A

TRAINING REPORT
ON
TRANSMISSION LINE
COMPLETED AT
MAHANAGAR TELEPHONE
NIGAM LIMITED

{Submitted under partial fulfillment of the award of the degree of B. Tech. in

Electronics & Communication of Punjab College Of Engineering And Technology,
Mohali}

Session 2008-2012

Department of Electronics & Communication

(PUNJAB COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, PUNJAB)

Submitted to:
Submitted by:
Mr.S.P Singhla
MOHIT SHARMA
Head of Department
II YEAR (4thSem.)
1
Electronics and communication
ECE PCET, MOHALI

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Er. Parveen Bajaj(Training & Placement Officer) for recommending me

for the summer/ vocational training at MahaNagar Telephone Nigam Limited, New
Delhi.

I am very thankful to Er. S.P Singla (HOD ECE Dept.) for permitting me to undertake the
my summer/vocational training at MTNL premises.

I also appreciate Mr. P.K Vij (Instructor) for furnishing and nourishing us with the
knowledge of concerned subject. I extend my hearty gratitude for him for helping us
through rough course with so much ease and navigating me whenever I lost my way.

I am also very much thankful to all the members of OFC Station for giving time and
support during the training session so that I can complete my due course with full
dedication, attention and interest.

MOHIT SHARMA

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 CONTENTS

1) Acknowledgement 2

2) Company Profile 4

3) MTNL Services 5

4) Making a telephone call 6

5) About a telephone exchange 7

6) Section Visited 8

7) E10B Switching 9

8) Broadband 11

9) OCB Exchange 12

10) 5ESS Switch 13

11) MDF 17

12) Mobile Comm. 19

13) Optical Fiber Comm. 32

14) Specification of Optical Fiber 39

15) Bibliography 40

4
 COMPANY PROFILE

MTNL was set up on 1st April, 1986 by the Government of India to upgrade the quality of
telecom services, expand the telecom network, introduce new services and to raise revenue for
telecom development needs of India’s key metros – Delhi, the political capital and Mumbai,
the business capital of India. In the past 17 years, the company has taken rapid strides to
emerge as India’s leading and one of Asia’s largest telecom operating companies. Besides
having a strong financial base, MTNL has achieved a market share of approximately 13% of
the Indian telecommunication network with a customer base of over 4.74 million lines.

The company has also been in the forefront of technology induction by converting 100% of
its telephone exchange network into the state-of-the-art digitalmode.

In the year 2002-03, the company has not only consolidated the gains but also focused on
new areas of enterprise viz. Joint Ventures for projects outside India, widened the cellular and
CDMA-based WLL customer base , set up internet and allied services on all india basis.

MTNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure

that provides convergent services like voice, data and video through the same Backbone and
Broadband Access Network. At present there are 0.6 million DataOne broadband customers.
The company has vast experience in Planning, Installation, network integration and
Maintenance of Switching & Transmission Networks and also has a world class ISO 9000
certified Telecom Training Institute. BSNL plans to expand its customer base from present 73
millions lines to 125 million lines and infrastructure investment plan to the tune of Rs. 733
crores (US$ 16.67 million) in the next three years. Today, BSNL is India's largest Telco and
one of the largest Public Sector Undertaking with estimated market value of $ 100 Billion. The
company is planning an IPO with in 6 months to offload 10% to public in the Rs 300-400 range
valuing the company at over $100 billion.

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MTNL-SERVICES
When it comes connecting the four corners of the country , and much beyond , one solitary
name lies embedded at the pinnacle- MTNL. A company that has gone past the number games
and the quest to attain the position of the leader. It is working round the clock to take India in
to the future by providing excellent telecom services for people of India.
Driven by the very best of telecom technology from global leaders, it connects each inch of
India to the infinite corners of the globe, to enable you to step in to tomorrow.
The telecom services have been recognized the world over as an important tool for socio-
economic development for a nation and hence telecom infrastructure is treated a crucial factor
to realize the socio-economic objectives in India. Accordingly the Department of Telecom has
been formulating developmental policies for the accelerated growth of the telecommunication
services in various cities. The department is also responsible for frequency management in the
field of radio connection in close coordination with the international bodies.

MAKING A TELEOHONE CALL

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 A telephone call starts when the caller lifts the handsets of the base. Once the dial tone is
heard, the caller uses a rotary or a push button dial mounted either on the handset or on the
base to enter a sequence of digits, the telephone number of called party. The switching
equipment from the exchange removes the dial tone from the line after the first digit is received
and after receiving the last digit, determines the called party is in the same exchange or a
different ones. If the called is in the same exchange, burst of ringing current is applied to the
called party’s line. Each telephone contains a ringer that responds to specific electric
frequency. When the called party answers the telephone by pocking up the handset, steady start
to flow in the called party’s line and is detected by the exchange. The exchange than stops
applying ringing and sets up the connection between the caller and the called party. If the
called party is in different exchange from the caller, the caller exchange set up the connection
over the telephone network to the called party’s exchange. The called party then handles the
process of ringing, detecting an answer, and notifying the calling and billing machinery when
the call is completed. When conversation is over, one or both parties hang up by replacing their
handset on the base, stopping the flow of current. The exchange when initiates the process of
taking down the connection, including notifying billing equipment of the duration of the call if
appropriate.

ABOUT A TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

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 All telephone subscribers are served by automatic exchanges, which perform the functions
the human operator. The number being dialed is stored and then passed to the exchange’s
central computer, which in turns operates the switching to complete the call or routes it a
higher level switch for further processing. Today’s automatic exchanges uses a pair of
computers, one running the program that provides services and the second monitoring the
operation of the first, ready to take over in a few seconds in the event of equipment failure.

