TOPIC: TEMPERATURE

SENSORS

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED

BY:
Ms.Kirandeep Kaur
 Acknowledgement

To many individuals , I am indebted good connsel

and assistance in various ways. In this respect one
of my sincerest thanks to Ms.Kirandeep
Kaur(lecturer) of Lovely Professional University,
for their kind cooperation and guidance

I owe a deep since of indebtedness of

my pureness that have been source of inspiration of
every work of my life. I deeply express our ineptness
and thanks to all my faculty members of B.Tech
intg. M.Tech IT for their valuable guidance which
enable me to presentable manners.
1)Introduction

2)Different types of sensors

3)Application of sensors

4)Bibiliography
Contact temperature sensors measure their own temperature. One infers the temperature
of the object to which the sensor is in contact by assuming or knowing that the two are in
thermal equilibrium, that is, there is no heat flow between them.

Many potential measurement error sources exist, as you can appreciate, especially from
too many unverified assumptions. Temperatures of surfaces are especially tricky to
measure by contact means and very difficult if the surface is moving. It is wise to be very
careful when using such sensors on new applications.

The Measurements (or Applications) page can lead you to many well-known solutions or
examples of ones possibly similar to the one you are trying to solve. Why re-invent the
wheel?

Two excellent reference by Baker et al. are listed in the References page and worth
reading to get an idea of the complexities that can arise, how to test and get around them.

Surface temperature measurent problem can be solved in many cases through the use of
non-contact sensors; they are almost ideal for those types of applications and are in use in
many industrial plants worldwide in great numbers.

However, all sensors have their own set of complexities. It is an imperfect world, after
all, but many imperfections can be expertly improved upon and overcome if one is
diligent and resourceful.

 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are among the easiest temperature sensors to use. They are widely
applied in science and industry. They are based on the Seebeck effect that occurs in
electrical conductors when they experience a temperature gradient along their length.
NB: They do NOT measure at either the hot or cold junction!

 Thermistors
Thermistors are tiny bits of inexpensive semiconductor materials with highly temperature
sensitive electrical resistance. They are used in many applications where they are never
seen because they are buried inside something else, There are also a special group of very
precise thermistors that are used as the sensors in Electronic thermometers for taking the
temperature of people.

 Liquid-In-Glass Thermometers
The thermometer that checked your fever when you were young was a specialized version of this oldest and most familiar temperature sensor.

 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

RTDs are among the most precise temperature sensors commercially used. They are based on the positive temperature coefficient of electrical
resistance.

 Filled System Thermometers

In the USA, most home thermal cooking ovens are controlled by little temperature
sensors that look like small metal tubes with bulges on the end-filled system
thermometers-much like liquid-in-glass-but different.

 Bimetallic Thermometers
The simple mechanical sensor that works in most "old-fashioned" thermostats based on
the fact that two metals expand at different rates as a function of temperature.

 Semiconductor Temperature Sensors

Commercial temperature sensors have been made from semiconductors for a number of
years now. Working over a limited temperature range, they are simple, linear, accurate
and low cost devices with many uses.

 Labels, Crayons, Paints, Tabs (Phase Change Devices)

What can people use to do a quick, inexpensive check on a process or experimental
temperature?. Often the answer is some simple phase change device.

 Other Temperature Sensors

Temperature measurement occasions often seem to stretch the capabilities of existing
sensors and inventive minds continue to create new and/or better ways to measure those
temperatures. There's quite a list of them, the "Other" devices, already and it's sure to
grow.

The uses of noncontact temperature sensors are many; the understanding of their use is,
in general, relatively poor. Part of that complication is often the need to deal with
emissivity, or more precisely with spectral emissivity.

In many industrial plants noncontact sensors are not yet standardized to the extent that
thermocouples and RTDs are. In spite of this, there are numerous showcase uses of them
and they more than pay their way in process plants such as steel, glass, ceramics, forging,
heat treating, plastics, baby diapers and semiconductor operations, to name just a few.

More recently the medical world has adopted the IR ear thermometer (it has its own set of
standards) that is basically a single waveband radiation thermometer.

