealt with under Part

VI of t h e Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations.
( b ) Construction sites situated on o r adjacent t o water, dealt

with under Regulation 52A in Part VII of t h e
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Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations.
(c) Use of lifting appliances and lifting gears, dealt with

under Parts 11, I11 and V of t h e Construction Sites
(Safety) Regulations.
( d ) Working i n t h e vicinity of cables, dealt with under

Regulation 47 in Part VII of t h e Construction Sites
The use of explosives and compressed gas (for example, in seismic

surveys) is dealt with under t h e Dangerous Goods Ordinance and its subsidiary
Regulations (Government of Hong Kong. 1983b).
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The use of equipment incorporating radioactive sources is dealt with

under t h e Radiation Ordinance and its subsidiary Regulations (Government of
Hong Kong, 1982). Such equipment should always be used fully in accordance
with t h e manufacturers' recommendations.
Reference should also be made to t h e following publications :
(a) A Guide to t h e Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations

(Labour Department. 1985). which briefly s e t s out t h e
provisions of t h e Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations
a n d explains t h e law in simple language. This is
designed s o t h a t , besides s e r v i n g a s a handy reference, i t
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also s e r v e s as a check-list of m a t t e r s r e q u i r i n g attention.
( b ) Reference Manual f o r Construction Sites Inspection

Report (Labour Department, 1986). which contains most
of t h e requirements t h a t are necessary t o maintain a
favourable working environment f o r t h e workforce a n d t o
comply with t h e provisions of t h e Construction Sites
(c) BS 5573 : Code of Practice f o r Safety Precautions in t h e

Construction of Large Diameter Boreholes f o r Piling a n d
Other P u r p o s e s (BSI, 1978). This describes t h e s a f e t y
precautions t h a t should b e t a k e n , t h e specific s a f e t y
requirements f o r t h e equipment t o b e u s e d , a n d t h e g a s
h a z a r d s which might b e encountered in deep a n d l a r g e -
diameter boreholes.
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(dl Guidance Notes on Hand-dug Caissons (HKIE. 19811,
which deals with t h e s a f e t y a n d technical a s p e c t s of
hand-dug caissons.
E.3 SERVICES AND UTILITIES
I n u r b a n areas, significant h a z a r d s may be e n c o u n t e r e d from u n d e r g r o u n d

s e r v i c e s s u c h a s electricity a n d gas. Particular attention should be paid t o t h e
hazards resulting from damage t o high voltage power cables, g a s pipelines a n d
associated installations. Before a n y t r i a l pits, probes or boreholes are
commenced in a r e a s where t h e r e may b e u n d e r g r o u n d services, hand-excavated
inspection pits should b e u s e d t o establish t h e p r e s e n c e or otherwise of all
s u c h services. Hand-operated power tools may b e necessary i n inspection pits
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t o a s s i s t excavation t h r o u g h h a r d materials. b u t should be u s e d with extreme
care.
E.4 WORKS DISRUPTING ROADS, STREETS O R FOOTPATHS
For works on o r a d j a c e n t t o public r o a d s a n d pavements, t h e r e q u i r e -

ments of t h e Road Traffic (Traffic Control) Regulations (Government of Hong
Kong, 1 9 8 3 ~ )must b e complied with. Reference should also be made t o t h e
Code of Practice f o r t h e Lighting. Signing & Guarding of Road Works
(Highways Office. 1984).
E.5 REFERENCES
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BSI (1978). Code of Practice f o r Safetv Precautions in t h e Construction of

Large Diameter Boreholes f o r Piling a n d Other P u r ~ o s e s(BS 5573:1978).
British S t a n d a r d s Institution, London, 8 p.
Government of Hong Kong (1982). Radiation Ordinance ( a n d Radiation

Regulations). Laws of Hona Kona. Chapter 303. revised edition 1982.
Hong Kong Government P r i n t e r , 47 p. (Amended from time t o time).
Government of Hong Kong (1983a). Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations.
Laws of Honn Kong. C h a ~ t e r59. revised edition 1983. Hong Kong
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Government Printer. 58 p. (Amended from time t o time).
Government of Hong Kong (1983b). Dangerous Goods Ordinance (and

Dangerous Goods Requlations). Laws of Honq Kong. Chapter 295, revised
edition 1983. Hong Kong Government Printer. 278 p. (Amended from
time t o time).
Government of Hong Kong (1983~). Road Traffic (Traffic Control) Requlations.