Various telephone exchanges present in mtnl-

E-10B
OCB283
EWSD

All exchange has some purposes and some basic structural units, which are:

1. subscribers connection unit

2. switching network (CX)
3. control unit
4. OFC

For smooth working of an exchange following unit are very important:-

1. Computer Unit: - it deals with additional services of the exchange to the customers with
the help of computers.

2. Power Plant:- to feed proper power supply to exchange

3. AC Plant: - to maintain the continuous temperature + or – 2 degree Celsius to the digital

switch (exchange).

4. MDF: - to connect switch (exchange) with the external environment (subscriber) i.e. it is the
interface between subscribers and exchange.

SECTIONS VISITED:
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  E-10B SWITCHING
 OCB SWITCHING
 MDF
 TRANSMISSION SECTION
 POWER STATION
 BROAD BAND
 COSTUMER CARE

E-10B (ELECTRONICS - 10 BINARY)

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 Here we came to know about function of:--

OMC: -- Operation maintenance centre.

OC:--Monitoring unit.
ETA:--Frequency sender and receiver.
URM:--Multiplex connection unit.(5 unit)
CSE:--Subscriber connection unit.
DSF:--Stand by charge unit.
MR:--Multiresistor (5 unit)
MQ:--Marker (2 unit)
TR:--Translator (2 unit)
TX:--Tax (charging unit) (2 unit)
RLM:--Remote lining unit.
COM:--Switching module.
CX: -- Switching unit.

TAX (Trunk auto exchange)

This section deals when a caller picks up the receiver, gets the dial tone and how the call is
made and processed.

Transmission

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 The call is transmitted from telephone to:

Caller
/
D.P
/
Pillar
/
MDF
/
Exchange
/
Tax
/
Exchange
/
MDF
\
Pillar
\
D.P
\
Receiver

There are two types of media:

• Guided Media (OFC)

• Un-Guided Media.

BROADBAND
A trend of changes in telecommunication technology is very fast. The need of
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 hour is large bandwidth and its optimum utilization at reasonable cost. Any data access
rate more than 2Mbps is considered as broadband access.
As per the recent broadband policy of govt. of India, access rate over 256kbps
will come under category of broadband access.

Equipment's required in customer premises are

• Filter:-The filter separates out the signal for telephone. (Called as Splitter)
• Modem:-The modem directs the signal to PC and TV.
• Set Top Box (STB)-The STB converts the digital IP based signal to a form
compatible with the TV set.
• PC and TV

What is DSL?
• A high speed digital communication line
• Has several advantages over other high speed communication solutions.
• DSL runs on existing copper
• DSL helps carriers reduce congestion on their voice-switching systems
• Very high speed.

Data Card

There are two type of data card:

1. IX data card (speed -144kbps (max))
2. E-VDO data card (speed - 2Mbps)

OCB EXCHANGE SYSTEM

SALIENT FEATURES
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 • OCB stands for organ control bhersion.
• Digital switching system developed by CIT ALCATEL of France.
• OMC & S/N duplicated.
• Varieties of service provided are: basic telephony, ISDN, Mobile, Videotext etc.
• Supports different types of signaling system.
• Max. no. of junctions may be 60000 and 35 types of cards can be used.
• Less space requirement.
• Automatic fault recovery and remote monitoring.
• Environmental requirement is not very stringent.

MAJOR UNITS OF OCB SYSTEM

Subscriber Connection Unit (CSN)

A CSN basically consists of 1 basic rack and 3 extension racks capacity of CSN is
5000.Subs may be analog and digital.

Trunk & Junction Connection Unit (SMT)

It is the interface between switching network and junctions from other exchanges (or
remote connection unit).

Switching Matrix

The Switching matrix is a single stage ‘t’ made up of host switching matrix and branch
selection & amplification function, SMX is duplicated.

Auxilliary Equipment Control Station

It consists of frequency receiver/generator conference call CCTS, tone generators etc,

Control Unit (SMC)

The six control units are as under:

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 • Multi register (MR) for connecting and disconnecting calls.
• Translator (TR) for storing exchange database.
• Charging unit (TX) for carrying out charging jobs.
• Marker (MQ) for performing connection & disconnection of subscribers.
• Ccs-7 controller (PC) for carrying out routing & traffic management functions.
• Matrix system handler (GX) for monitoring connection in S/N.

Operation & Maintenance Unit (SMM)

It is OMC for supervising functions of different units and for taking suitable actions at the
event of faults. Magnetic disks each of capability 1.2 GB for various stages.

In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of

electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical
building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make
phone calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information.

5ESS SWITCH
The 5ESS Switch is the Class 5 telephone electronic switching system sold by Alcatel-Lucent.
This digital central office telephone circuit switching system is used by many
telecommunications service providers.

History
The 5ESS Class 5 Switch first appeared in Seneca, Illinois (815 Area Code) in 1982, and
slowly replaced the 1ESS switch and other electromechanical and analog systems in the 1980s
and 1990s. The 5ESS was also used as a Class 4 telephone switch or as a mixed Class 4/5 in
markets too small for a 4ESS switch. Approximately half of all U.S. telephone exchanges are
serviced by 5ESS switches. The 5ESS is also exported internationally, and manufactured
outside of the U.S. under license.

Lucent Technologies (now part of Alcatel-Lucent) was formerly the AT&T Network Systems
division of AT&T, which in turn was formerly known as Western Electric. The 5ESS came to
market as the Western Electric 5ESS, and was most recently marketed under the Alcatel-
Lucent name.