However, we believe that limited standardization is hampering wider use in process and
related areas. Standards have been developed that aid the user in specifying, buying and
maintaining such devices, but they are not widely used. More training and education of
the user community is an obvious need that until now has been provided mostly by
equipment vendors.

The advent of the Focal Plane Array, a significant improvement in Thermal Imaging, is
drawing the formerly seperate areas of Thermal Imaging and noncontact spot temperature
measurement closer together. It is likely that the active training community developed to
support Thermal Imagers will begin to provide more organized, in depth training for all
infrared temperature sensors, in addition to imagers for Thermographers.
Just to be sure we are addressing the subject you are seeking, please be aware that these
devices are called by a bewildering variety of names. They all work, or are based on the
same law of physics, Planck's Law of the thermal emission of radiation.

Here's just a few of the names used in current technical and popular literature (never
mind the unprintable names these devices are often called when the temperatures they
report defy all logic-that happens a lot-see our E-missivity Trail section for a partial
understanding of this latter phenomenon): ir thermometer, radiation thermometer, ir
pyrometer, infrared thermometer, spot thermometer, spot radiometer (our favorite
technical misnomer), line scanner, radiation pyrometer, single waveband pyrometer, dual
waveband pyrometer, ratio pyrometer, 2 color thermometer, 2 colour thermometer, two
color thermometer, two colour pyrometer, radiometer, spectral radiometer, IR
thermocouple, total radiation pyrometer, fiber optic pyrometer, disappearing filament
pyrometer, quantitative thermal imager, dfp, optical pyro, multiwavelength pyrometer,
and on and on.

It seems that whenever a new technical or marketing person comes into the "business" a
new product name is coined either out of ignorance of the device history or as an effort to
be technically "pure" (whatever that is) or as a way to differentiate their product from
others. The names used here, as far as we know, do not include the trademarked names or
commonly used product line names. There isn't enough room on this page for all of them!
We shall try to follow the most often used terminology, that fostered in the excellent
work of DeWitt & Nutter in their 1988 book "Theory & Practice of Radiation
Thermometery". The complete citation can be found on the references page.
Radiation Thermometers

Includes Pyrometers, Infrared Thermal Imaging Cameras (with temperature

measurement capability), line-measuring thermometers (most of the time
they're called line scanners-but all don't scan) and infrared radiation
thermometers, or, perhaps the most-misused term, spot radiometers (Note:
radiometers are calibrated in units of power, such as microwatts, watts, kilowatts,
temperature measurement devices are calibrated in units of temperature). The
noncontact temperature sensors with many names and many shapes, sizes, prices
and capabilities are well and flourishing. Based on Planck's Law of the thermal
emission of electromagnetic radiation; many industries could not produce goods
as efficiently or quickly were it not for them.

More recently the medical world has adopted the IR ear thermometer (it has its
own set of standards) that is at heart a single waveband radiation thermometer

The majority of devices in use are single waveband thermometers (they measure a
portion of the received thermal radiation in a single waveband, or portion of the
infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum). However, the number of ratio
thermometers (two color pyrometers) on the market has grown considerably in the
past ten years, or so.

Single waveband radiation thermometers are usually designed to measure the true
temperature when they receive all the radiation from an object that has an
emissivity effectively of 1.0, or under blackbody conditions. This occurs most
often when the devices are being calibrated, since they are calibrated under
simulated blackbody conditions. The accuracy of the simulation bears much on
the uncertainty of the calibration of the device.

When these devices are used under effectively blackbody conditions, and their
emissivity correction is set at 1.0, they can measure very accurately, indeed. Few
people seem to appreciate that blackbody conditions occur regularly in many
process applications, such as in portions of furnaces that are close to thermal
equilibrum, such as glass melters & forehearths, steel mill soaking furnace zones
or when a radiation thermometer is correctly sighted into a closed isothermal
cavity, such as a miniature cavity on the end of a sapphire light pipe or quartz
fiber optic.
 Thermal Imagers

Quantitative thermal imagers are a special sub-class of these thermal imaging

devices, they measure radiation temperature distributions as well as shown a false
color thermal image. They are basically single waveband radiation thermometers
that measure a two dimensional space instead of just radiation from a single spot.
These are used so widely that they are described in more detail in a seperate
section of this site that is all about thermography or thermal imaging.