Laws of Honq Konq. C h a ~ t e r374, revised edition 1983. Hong Kong
Government Printer. 134 p. (Amended from time to time).
Government of Hong Kong (1985). Factories and Industrial Undertakings

Ordinance (and Subsidiary Legislation). Laws of Hons Kong. Chapter 59,
revised edition 1985. Hong Kong Government Printer. 270 p. (Amended
from time t o time).
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Highways Office (1984). Code of Practice for t h e Liqhtinn. Signing & Guardins
of Road Works. Hong Kong Government Printer. 41 p.
HKIE (1981). Guidance Notes on Hand-dug Caissons. Hong Kong Institution of

Engineers. 15 p.
Labour Department (1985). A Guide t o t h e Construction Sites (Safety)

Regulations. Hong Kong Government Printer, 48 p.
Labour Department (1986). Reference Manual for Construction Sites I n s ~ e c t i o n

Re~ot-t. Hong Kong Government Printer. 24 p.
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GEOGUIDE 2

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

© The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

Geotechnical Engineering Office,

Government Publications Centre,

Overseas orders should be placed with:

Publications Sales Section,

Price in Hong Kong: HK$80

Price overseas: US$18.5 (including surface postage)

Cheques, bank drafts or money orders must be made payable to

This Geoguide covers Sections 1 t o 7 of BS 5930, while Section 8 i s

I t should be noted t h a t t h i s Geoguide gives guidance on good s i t e

The Geoguide was p r e p a r e d in t h e Geotechnical Control Office ( G C O )

Practitioners a r e encouraged t o comment a t a n y time t o t h e Geotechnical

PART I 1 : GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

3, PRIMARY OBJECTIVES OF S I T E INVESTIGATION

4.2 DESK STUDY

4.4 DETAILED EXAMINATION AND SPECIAL S T U D I E S

4.5 CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE A P P R A I S A L

5. EARLIER USES OF THE SITE

5.3 MINES AND QUARRIES

5.5 OTHER EARLIER U S E S

5.6 ANCIENT MONUMENTS

6.2 T O P O G R A P H I C M A P S AND A E R I A L P H O T O G R A P H I C IMAGERY

6.3 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION

PART I 1 1 : PLANNING THE GROUND INVESTIGATION

7, INTRODUCTION TO GROUND INVESTIGATION

7.2 P L A N N I N G AND CONTROL

8, TYPES OF GROUND INVESTIGATION

8.4 M A T E R I A L S FOR CONSTRUCTION P U R P O S E S

9, GEOLOGICAL MAPPING FOR GROUND INVESTIGATION

10, EXTENT OF THE GROUND INVESTIGATION

10.2 C H A R A C T E R AND V A R I A B I L I T Y O F T H E GROUND

10.3 NATURE O F THE PROJECT

10.4 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION

10.7 DEPTH O F EXPLORATION

11, SELECTION OF GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS

12, EFFECT OF GROUND CONDITIONS ON INVESTIGATION METHODS

12.2 GRANULAR S O I L S CONTAINING B O U L D E R S , C O B B L E S

12.5 VERY S O F T T O S O F T COHESIVE S O I L S

12.6 FIRM TO S T I F F COHESIVE S O I L S

13, AGGRESSIVE GROUND AND GROUNDWATER 65

13.2 INVESTIGATION O F POTENTIAL DETERIORATION O F CONCRETE 65

13.3 INVESTIGATION O F P O T E N T I A L CORROSION O F S T E E L 65

14, GROUND INVESTIGATIONS OVER WATER

14.3 FLOATING CRAFT

14.5 LOCATING BOREHOLE P O S I T I O N S

14.6 DETERMINATION O F REDUCED L E V E L S

15. PERSONNEL FOR GROUND INVESTIGATION

15.3 SUPERVISION IN THE FIELD

15.4 LOGGING AND D E S C R I P T I O N O F GROUND C O N D I T I O N S

16. REVIEW DURING CONSTRUCTION

16.3 INFORMATION REQUIRED

16.3.1 Soil and R o c k

PART I V : GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS

17, INTRODUCTION TO GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS

18, EXCAVATIONS AND BOREHOLES

18.4 HAND A U G E R BORING

18.7 ROTARY O P E N H O L E D R I L L I N G AND ROTARY C O R E D R I L L I N G

18.8 WASH B O R I N G AND O T H E R M E T H O D S

19, SAMPLING THE GROUND

19.2 SAMPLE QUALITY