Architecture
5ESS has three main kinds of Module: AM is Administrative Module, which contains the
central computers. CM is Communications Module, which is the central time-divided switch
of the system. SM is Switching Module which in most exchanges is the majority of
14
equipment. SM performs multiplexing, analog/digital coding, and other work to interface with
the outside world. Each has a controller, a small computer whose CPUs and memories, like
most common equipment of the exchange, are duplicated for redundancy.

5ESS runs on a Time-Space-Time (TST) topology. The Time-Slot-Interchangers (TSI) in the

Switching Modules (SM) assign each phone call to a time slot for routing through the CM.

Distributed system lessens the load on the Central Administrative Module (AM) or main
computer. AM is a dual processor mini main frame computer of the AT&T 3B series, running
UNIX-RTR. AM contains the hard drives and tape drives used to load and backup the central
and peripheral processor software and translations. Disk drives were originally several 300
megabyte SMD multiplatter units in a separate frame. Now they consist of several redundant
multi-gigabyte SCSI drives that each reside on a card. Tape drives were originally half inch
open reel at 6250 bits per inch, which were replaced in the early 1990s with 4 mm Digital
Audio Tape cassettes.

Power for all circuitry is distributed as -48VDC and converted to logic or telephone voltages as
needed by DC to DC converters on each shelf of circuit packs.

Switching Module (SM)

Each SM handles several hundred to few thousand telephone lines or several hundred trunks or
mixture thereof. Each has its own processors, which perform most call handling processes,
using their own memory boards. Originally the peripheral processors were to be Intel 8086, but
those proved inadequate and the system was introduced with Motorola 68000 series processors.
The name of the cabinet that houses this equipment was changed at the same time from
Interface Module to Switching Module.

T-carrier spans are terminated, one or two per card, in Digital Line Trunk Units (DLTU) which
concentrate their DS0 channels into the TSI. Larger DS3 signals can also have their DS0
signals switched in Digital Network Unit SONET (DNUS) units, without demultiplexing them
into DS1. SMs have Dual Link Interface (DLI) cards to connect them by multimode optical
fibers to the Communications Modules for time divided switching to other SMs. Calls among
the lines and trunks of a particular SM needn't go through CM, and an SM located remotely can
act as distributed switching, administered from the central AM. Each SM has two Module
Controller/Time Slot Interchange (MCTSI) circuits for redundancy.

In contrast to Nortel's DMS-100 which uses individual line cards with a codec, most lines are
on two stage analog space division concentrators or Line Units, which connect as many as 512
lines as needed, to the 8 Channel cards that each contain 8 codecs, and to high level service
circuits for ringing and testing. Both stages of concentration are included on the same grid
board. Each grid board serves 32 lines, 16 A links and 32 B links. Limited availability saves
money with incompletely filled matrixes. The Line Unit can have up to 16 grid boards
connecting to the channel boards by shared B links, but in offices with heavier traffic for lines
a lesser number of grid boards are equipped.

15
Since Line Units handle the high voltages and currents of analog lines, their cards fail at higher
rates than ones that handle only computer voltages. Some lines, especially ISDN or PBX ones,
are served by individual line cards in an Integrated Subscriber Line Unit.

The development effort for 5ESS reached 5000 employees, producing 100 million lines of
code, with 100 million lines of header and makefiles. Evolution of the system took place over
20 years, while three releases were often being developed simultaneously (each taking about 3
years to develop).

A 5ESS-2000 version, introduced in the 1990s, increased the capacity of the SM, with more
peripheral modules

Administrative Module (AM)

The Administrative Module (AM) of the 5ESS Switch is built on the 3B21D platform and is
used to load software to the many microprocessors throughout the switch and to provide high
speed control functions required by the AM. It provides messaging and interface to control
terminals. The AM of a 5ESS consists of the 3B20x or 3B21D processor unit, including I/O,
disks, and tape drive units. Once the 3B21D has loaded the software into the 5ESS and the
switch is activated, packet switching takes place without further action by the 3B21D. Because
the processor mirrors its functions, a failure of one side of the processor will not result in a loss
of switching.

Communication Module (CM)

The oddly named Communications Modules form the central time switch of the exchange.
CMs perform time divided switching and are provided in pairs; each module (cabinet)
belonging to Office Network and Timing Complex (ONTC) 0 or 1, roughly corresponding to
the switch planes of other designs. Each SM has four optical fiber links, two connecting to a
CM belonging to ONTC 0 and two to ONTC 1. Each optical link consists of two multimode
optical fibers with screw-on connectors to plug into transceivers mounted in metal cans
plugged into backplane wiring at each end. CMs receive time multiplexed signals on the
receive fiber, and send them to the appropriate destination SM on the send fiber.

Very Compact Digital Exchange

The VCDX (Very Compact Digital eXchange) was marketed to small telephone companies and
was used in some instances as a large PBX. It consisted of a single Switching Module, had no
Communications Module, and used a Sun Microsystems workstation as its Adminstrative
Module.

Signaling

The 5ESS has two different signaling architectures Common Network Interface (CNI) Ring
and Packet Switch Unit (PSU).
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MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME
The primary function of MDF is:
The fault of telephone number is removed in the MDF; it is called as Fault Remove Section.
For removing the fault of telephone number, we use the testing
These testing are T.T.Y. testing, Group testing, etc.
For any type of testing firstly we need the vertical no. or the live tester, printer and computer
test N.E. number of that particular telephone number.
The telephone numbers are also disconnected in the MDF because of some specific reason.

