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Hacène Belbachir1
USTHB, Department of Mathematics, P.O.Box 32 El Alia, 16111, Bab Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria
hbelbachir@usthb.dz and hacenebelbachir@gmail.com
Farid Bencherif2
USTHB, Department of Mathematics, P.O.Box 32 El Alia, 16111, Bab Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria
fbencherif@usthb.dz and fbencherif@yahoo.fr
Abstract
In this paper, we establish a formula expressing explicitly the general term of a linear recur-
rent sequence, allowing us to generalize the original result of J. McLaughlin [7] concerning
powers of a matrix of size 2, to the case of a square matrix of size m ≥ 2. Identities concerning
Fibonacci and Stirling numbers and various combinatorial relations are derived.
1. Introduction
Then, for n ≥ 1,
! "
n yn − dyn−1 byn−1
A = . (2)
cyn−1 yn − ayn−1
1
Partially supported by the laboratory LAID3.
2
Partially supported by the laboratory LATN.
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 2
We remark that in this theorem, (yn )n≥−1 is a linear recurrent sequence that satisfies
y−1 = 0,
y0 = 1, (3)
yn = T yn−1 − Dyn−2 for all integer n ≥ 1.
! " ! "
1 0 −d b
By setting A0 = and A1 = , relation (2) of Theorem 1 may be
0 1 c −a
written as follows:
An = yn A0 + yn−1 A1 for all integers n ≥ 0, (4)
with A0 = I2 and A1 = A − T I2 (where I2 is the unit matrix).
In Section 3, we extend this result (relation (4)) to any matrix A ∈ Mm (A) of order
m ≥ 2, A being a unitary commutative ring.
In this section, we generalize Theorem 2, which permits us to express the general term
un of a recurrent linear sequence satisfying the relation
un = a1 un−1 + a2 un−2 + · · · + am un−m for all n ≥ 1,
in terms of the coefficients a1 , a2 , . . . , am and u0 , u−1 , u−2 , . . . , u−(m−1) . Applications to
Fibonacci, generalized Fibonacci and “multibonacci” sequences are also given.
As an illustration, we give a nice duality between the two following relations (Corollaries
5 and 7):
# ! " '
! "k1 ! "km ! "
k1 + · · · + k m n−( mi=1 ki )
m m n+m−1
(−1) ... = ,
k 1 , . . . , km m−1 0 m−1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =n
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 3
# ! " '
( )k1 ( )km * +
k1 + · · · + km n−( m k
i=1 i ) m m n + m − 1
(−1) ... = ,
k 1 , . . . , km m−1 0 m−1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =n
! " ( ) * +
k1 + · · · + km n n
where is the multinomial coefficient (Section 2), and and
k 1 , . . . , km k k
are, respectively, the Stirling numbers of the first and second kind as defined in [5].
Let us define the sequence (yn )n∈Z of elements of A, with the convention that an empty
sum is zero, by
# ! "
k1 + k 2 + · · · + k m
yn = ak11 ak22 . . . akmm , for n ∈ Z, (6)
k 1 , k 2 , . . . , km
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =n
the summation being taken over all m-tuples (k1 , k2 , . . . , km ) of integers kj ≥ 0 satisfying
k1 + 2k2 + · · · + mkm = n. With the previous convention, we have yn = 0 for n < 0. The
multinomial coefficient that appears in the summation is defined for integers k1 , k2 , . . . ,
km ≥ 0, by ! "
k1 + k2 + · · · + km (k1 + k2 + · · · + km )!
= ,
k 1 , k 2 , . . . , km k1 !k2 ! · · · km !
and can always be written as a product of binomial coefficients
! " ! " ! "! "
k1 + k 2 + · · · + k m k1 + k2 + · · · + km k1 + k2 + k3 k1 + k2
= ··· .
k 1 , k 2 , . . . , km k1 + k2 + · · · + km−1 k1 + k2 k1
Lemma 2. The sequence (yn )n∈Z , defined by relation (6) , satisfies the recurrence relation
'
m
Applying Lemma 1, we obtain aj yn−j = yn . The relations y0 = 1 and yn = 0 for n < 0
j=1
follow immediately. !
