BLOCK DIAGRAM

- A shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause and effect relationship

between the input and the output of a physical system

SIMPLEST FORM OF A BLOCK DIAGRAM

*block diagram provides a convenient and useful method for characterizing the
functional relationships among the various components of a control system

INPUT- the stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external

source, usually in order to produce a specified response from the control system.
- represents a desired response;

OUTPUT- the actual response obtained from a control system

Components of a block diagram for a linear time-invariant system

SUMMING POINT -a device that combines the inputs according to the signs
associated with the arrows

TAKEOFF/ PICKOFF- POINT - permits the signal to proceed unaltered along

several paths to several destinations
OPEN LOOP SYSTEM

- One in which the control action is independent of the output

Features:
1. Their ability to perform correctly is determined by their calibration
2. Does not monitor or correct the output for disturbances simpler and less
expensive

Example: toasters, washing machine, traffic control

 Calibration- to establish or re-establish the input-output relation to obtain a

desired system accuracy

CLOSED LOOP (feedback control) SYSTEMS

- One in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output.

Example: automatic toaster, autopilot mechanism and the airplane it controls

Features:
 Greater accuracy
 Less sensitive to noise, disturbances and changes in the environment
 Transient response and steady- state error can be controlled more
conveniently; usually by simple amplification or redesigning of controller
o Compensating- redesign
o Compensator- resulting hardware
 This system is more complex and expensive than Open Loop Systems

Feedback - property of a closed loop system which permits the output to be

compared with the input to the system so that the appropriate control action may be
performed as some function of the output and input.

Characteristics of Feedback:
1. Increased accuracy
2. Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of output to input variations in system
characteristics
3. Reduced effects of nonlinearities and distortion
4. Increased bandwidth
5. Tendency toward oscillation or instability

Lowercase letters- used to represent the input and output variables of each element
as well as symbols for blocks. These quantities represent functions of time.
Ex. r= r(t)

Capital letters- denote the Laplace transform quantities as functions of the

complex variable, s, or Fourier transformed quantities as functions of the pure
imaginary variable jω
Ex. R= R(s) R(jω) – never abbreviated

Plant, g2 – also called the controlled system

- The body, process, or machine, of which a particular quantity or condition is
to be controlled
- Maybe a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts functioning
together, the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation

Control elements, g1 – also called the controller

 - The components required to generate the appropriate control signal, m,
applied to the plant

Reference input, r – an external signal applied to a feedback control system in

order to command a specific action of the plant

Controlled output, c – quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled

Primary feedback signal, b – signal which is a function of the controlled output, c,

and which is algebraically summed with the reference input, r, to obtain the
actuating signal, e

Actuating signal, e- also called the error or control action

- Algebraic sum consisting of the reference input, r, plus or minus the primary
feedback, b

Manipulated variable, m- also called the control signal

- Quantity or condition which the control elements, g1, apply to the plant g2

Disturbance, u- an undesired input signal which affects the value of the controlled
output, c
- a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output system; if the
disturbance is generated within the system it is called internal; and external if
generated outside the system and is an input

Forward path- the transmission path from the actuating signal, e, to the controlled
output, c

Feedback path- transmission path from the controlled output, c, to the primary
feedback signal, b

Problems considered in control systems engineering

1. Analysis of a control system configuration
a. Investigation of properties of an existing system
2. Design of a control system configuration
a. Choice and arrangement of control system components to perform a
specific task

Two methods for design

 1. Design by analysis- accomplished by modifying the characteristics of an
existing or standard system configuration
2. Design by synthesis- defining the form of the system directly from its
specifications

Three basic representations (models) of Physical components and systems:

1. Differential equations and other mathematical realtions
2. Block diagrams
3. Signal flow graphs

Transducer- a device which converts one energy form into another

Command Reference input

transducer
v r

Command, v- an input signal, usually equal to the reference input

-if the energy form of the command is not the same as that of the primary
feedback, b, a transducer is required

Negative feedback- when the summing point is a subtractor

e=r–b
Positive feedback- when the summing point is an adder
e=r+b
Stimulus – any externally introduced input signal affecting the controlled output, c

Time response- the output as a function of time, c(t)

Servomechanism- a power - amplifying feedback control system in which the
controlled variable, c, is mechanical position, or a time derivative of position such
as velocity or acceleration

Regulator or regulating systems - a feedback control system in which the

reference input or command is constant for long periods of time often for the entire
interval during which the system is operational

RESPONSE

TOTAL RESPONSE, y(t)

-the total response of a linear constant coefficient differential equation is
the sum of the natural and forced response

y ( t ) = y a ( t ) + y b (t )

STEADY- STATE RESPONSE, y ss (t)

- the part of the total response which does not approach zero as time approaches
infinity
- steady state error

TRANSIENT RESPONSE, y T (t)

- the part of the total response which approaches zero as time approaches
infinity
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

disturbanc
e

u
Reference Actuating Control Manipulated Plant Controlled
input signal variable output
elements
g2
r m c
g1
Forward path

Primary
feedback Feedback
signal elements

h
Feedback path