In telecommunications, a distribution frame is a passive device which terminates cables,

allowing arbitrary interconnections to be made.

For example, the Main Distribution Frame (MDF) located at a telephone central office
terminates the cables leading to subscribers on the one hand, and cables leading to active
equipment (such as DSLAMs and telephone switches) on the other. Service is provided to a
subscriber by manually wiring a twisted pair (called a jumper wire) between the telephone line
and the relevant DSL or POTS line circuit.

In broadcast engineering, a distribution frame is a location within an apparatus room through

which all signals (audio, video, or data) pass, with the ability to arbitrarily route and connect
sources and destinations between studios and other internal and external points. Connections
can either be soldered, or made using terminal blocks. Because the frame may carry live
broadcast signals, it may be considered part of the airchain.

Types
Distribution frames for specific types of signals often have specific acronyms:

• ADF - audio distribution frame

• DDF - digital distribution frame
• VDF - video distribution frame
• ODF or OFDF - optical fiber distribution frame[1]

Modernization
Distribution frames may grow to extremely large sizes. In major installations, audio
distribution frames can have as many as 10,000 incoming and outgoing separate copper wires.
(Balanced audio signals require two wires plus earth ground for each signal). Telephone signals
do not use a separate earth ground wire, but some urban exchanges have about 250,000 wires
on their MDF. Installing and rewiring these jumpers is a labour-intensive task, leading to
17
attempts in the industry to devise so-called active distribution frames or Automated Main
Distribution Frames. The principal issues which stand in the way of their widespread adoption
are cost and reliability.

Newer digital mixing consoles can act as control points for a distribution frame or router,
which can handle audio from multiple studios (even for multiple co-located radio or tv stations)
at the same time. Multiple smaller frames, such as one for each studio, can be linked together
with fibre-optics (which also helps eliminate ground loops), or with gigabit Ethernet. This has
the advantage of not having to route dozens of feeds through walls (and sometimes floors and
ceilings) to a single poin

ORGANISATION OF THE MDF

PARTS OF THE MDF

Horizontal side
Vertical side

HORIZONTAL SIDE:

It is again subdivided in to two parts

Exchange side
Line side

Description of the horizontal side:-

RACK: - On the rack, the tags are situated. One rack is having eight tags. The courting is done
from up (0) to down (7).

TAG: - Each rack consists of eight tags.

1 tag = 4 core
1 core = 4 bunch
1 bunch = 2 line

N.E.:- The word NE stands for the ‘NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT’.

It is a 128 pair cable. The EWSD and MDF connected by NE.

WEDGE:-If we want to disconnect any two numbers then we insert a wedge between
subscriber side and exchange side. Here wedge works as insulator made of plastic.

VERTICAL SIDE:
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The vertical aside connected to the underground cable. This cable is having 100 pairs.
These pair is distributed when we allot the telephone number to the subscriber.
Vertical side is again subdivided in two parts:

One part is connected with the horizontal side and another with the subscriber line by using
100 pair underground cable.

This is how the present day telephone system works. Different exchanges have different
architectures of switching call routing and other features.

Now let us see how BSNL has kept up with the changing world and provided the subscribers
with the latest facilities technologies, which include the V-SAT network, Internet, the WLL
(wireless in local loop) and the GSM mobile.

FIXED ASSIGNMENT TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (F-

TDMA)

In a fixed assignment TDMA, each frame is divided in to slots of fixed time durations
among stations of network. The assignment of stations to slots is permanent similar to
TDMA system carrying digitalized voice except FTDMA does not have synchronization.

FEATURES

1) No inter modulation problems.

2) Transport utilization is better.
3) Burst from different stations must arrive at satellite exactly in allocated slots.
4) Throughput is 70% to 80%
5) Delay – medium is too high.
6) Complexity-medium.

RANDOM ACCESS

With TDMA schemes, signals are transmitted by earth stations in a burst mode. If no
scheduling is provided b/w the transmitting station, this type of access is called time
random multiple access. This simplest method for the stations to transmit burst without
regard for other station.

MOBILE COMMUNICATION
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Mobile phones send and receive radio signals with any number of cell site base stations fitted
with microwave antennas. These sites are usually mounted on a tower, pole or building, located
throughout populated areas, then connected to a cabled communication network and switching
system. The phones have a low-power transceiver that transmits voice and data to the nearest
cell sites, normally not more than 8 to 13 km (approximately 5 to 8 miles) away.

When the mobile phone or data device is turned on, it registers with the mobile telephone
exchange, or switch, with its unique identifiers, and can then be alerted by the mobile switch
when there is an incoming telephone call. The handset constantly listens for the strongest signal
being received from the surrounding base stations, and is able to switch seamlessly between
sites. As the user moves around the network, the "handoffs" are performed to allow the device
to switch sites without interrupting the call.

Cell sites have relatively low-power (often only one or two watts) radio transmitters which
broadcast their presence and relay communications between the mobile handsets and the
switch. The switch in turn connects the call to another subscriber of the same wireless service
provider or to the public telephone network, which includes the networks of other wireless
carriers. Many of these sites are camouflaged to blend with existing environments, particularly
in scenic areas.

The dialogue between the handset and the cell site is a stream of digital data that includes
digitized audio (except for the first generation analog networks). The technology that achieves
this depends on the system which the mobile phone operator has adopted. The technologies are
grouped by generation. The first-generation systems started in 1979 with Japan, are all analog
and include AMPS and NMT. Second-generation systems, started in 1991 in Finland, are all
digital and include GSM, CDMA and TDMA.