Corollary 1. Let q ≥ 1 be an integer, a, b ∈ A, and let (vn )n≥−q be the sequence of elements
of A defined by
v−j = 0 for 1 ≤ j ≤ q,
v0 = 1, (7)
vn+1 = avn + bvn−q for n ≥ 0.
q+1 & !
%#n
"
n − kq
vn = an−k(q+1) bk , (8)
k
k=0
q+1 &
%#
n+1
! "
n + 1 − k (q − 1) n + 1 − kq
vn+1 + bvn−q = 2vn+1 − avn = an+1−k(q+1) bk . (9)
n + 1 − kq k
k=0
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 5
q+1 &!
%#
n+1
" q+1 & !
%#
n−q
"
n + 1 − kq n+1−k(q+1) k n − (k + 1) q
vn+1 + bvn−q = a b + an−q−(q+1)k bk+1
k k
k=0 k=0
%#&!
n+1
q+1 " q+1 & !
%#
n+1
"
n + 1 − kq n+1−k(q+1) k n − kq
= a b + an+1−k(q+1) bk
k k−1
k=0 k=1
q+1 &!
%#
n+1
" q+1 &
%#
n+1
! "
n + 1 − kq n+1−k(q+1) k n + 1 − kq
= a b + k
n+1−kq
an+1−k(q+1) bk
k k
k=0 k=0
q+1 &
%#
n+1
! "
n + 1 − k (q − 1) n + 1 − kq
= an+1−k(q+1) bk .
n + 1 − kq k
k=0
the relation given in [pp. 18-20, 12], and announced in [9] . Also
%#2 &
n+1
! "
n+1 n+1−k
Fn + Fn+2 = , for n ≥ 0,
n+1−k k
k=0
and we find the relations given in Problem 6.98 of [10] , which state that
#n ! "
2n 2n − k
F2n−1 + F2n+1 =
2n − k k
k=0
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 6
and n ! "
# 2n + 1 2n + 1 − k
F2n + F2n+2 = .
2n + 1 − k k
k=0
, -
(q)
Application 2. For q ≥ 1, let Gn be the generalized Fibonacci sequence as cited in
, - n≥0
(q)
[8] , and let Hn be a sequence of numbers defined as follows:
n≥0
. (q) (q) (q)
. (q) (q) (q)
G0 = G1 = · · · = Gq = 1, H0 = H1 = · · · = Hq = 1,
(q) (q) (q)
and (q) (q) (q)
Gn+1 = Gn + Gn−q for n ≥ q, Hn+1 = Hn − Hn−q for n ≥ q.
We can extend easily the above sequences to (Gn )n≥−q and (Hn )n≥−q by
(q) (q)
G−j = 0 for 1 ≤ j ≤ q,
H−j = 0 for 1 ≤ j ≤ q,
(q) (q)
G0 = 1, and H0 = 1,
(q) (q) (q) (q) (q) (q)
Gn+1 = Gn + Gn−q for n ≥ 0, Hn+1 = Hn − Hn−q for n ≥ 0.
q+1 & !
%#n
" q+1 &
%#n
! "
n − kq k n − kq
G(q)
n = , and Hn(q) = (−1) .
k k
k=0 k=0
(1) (2)
Notice that Gn = Fn+1 = ϕn , and Hn is the integer function studied by L. Bernstein
(2)
[1] , who showed that the only zeros of Hn are at n = 3 and n = 12. This result was treated
also by L. Carlitz [2, 3] and recently by J. McLaughlin and B. Sury [8].
Let (λj )0≤j≤m−1 and (yn )n>−m be the sequences of elements of A defined by
m−1
#
λj = − ak−j αk , for 0 ≤ j ≤ m − 1, with a0 = −1, (11)
k=j
and ! "
# k1 + k2 + · · · + k m
yn = ak11 ak22 . . . akmm , for n > −m.
k 1 , k 2 , . . . , km
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =n
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 7
Then for all integer n > −m, we have un = λ0 yn + λ1 yn+1 + · · · + λm−1 yn+m−1 .
where
0 if i > j,
C = (cij )1≤i,j≤m , with cij = 1 if i = j,
−aj−i if i < j.
