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UNIT I
Contents:
1.6 Systems
What is a Signal?
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Anything which carries information is a signal. e.g. human voice,
chirping of birds, smoke signals, gestures (sign language), fragrances
of the flowers.
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Examples of a one dimensional signal: A speech signal, daily
maximum temperature, annual rainfall at a place
An example of a two dimensional signal: An image is a two
dimensional signal, vertical and horizontal coordinates representing
the two dimensions.
Four Dimensions: Our physical world is four dimensional(three
spatial and one temporal).
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Continuous-time and discrete-time signals :
On the other hand, certain signals are defined for only discrete values
of the independent variable; i.e. the elements of the domain are not
continuous. Such signals are called discrete-time signals .
Discrete-time signals
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A discrete variable is one which can ultimately be indexed by
integers.
First, the simplest and most intuitive discrete set is the integer axis
itself:
Notation:
When we write x(t) it has two meanings. One is value of x at time t and
the other is the pairs (x(t), t) allowable value of t. By signal we mean
the second interpretation.
Conclusion:
* Thus a signal may also be defined as a mapping from one set
(domain) to another
(co domain).
* Continuous-time signal means the mapping is defined over a
continuum of values
of the independent variable.
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* A discrete variable is one which can ultimately be indexed by
integers
We will enclose discrete variables in brackets [.] as opposed to
parenthesis (.) for
continuous variables.
Review Questions:
1. What is a signal? Give example.
2. Give examples for 1 dimensional and 2 dimensional signal.
2. Mention the basic types of signals.
3. Compare discrete time signal with digital signal.
Elementary Signals
u(t) = 0, t < 0
= 1, t ≥ 0
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Defined by
Defined by :
similarly,
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Summing over we get
The unit function can also be expressed as a running sum of the Unit
Impulse Function
We see that the running sum is 0 for n < 0 and equal to 1 for n >= 0
thus defining the Unit Step Function u[n].
Sifting property
Consider the product . The delta function is non zero only at the
origin so it follows the signal is the same as .
More generally
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is x[k]. So we see that the unit impulse sequence can be used to
obtain the value of the signal at any time k. This is called the Sampling
Property of the Unit Impulse Function. This property will be used in the
discussion of LTI systems. For example consider the product .
It gives .
Likewise, the product x[n] u[n] i.e. the product of the signal u[n] with
x[n] truncates the signal for n < 0 since u[n] = 0 for n <0
Similarly, the product x[n] u[n-1] will truncate the signal for n < 1.
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(c) EXPONENTIALSEQUENCE:
The complex exponential signal or sequence {x[n]} is defined by
x[n] = C αn
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For |α| > 1 magnitude of the signals grows exponentially,
|α| < 1 It is decaying exponential.
For α > 1 all terms of {x[n]} have same sign,
α<1 sign of terms in {x[n]} alternates.
(d)SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL:
The sinusoidal signal {x[n]} is defined by
and
Thus for |α| = 1 , the real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential
sequence are sinusoidal.
|α| < 1, they correspond to sinusoidal sequence multiplied by
a decaying exponential,
|α| > 1 , they correspond to sinusiodal sequence multiplied
by a growing exponential.
Review Questions:
1. List some of the elementary signals.
2. Define unit impulse function.
3. Define unit step function.
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1.4 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON SIGNALS
i) Sequence Addition
ii) Scalar Multiplication
iii)Sequence Multiplication
iv) Shifting
v) Reflection
i) Sequence addition:
Let {x[n]} and {y[n]}be two sequences. The sequence addition is
defined as term by term addition. Let {z[n]} be the resulting
sequence.
{z[n]} = {x[n]} + {y[n]}
where each term z[n] = x[n] + y[n]
We will use the following notation
{x[n]} + {y[n]} = {x[n] + y[n]}
iv) Shifting:
This is also known as translation. Let us shift a sequence {x[n]} by n0
units, and the resulting sequence be {y[n]}
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where is the operation of shifting the sequence right by n 0 unit.
The terms are defined by y[n] = x[n - n0]. We will use short notation
{x[n - n0]} to denote shift by n0.
Figure below show some examples of shifting.
{x[n]}
{x [n+1]}
v) Reflection:
Let {x[n]} be the original sequence, and {y[n]} be reflected sequence,
then y[n] is defined by
y[n] = x[-n]
{x[n]}
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We will denote this by {x[-n]}
When we have complex valued signals, sometimes we reflect and do
the complex conjugation, ie, y[n] is defined by y[n] = x*[-n], where *
denotes complex conjugation. This sequence will be denoted by {x*[-
n]}.