The nature of cellular technology renders many phones vulnerable to 'cloning': anytime a cell
phone moves out of coverage (for example, in a road tunnel), when the signal is re-established,
the phone sends out a 're-connect' signal to the nearest cell-tower, identifying itself and
signaling that it is again ready to transmit. With the proper equipment, it's possible to intercept
the re-connect signal and encode the data it contains into a 'blank' phone -- in all respects, the
'blank' is then an exact duplicate of the real phone and any calls made on the 'clone' will be
charged to the original account.

Third-generation (3G) networks, which are still being deployed, began in 2001. They are all
digital, and offer high-speed data access in addition to voice services and include W-CDMA
(known also as UMTS), and CDMA2000 EV-DO. China will launch a third generation
technology on the TD-SCDMA standard. Operators use a mix of predesignated frequency
bands determined by the network requirements and local regulations.

In an effort to limit the potential harm from having a transmitter close to the user's body, the
first fixed/mobile cellular phones that had a separate transmitter, vehicle-mounted antenna, and

handset (known as car phones and bag phones) were limited to a maximum 3 watts Effective
Radiated Power. Modern handheld cell phones which must have the transmission antenna held
inches from the user's skull are limited to a maximum transmission power of 0.6 watts ERP.
Regardless of the potential biological effects, the reduced transmission range of modern
handheld phones limits their usefulness in rural locations as compared to car/bag phones, and

20
handhelds require that cell towers be spaced much closer together to compensate for their lack
of transmission power.

Some handhelds include an optional auxiliary antenna port on the back of the phone, which
allows it to be connected to a large external antenna and a 3 watt cellular booster. Alternately
in fringe-reception areas, a cellular repeater may be used, which uses a long distance high-gain
dish antenna or yagi antenna to communicate with a cell tower far outside of normal range, and
a repeater to rebroadcast on a small short-range local antenna that allows any cell phone within
a few meters to function properly.

GSM
Global System for Mobile communications (GSM: originally from Groupe Special Mobile) is
the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its promoter, the GSM Association,
estimates that 82% of the global mobile market uses the standard. GSM is used by over 3
billion people across more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes international
roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their
phones in many parts of the world. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signaling
and speech channels are digital, and thus is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone
system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build into the system.

The ubiquity of the GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers (who benefit from
the ability to roam and switch carriers without switching phones) and also to network operators
(who can choose equipment from any of the many vendors implementing GSM). GSM also
pioneered a low-cost, to the network carrier, alternative to voice calls, the Short message
service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported on other mobile standards
as well. Another advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide Emergency telephone
number, 112. This makes it easier for international travellers to connect to emergency services
without knowing the local emergency number. Newer versions of the standard were backward-
compatible with the original GSM phones. For example, Release '97 of the standard added
packet data capabilities, by means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99
introduced higher speed data transmission using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
(EDGE).

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells
in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most
GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas
(including Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the
900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated.

The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries, notably
Scandinavia, where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.

GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station
(uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124 RF channels
(channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used. In some
countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This
21
'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880–915 MHz (uplink) and 925–960 MHz (downlink), adding
50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band. Time
division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per
radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped
into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same
timeslot. The channel data rate is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and
1 watt in GSM1800/1900.

GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6 and
13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated,
were used, called Half Rate (5.6 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based
upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with bit rates, these codecs
also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer
to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.

GSM was further enhanced in 1997 with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s
codec that uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS, EFR was
refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and robust
against interference when used on full rate channels, and less robust but still relatively high
quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channels.

There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella
cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment.
Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a
building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under
average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose
coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells
designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service
provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover
shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation
conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest distance
the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometers (22 mi). There are also several
implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or
even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor picocell
base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters,
to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna
system. These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example
in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is
also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from nearby cells.

The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of

continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier
22
is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator,
which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference).

Network structure
The network behind the GSM system seen by the customer is large and complicated in order to
provide all of the services which are required. It is divided into a number of sections and these
are each covered in separate articles.

• The Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
• The Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a fixed
network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
• The GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet
connections).
• All of the elements in the system combine to produce many GSM services such as voice
calls and SMS

The structure of a GSM network.

Subscriber Identity Module

One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), commonly known as
a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information
and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets.
Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by
changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single
23
SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking, and is illegal in
some countries.

Many operators lock the mobiles they sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone
is typically subsidized with revenue from subscriptions, and operators want to try to avoid
subsidizing competitor's mobiles. The locking applies to the handset, identified by its
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, not to the account (which is identified
by the SIM card). In some countries such as India, all phones are sold unlocked.

GSM security
GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to authenticate
the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response. Communications between the
subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an
optional USIM, that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as
mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticated the user to
the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and
authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation. GSM uses
several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream ciphers are used for
ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used
within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious
weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a
cipher text-only attack, and in February 2008, Pico Computing, Inc revealed its ability and
plans to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack. The
system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is the equipment which facilitates the wireless communication
between user equipments (UE) and the network. UEs are devices like mobile phones
(handsets), WLL phones, computers with wireless internet connectivity, WiFi and WiMAX
gadgets etc. The network can be that of any of the wireless communication technologies like
24
GSM, CDMA, WLL , WAN, WiFi, WiMAX etc. BTS is also referred to as RBS (Radio Base
Station), Node B (in 3G Networks) or simply BS (Base Station).