1.

Emissivity

The topic of emissivity is also a broad and complex one. One cannot mention
radiation thermometry without mentioning emissivity.

Some fundamental understanding of it is essential to successful use and

application of any temperature measuring radiation thermometer. It might be
limited to just the details of one specific application; that's enough in many cases.
It is not magic, it is not unknowable, otherwise all advanced thermal processes in
the world would be running at lower efficiencies than they are.

There are many people who underated the subject and can explain it. This is our
part in that educational direction. We started a section on this site devoted to
helping people better understand some of the basics of the subject from an
applications perspective. Pardon our cynicism, but the section was initiated after
this site author attended a "Seminar" on Infrared Thermometry a few years ago.
The topic of emissivity came up many times and it was clear that the company
representative giving the presentation had little to no understanding of the subject,
unless the purpose of the talk was to confuse matters. Most people came away, we
believe, with a poorer understanding of the subject at the end than at the
beginning. It's sad when those apparently helping do not do their job competently.

2.

Ratio Thermometers

The ratio pyrometer, ratio thermometer or two color pyrometers (or two colour
thermometers, if you prefer) are unique devices, touted imprecisely by all too
many vendor marketing people as being emissivity independent when they are
nothing of the sort. They measure in two separate wavebands and internally create
the ratio of signals (usually that of the shorter waveband in the numerator to avoid
the complication of dividing by zero-because usually the shorter waveband signal
drops out as a function of received radiation, before the longer waveband signal).
 The ratio of radiances in two wavebands has been shown to be a function of
temperature and a function of the ratio of the spectral emissivity in the two
wavebands as well (So much for the emissivity independence, guys!) When
measuring objects that have an emissivity ratio of 1.0, they can have their
emissivity ratio correction set to 1.0, just like a single waveband thermometer
does when measuring under blackbody conditions; in this latter case one is said to
be measuring under graybody (greybody) conditions.

3.

Optical Pyrometers

The old and trusty Optical Pyrometer not only refuses to go away, there's even a
new version on the market. Check out our page and learn about the two USA
companies that still make these devices.(Just between us: These things are really
just another variation of the Planck's Law-based Radiation Thermometers
described above, albeit one of the tried and accepted versions..But these darn
things garnered so much fame and fans over the years that some people just won't
settle for anything else. No matter that the technology can and does produce better
devices, but snake-oil salesmen who can't produce better results with their new
devices foster this sort of conservatism on the part of an undereducated user
community.)

4.

Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors

There's enough uses and varieties of fiber optic-related temperature sensors these
days to require a separate hyper-link category for them, To complicate matters a
little more, there really are two groups of them contact and noncontact fiber optic
thermometers. They're all covered on this one page. One of the fabulous uses for
these thermometers is to actually provide a temperature limit signal for operating
jet engines in flying aircraft. It's not all that new, either. Rolls-Royce engines in
some European military planes have been flying for about 20 years using this
technology.

5.

Other Temperature Sensors

Temperature measurement occasions often seem to stretch the capabilities of

existing sensors and inventive minds continue to create new and/or better ways to
measure those temperatures. There's quite a list of them, the "Other" devices,
beginning with line scanners, two wavelength radiation thermometers, hybrid
systems and multiwavelength pyrometers, already and it's sure to grow.
Need help making a temperature measurement, selecting a
sensor or choosing a sensor vendor?
The process is rather straight forward, providing you know what you need.
First, you start with the measurement requirements. Often these are
sketchy, inappropriate or incomplete, so many times you need to
reexamine them and question those involved until reason prevails.

Temperature Sensor
Uses, Measurements or Applications

MEASUREMENTS ARE WHERE TEMPERATURE SENSORS MEET THE

"REAL WORLD"! WHERE THE RESULTS PROVE THAT ONE
UNDERSTANDS THEIR PROPERTIES AND HAS SELECTED A SENSOR
WELL ENOUGH TO DO THE JOB WITHIN THE DESIRED MEASUREMENT
UNCERTAINTY!

Many people have trodden these paths before you and there is a wealth of
information on successful use of temperature sensors under a great many
1)www.google.com
2)www.ask.com
3)www.wikipedia.com