We deduce also from relations (10) and (12) the matrix equality
un yn yn+1 · · · yn+m−2 yn+m−1
un+1 yn+1 yn+2 · · · yn+m−1 yn+m
.. .
.. .. .. .. ..
. = . . . . ×
un+m−2 yn+m−2 yn+m−1 · · · yn+2m−4 yn+2m−3
un+m−1 yn+m−1 yn+m · · · yn+2m−3 yn+2m−2
1 −a1 −a2 · · · −am−1 α0
. ..
0 1 −a1 . . . α1
..
× ... ..
.
..
.
..
. −a2 .
0 0 1 −a1 αm−2
0 0 ··· 0 1 αm−1
Proof. Let S be the A-module of sequences (vn )n>−m satisfying the recurrence relation
(0)
vn = yn ,
(1)
vn = yn+1 − a1 yn ,
(2)
vn = yn+2 − a1 yn+1 − a2 yn ,
..
.
v (m−1) = y
n n+m−1 − a1 yn+m−2 − a2 yn+m−3 − · · · − am−1 yn ,
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 8
i.e.,
By Theorem 2, we have (yn )n>−m ∈ S. Consequently, (yn+q )n>−m ∈ S for q ≥ 0, and finally
we deduce that
6 (k) 7
vn n>−m ∈ S, for 0 ≤ k ≤ m − 1. (14)
'
m−1
(k)
Relations (14) and (15) give easily, that for all n > −m,un = αk vn and, with (13) ,
k=0
m−1
8 k 9
# #
un = αk −ai yn+k−i
k=0 i=0
m−1
## k
= −ak−j αk yn+j
k=0 j=0
m−1
8m−1 9
# #
= −ak−j αk yn+j
j=0 k=j
m−1
#
= λj yn+j ,
j=0
Remark. In this summation, we may, in fact, restrict the sum to those integers i ranging
between n+1
3
and n+1
2
, the binomial coefficient of the formula being zero for the other integers.
Proof. Note that Fn = 2Fn−2 +Fn−3 for n ≥ 3. Denoting by (yn )n≥−2 the sequence defined by
y−2 = y−1 = 0,
y0 = 1,
yn = 2yn−2 + yn−3 for n ≥ 1,
we see that, for n ≥ 1,Fn = yn−1 + yn−2 . Theorem 3 allows us to state that, for n ≥ −2,
# ! k+l " # ! t
"
k
yn = 2 = 23t−n ,
l n − 2t
2k+3l=n 0≤t≤n
Thus,
# ! " %#
q+1 &
n
! "
k1 + · · · + kq n − k (q − 1) n − kq
= 2n−1−k(q+1) (−1)k . (17)
k 1 , . . . , kq n − kq k
k1 +2k2 +···+qkq =n k=0
For q = 3, we obtain
# ! i+j+k " # ! n − i − 2j " ! i + j "
=
i, j, k i+j i
i+2j+3k=n 2i+3j≤n
%#
4&
n
! "
n − 2k k n − 3k
= (−1) 2n−1−4k .
n − 3k k
k=0
For 0 ≤ k ≤ m − 1, we have
Relation (20) shows that the degree of Pk is k for 0 ≤ k ≤ m. It implies that (P0 , P1 , . . . , Pm−1 )
is a basis of the free A-module Am−1 [X] consisting of polynomials of A [X] of degree ≤ m−1.
m−1
#
Rn = αn,k Pk . (22)
k=0
As a consequence, the polynomial Rn+1 (X) − XRn (X) − αn,m−1 Pm (X) , of degree ≤ m − 1,
is divisible by Pm (X), which is of degree m. This polynomial is thus the zero polynomial as
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 12
well as its components in the basis (P0 , P1 , . . . , Pm−1 ). This provides us with the following
relations:
m−1
#
αn+1,0 = ak+1 αn,k , for n ≥ 0, (24)
k=0
This last fact, together with the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem, (22) , (20) , (18) and (27) now
give that
m−1
# m−1
# m−1
#
n
A = Rn (A) = αn,i Pi (A) = zn−i Ai = yn−i Ai .
i=0 i=0 i=0
Some nice combinatorial identities can be derived from Theorem 4 by considering various
particular matrices with simple forms.