Though the term BTS can be applicable to any of the wireless communication standards, it is
generally and commonly associated with mobile communication technologies like GSM and
CDMA. In this regard, a BTS forms part of the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) developments
for system management. It may also have equipments for encrypting and decrypting
communications, spectrum filtering tools (band pass filters) etc. Antennas may also be
considered as components of BTS in general sense as they facilitate the functioning of BTS.
Typically a BTS will have several transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to serve several different
frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of sectorised base stations). A BTS is
controlled by a parent Base Station Controller via the Base station Control Function (BCF).
The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base
stations. The BCF provides an Operations and Maintenance (O&M) connection to the Network
management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software
handling and alarm collection. The basic structure and functions of the BTS remains the same
regardless of the wireless technologies.

INTERNET
Introduction:

The Internet is not a program, not software, not hardware or a big system. It is a group of
various co-operating computers worldwide interconnected by computer based on TCP\IP
communication protocols. People use it to get information over a standard communication link.
The hundreds or thousands or millions of computer network are connected to each other for
exchanging the information which is based on the unique identity and set of procedures.
Internet is a series of interconnected networks providing global link to information.

GIAS: MTNL launched the Gateway Internet Access Service (GAIS) through dial
up/leased/ISDN network. Users can access GAIS from 99 cities in India by this means.

COMMON TERMINOLOGY USED IN INTERNET:

WWW:

World Wide Web (WWW) is a wide area hypermedia information retrieval aiming to give
universal access to a large universe of documents.

25
HTTP:

Hyper text transmission Protocol (HTTP) is the communication protocol used to transfer
documents from the server to client over the WWW(http://www).

HTML:

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a system of marking or tagging the various parts of
web documents to tell the browser software how to display the document text, link graphics
and link media.

ISDN:

Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) is a digital phone connection technology that
provides both voice and data services over the same connection.

ISP:
Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an agency that provides Internet access and other net related
services.

BROADBAND
Broadband in telecommunications refers to a signaling method that includes or handles a
relatively wide range of frequencies, which may be divided into channels or frequency bins.
Broadband is always a relative term, understood according to its context. The wider the
bandwidth, the greater the information-carrying capacity. In radio, for example, a very narrow-
band signal will carry Morse code; a broader band will carry speech; a still broader band is
required to carry music without losing the high audio frequencies required for realistic sound
reproduction. A television antenna described as "normal" may be capable of receiving a certain
range of channels; one described as "broadband" will receive more channels. In data
communications a modem will transmit a bandwidth of 56 kilobits per seconds (kbit/s) over a
telephone line; over the same telephone line a bandwidth of several megabits per second can be
handled by ADSL, which is described as broadband (relative to a modem over a telephone line,
although much less than can be achieved over a fiber optic circuit, for example).

In data communications

Broadband in data communications can refer to broadband networks or broadband Internet and
may have the same meaning as above, so that data transmission over a fiber optic cable would
be referred to as broadband as compared to a telephone modem operating at 56,000 bits per
second.

26
However, broadband in data communications is frequently used in a more technical sense to
refer to data transmission where multiple pieces of data are sent simultaneously to increase the
effective rate of transmission, regardless of actual data rate. In network engineering this term is
used for methods where two or more signals share a medium.

In video

Broadband in analog video distribution is traditionally used to refer to systems such as cable
television, where the individual channels are modulated on carriers at fixed frequencies. In this
context, baseband is the term's antonym, referring to a single channel of analog video, typically
in composite form with an audio subcarrier. The act of demodulating converts broadband video
to baseband video.

However, broadband video in the context of streaming Internet video has come to mean video
files that have bitrates high enough to require broadband Internet access in order to view them.

Broadband video is also sometimes used to describe IPTV Video on demand.

In DSL

The various forms of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) services are broadband in the sense that
digital information is sent over a high-bandwidth channel above the baseband voice channel on
a single pair of wires.

In Ethernet

A baseband transmission sends one type of signal using a medium's full bandwidth, as in
100BASE-T Ethernet. Ethernet, however, is the common interface to broadband modems such
as DSL data links, and has a high data rate itself, so is sometimes referred to as broadband.
Ethernet provisioned over cable modem is a common alternative to DSL

BSNL is in the process of commissioning of a world class, multi-gigabit, multi-protocol,

convergent IP infrastructure through National Internet Backbone-II (NIB-II), that will provide
convergent services through the same backbone and broadband access network. The
Broadband service will be available on DSL technology (on the same copper cable that is used
for connecting telephone), on a countrywide basis spanning 198 cities.

In terms of infrastructure for broadband services NIB-II would put India at par with more
advanced nations. The services that would be supported includes always-on broadband access
to the Internet for residential and business customers, Content based services, Video
multicasting, Video-on-demand and Interactive gaming, Audio and Video conferencing, IP
Telephony, Distance learning, Messaging: plain and feature rich, Multi-site MPLS VPNs with
Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees. The subscribe will be able to access the above services

27
through SubscriberServiceSelectionSystem(SSSS)portal.

OBJECTIVES
• To provide high speed Internet connectivity (upto 8 Mbps)
• To provide Virtual Private Network (VPN) service to the broadband customers
• To provide dial VPN service to MPLS VPN customers.
• To provide multicast video services, video-on-demand, etc. through the Broadband
Remote Access Server (BRAS).
• To provide a means to bill for the aforesaid services by either time-based or volume-
based billing. It shall provide the customer with the option to select the services through
web server
• To provide both pre-paid and post paid broadband services.

TECHNICAL CAPABILITY
The Broadband Service will be given through the state of the art Multi Protocol Label
Switching (MPLS) based IP Infrastructure, which is designed to provide reliable routes to
cover all possible destinations within and outside the country. Layer 1 of the network will
consist of a high speed Backbone comprising of 24 powerful Core Routers connected with
high speed 2.5 Gbps (STM-16) links. The routers are located on the national DWDM
network interfacing at STM-16 optical level to provide for high transmission speeds.

Advantage of MPLS over other Technologies

MPLS VPN is a technology that allows a service provider like BSNL to have complete control
over parameters that are critical to offering its customers service guarantees with regard to
bandwidth throughputs, latencies and availability.

Services available through Broadband

28
 • High speed Internet Access: This is the always-on Internet access service with speed
ranging from 256 kbps to 8 Mbps.
• Bandwidth on Demand: This will facilitate customer to change bandwidth as per his /
her requirement. For example a customer with 256 kbps can change to 1 Mbps during
the video Conferencing session.
• Multicasting: This is to provide video multicast services for application in distance
education, telemedicine etc
• Dial VPN Service: This service allows remote users to access their private network
securely over the NIB-II infrastructure.
• Video and Audio Conferencing:
• Content based Services: Like Video on Demand, Interactive Gaming, Live and time
shifted TV

POWERPLANT
As we know that, the power is the main source or any organization. It is the case of E-10B
exchange. That is the first requirement of any organization is the input.
The main source of this exchange is AC supply. However, as soon as the power supply is gone
off, then what is source? No one think on this that the telephone is always plays its role in the
human life. Even if the power supply gone off. Thus there must be adjustment source of
power.
The main parts of the power room are:

Batteries: - these are the instant sources of the power as soon as power is gone off.

UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply):- the UPS must give supply to the computer. As we know
there is some equipment which can withstand any type of power supply, but there are also
some instruments which cannot withstand with this type of power supply, even a microsecond
delay will cause the loss of data.

Charging- Discharging Unit: - the batteries we are using in the power room need timely
charging. As soon as the AC power supply is on, we make use of the charging unit present in
the power room. The slowly charging of the batteries is known as the trickle charging. But
sometimes we need the BOOSTER charging. In this type of charging awe take of the batteries
from the load and charge separately, until it gets fully charged.
The main work of the discharging unit is to control the discharging of the batteries.

Inverter and Converter Unit: - the main use of this system is to change AC mains to DC and
vice versa as required by the parts of exchange.

29
Engine Room:-we know that the batteries are the instant source of supply but we cannot use it
for much larger time, thus for this, we have an engine to generate the power supply. They are
of 885 KVA. Thus, this room controls the supply of the engine.

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONER

For the function of electrical equipment, cooling system is basic requirement. The basic
advantages of cooling systems are following-
It provides the thermal stability so that the temperature does not reach the tolerance limit of
electronic equipment.
It saves equipment from dust so to avoid malfunction of equipment’s.
It protects equipment from excess humidity which can caused rusting of equipment.

The basic unit of measurement used in the industry is known as “ton of refrigeration” (TR)
which is equivalent to the heat extracted in 24 hours for converting thousands kg of liquid to
ice at zero degree.
The compressor is the heart of the AC system and the costliest. It increases the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant gas coming from the evaporator coils by compressing it.
Compressor comes in various types. The most widely used is simple reciprocal type a cylinder
and piston arrangement. For capacity more than 120 TR, centrifugal compressors are used. The
condenser liquefies the refrigerant gas by a heat exchange process. The capillary tube or the
expansion valve pressurizes liquid refrigerant and meters it flows to the evaporator.
The refrigerant then passes trough the evaporator coils, which extract heat out of the ambience.

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber
optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications,
which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than
30
other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are
also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images,
thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other
applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.

Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to
act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are
called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called
single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are
used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be
transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550 metres
(1,800 ft).

Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends
of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by
fusing them together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable
connections.

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to
electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the
per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber can be modulated at rates as high as 111
gigabits per second,[13] although 10 or 40 Gb/s is typical in deployed systems.[citation needed] Each
fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light
(wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead
bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the
number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008).

Over short distances, such as networking within a building, fiber saves space in cable ducts
because a single fiber can carry much more data than a single electrical cable. Fiber is also
immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and
no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which
makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment located in high voltage
environments such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to
lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present,
without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections,
and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.

Although fibers can be made out of transparent plastic, glass, or a combination of the two, the
fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications are always glass, because of the
lower optical attenuation. Both multi-mode and single-mode fibers are used in
communications, with multi-mode fiber used mostly for short distances, up to 550 m (600
yards), and single-mode fiber used for longer distance links. Because of the tighter tolerances
required to couple light into and between single-mode fibers (core diameter about 10
micrometers), single-mode transmitters, receivers, amplifiers and other components are
generally more expensive than multi-mode components.

31
Fiber Optic Sensors
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical
fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement system.
Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no
electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed
along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing
the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be
determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.

Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other
quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity,
phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the
intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A
particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide
distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter.

Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multi-mode one, to transmit
modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an
optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are
otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature inside aircraft jet
engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer located outside the
engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature
of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other
measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting.

Different Application of OPTICAL FIBER

Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical
and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear
line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the
roof to other parts of the building (see non-imaging optics). Optical fiber illumination
is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art, and artificial Christmas
trees. Swarovski boutiques use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from
many different angles while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an
intrinsic part of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon.

Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes
along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view
objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory
or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes (see fiberscope or borescope) are
used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors.

In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a
substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its
composition. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of and through them.
By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or
gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels.
32
An optical fiber doped with certain rare-earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain
medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth doped optical fibers can be used to provide
signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical
fiber line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled
into the line in addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through
the doped fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave.
The process that causes the amplification is stimulated emission.