! "
n+m−1
where is the number of m- combinations with repetition of finite set {1, . . . , n} ,
m−1
and the summation is taken over all m-tuples (k1 , k2 , . . . , km ) of integers kj ≥ 0 satisfying
the relation k1 + 2k2 + · · · + mkm = n.
1 1 0··· 0
. . . ..
0 1 1 .
... ...
Jm =
0 0 0 .
.. .. . .
. . . 1 1
0 0 ··· 0 1
!! ""
m n n
The characteristic polynomial of Jm is (X − 1) . We also have Jm = .
j−i 1≤i,j≤m
Applying Theorem 4 with ! A = Jm", and considering the (1, m) entries of both sides of
n
(19), we obtain the relation = yn−(m−1) , which leads to the result. !
m−1
From Corollary 4, we obtain the following combinatorial identities, for m = 2, 3, 4.
# ! "
i n−i
(−1) 2n−2i = n + 1,
i
2i≤n
Like J. Mc Laughlin and B. Sury [8, Corollary 6], we can also derive Corollary 4 from the
following result.
Corollary 5. ([8,#
Theorem 1]) Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xm be elements of the unitary commutative
ring A with sk = xi1 xi2 · · · xik , for 1 ≤ k ≤ m. Then, for each positive integer n,
1≤i1 <i2 <···<ik ≤m
# # ! "
k1 + · · · + k m
xk11 . . . xkmm = (−1)n−k1 −···−km sk11 . . . skmm ,
k 1 , . . . , km
k1 +k2 +···+km =n k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =n
with the summations being taken over all m-tuples (k1 , k2 , . . . , km ) of integers kj ≥ 0 satis-
fying the relations k1 + k2 + · · · + km = n for the left-hand side and k1 + 2k2 + · · · + mkm = n
for the right-hand side.
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 14
Thus,
X m − s1 X m−1 + · · · + (−1)m sm = (X − x1 ) (X − x2 ) · · · (X − xm ) .
This polynomial has m distincts roots x1 , x2 , . . . , xm . We deduce that there exist m elements
Ai = Ai (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) ∈ K (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) , 1 ≤ i ≤ m, such that
m
#
qn = Ai xni for n ≥ −m.
i=1
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 15
m
# Ai
The initial conditions given by (28) lead to the Cramer system = δj,0 for 0 ≤ j ≤
i=1
xji
m − 1. The resolution of this system gives
, -
V x11 , . . . , xi−1
1 1
, 0, xi+1 , . . . , x1m xm−1
i
Ai = , -=: , for 1 ≤ i ≤ m.
1 1 1 1 1
V x1 , . . . , xi−1 , xi , xi+1 , . . . , xm j'=i (x i − xj )
( )
k m
If we take xk = − (k − 1) for 1 ≤ k ≤ m, we have sk = (−1) , for 1 ≤ k ≤ m,
m−k
and relation (32) gives the following result
Note that Theorem 5 gives the following relation, which is stated in [p. 42, (Vol. 2), 4].
* + #
n+m−1
For all positive integers m and n, = 1k1 2k2 . . . (m − 1)km−1 .
m−1
k1 +···+km−1 =n
# ! "! "
i n − i − 2j i+j 3n+2 − 2n+3 + 1
(−1) 6n−2i−2j 11i = ,
i+j i 2
2i+3j≤n
Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to the referee and would like to thank him/her
for comments which improved the quality of this paper.
INTEGERS: ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL NUMBER THEORY 6 (2006), #A12 17
References
8 9
# n − 2i
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