Optical fibers doped with a wavelength shifter are used to collect scintillation light in physics
experiments.

Optical fiber can be used to supply a low level of power (around one watt) to electronics
situated in a difficult electrical environment. Examples of this are electronics in high-powered
antenna elements and measurement devices used in high voltage transmission equipment.

Principle of operation
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits light along its axis, by the
process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer.
To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than
that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-
index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.

Index of refraction

The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels
fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The actual speed of light in a vacuum is about 300
million meters (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing
the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of
refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an
optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the
slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of thumb is that signal
using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or
to put it another way, to travel 1000 kilometres in fiber, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to
propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 12000
kilometre distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or
around 1/16th of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. (Of course
the fiber in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays due
to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice
onto the fiber).

Total internal reflection

33
When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the
"critical angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in
optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth
off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the
critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down
the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber.
The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the
fiber's core and cladding.

In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the
fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle
is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to
splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER

Optical fiber can be classified into two categories:

Mode Of Fiber
Index Of Fober

DIFFERENT MODES OF FIBER

Multi-mode fiber

34
The propagation of light through a multi-mode optical fiber.

A laser bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a
multi-mode optical fiber.
Main article: Multi-mode optical fiber

Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by analysis (see
below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total
internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured
relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are
completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is
determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials.
Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and
do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the
acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture
allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles,
allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture
increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and
therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. A low numerical aperture may therefore be
desirable.

In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuously between the
axis and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding,
rather than reflecting abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The resulting curved paths
reduce multi-path dispersion because high angle rays pass more through the lower-index
periphery of the core, rather than the high-index center. The index profile is chosen to
minimize the difference in axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal
index profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and the distance from
the axis.

Single-mode fiber
The structure of a typical single mode fiber.
1. Core: 8 µm diameter
2. Cladding: 125 µm dia.

35
3. Buffer: 250 µm dia.
4. Jacket: 400 µm dia.

Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light
cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic
structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation.
The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that
occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber
supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber.
Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of
larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that
such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such
modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if
the fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes.

Step-index fiber

For an optical fiber, a step-index fiber is a refractive index profile characterized by a uniform
refractive index within the core and a sharp decrease in refractive index at the core-cladding
interface so that the cladding is of a lower refractive index. The step-index profile corresponds
to a power-law index profile with the profile parameter approaching infinity. The step-index
profile is used in most single-mode fibers and some multimode fibers.

A step-index fiber is characterized by the core and cladding refractive indices n1 and n2 and the
core and cladding radii a and b. Examples of standard core and cladding diameters 2a/2b are
8/125, 50/125, 62.5/125, 85/125, or 100/140 (units of µm). The fractional refractive-index

change . The value of n1 is typically between 1.44 and 1.46, and is

typically between 0.001 and 0.02.

Step-index optical fiber is generally made by doping high-purity fused silica glass (SiO2) with
different concentrations of materials like titanium, germanium, or boron.

36
It was not until Optical Fibers came on the scene that large amount of communication
bandwidth became economically and easily available to everyone.

As an example 50,000 voice / data circuit copper cable is massive in size and very expensive,
while a single Optical Fiber, the diameter of human hair, can carry 5,00,000 circuits of voice
and data. This capacity is increasing day by day as supporting electronics is developing. In
itself the capacity of Optical Fibers is limitless.

Graded-index fiber
In fiber optics, a graded-index or gradient-index fiber is an optical fiber whose core has a
refractive index that decreases with increasing radial distance from the fiber axis (the
imaginary central axis running down the length of the fiber).

Because parts of the core closer to the fiber axis have a higher refractive index than the parts
near the cladding, light rays follow sinusoidal paths down the fiber. The advantage of the
graded-index fiber compared to multimode step-index fiber is the considerable decrease in
modal dispersion.

The most common refractive index profile for a graded-index fiber is very nearly parabolic.
The parabolic profile results in continual refocusing of the rays in the core, and minimizes
modal dispersion.

37
VARIOUS TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER

1) OPGW Cable
2) ADSS type of Cable
3) Self-Supprot AERIAL figure 8 type Cable
4) LASHED type of Cable
5) UNDERGROUND/BURIEED type of Cable
6) DUCT type of Cable

38
Advantages Of Optical Fiber
 Vary high information carrying capacity.
 Less attenuation (order of 0.2 db/km).
 Small in diameter, in size & light in weight.
 Low cost as compared to copper(as glass is made from sand……the raw material used
for making OF is free….).
 Greater safety and immune to EMI & RFI, MOISTURE & CORROSION.
 Flexible and easy to install install in tight conduicts.
 Zero resale value (so theft is very less).
 OF is dielectric in nature so can be laid in electrically sensitive surroundings.
 Difficult to tap fiber, so secure.
 No cross talk and disturbances.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

 The terminating equipment is still costly than copper equipment.
 Of is delicate so has to handle carefully.
 Late mile is still not fiberised due to costly subscriber premises equipment.
 Communication is not totally in optical domain, so repeated electric-optic-electrical
conversion is needed.
 Optical amplifiers, splitters, mux-demux are still in development stages.
 Tapping is not possible. Specialized equipment is needed to tap a fiber.
 Optical fiber technique is specialized technique and needs expertly trained manpower.
 The splicing and testing equipments are very expensive as compared to copper
equipment.

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SPECIFCATONS OF OPTICAL FIBER

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 http://www.google.com/
 http://www.mtnl.com/
 http://www.answers.com/
 http://www.wikipedia.com/

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