We will learn about more complex operations later on. Some of these
operations commute, ie. if we apply two operations we can interchange
their order and some do not commute. For example scalar
multiplication and reflection commute.
Then v[n] = z[n] for all n. Shifting and scaling do not commute.
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{x[n]} {y[n]} = {x[n-1} {z[n]} = {y[-
n]}
Review Questions :
1. What are the mathematical operations that can be
performed on signals?
2. What do you mean by shifting of signals?
2. Which of the operations obey commutative property?
i) Energy of a signal
ii) Power of a signal
iii) Periodicity of signals
iv) Even and Odd signals
v) Periodicity property of sinusoidal signals
i) Energy of a Signal:
The total energy of a signal {x[n]} is defined by
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A signal is referred to as an energy signal, if and
only if the total energy of the signal Ex is finite.
An energy signal has a zero power and a power signal has infinite
energy. There are signals which are neither energy signals nor power
signals. For example {x[n]} defined by x[n] = n does not have finite
power or energy.
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where k is largest integer such that kN -1 ≤ M. Since the signal is
periodic, sum over one period will be same for all terms. We see that k
is approximately equal to M/N (it is integer part of this) and for large M
we get 2M/N terms and limit 2M/(2M +1) as M goes to infinite is one
we get
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{x[n]} = {xe[n]} + {xo[n]}
The signal {xe[n]} is called the even part of {x[n]}. We can verify
very easily that {xe[n]} is an even signal. Similarly, {xo[n]} is called
the odd part of {x[n]} and is an odd signal. When we have complex
valued signals we use a slightly different terminology. A complex
valued signal {x[n]} is referred to as a conjugate symmetric signal if
{x[n]} = {x*[-n]}
Review Questions:
1. List out the properties of signals.
2. Define periodicity of a signal.
3. What do you understand by conjugate symmetric and
conjugate antisymmetric signal ?
1.6 System:
What is a system?
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In signals and systems terminology, we say; corresponding to
every possible input signal, a system “produces” an output
signal.
Examples of systems
Examples of systems are all around us. The speakers that go with your
computer can be looked at as systems whose input is voltage pulses
from the CPU and output is music (audio signal). A spring may be
looked as a system with the input , say, the longitudinal force on it as a
function of time, and output signal being its elongation as a function of
time. The independent variable for the input and output signal of a
system need not even be the same.
The mappings that define the system are different in these two cases.
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System description
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The mapping involved in systems
The output at, say t = 5 depends on the values of the input signal for
all t <= 5.
Henceforth; we shall call systems with both input and output signal
being continuous-time as continuous-time systems , and those with
both input and output signal being discrete-time as discrete-time
systems. Those that do not fall into either of these classes (i.e. input
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discrete-time and output continuous-time and vice-versa) we shall call
hybrid systems.
Recap
Review Questions:
1. What is a system? Give example.
2. Explain implicit and explicit description of a system.
i) Memory:
By definition, a system that does not have this property is said to have
memory.
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For a memoryless system, changing the input at any instant can
change the output only at that instant. If, in some case, a change in
input signal at some instant changes the output at some other instant,
we can be sure that the system has memory.
Examples:
ii) Linearity:
Definition:
(It is not necessary for the input and output signals to have the same
independent variable for linearity to make sense. The definition for
systems with input and/or output signal being discrete-time is similar.)
Example of linearity
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A capacitor, an inductor, a resistor or any combination of these are all
linear systems, if we consider the voltage applied across them as an
input signal, and the current through them as an output signal. This is
because these simple passive circuit components follow the principle
of superposition within their ranges of operation.
• Additivity
A system is said to be additive if for any two input signals x1(t) and
x2(t),
i.e. the output corresponding to the sum of any two inputs is the sum
of the two outputs.
• Homogeneity (Scaling)
i.e. scaling any input signal scales the output signal by the same
factor.
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b) To prove linearity implies homogeneity and additivity.
Examples of Linearity:
Consider any two input signals, x1(t) and x2(t), with corresponding
outputs y1(t) and y2(t).
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= t (a.x1(t) + b.x2(t))
Hence proved.
See for yourself that the system is neither additive, nor homogenous.
Show for yourself that systems with the following descriptions are
linear:
Definition:
Say, for a system, the input signal x(t) gives rise to an output signal
y(t). If the input signal x(t - t0) gives rise to output y(t - t0), for
every t0, and every possible input signal, we say the system is shift
invariant.
In other words, for a shift invariant system, shifting the input signal
shifts the output signal by the same offset.
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Note this is not to be expected from every system. x(t) and x(t - t0)
are different (related by a shift, but different) input signals and a
system, which simply maps one set of signals to another, need not at
all map x(t) and x(t - t0) to output signal also shift by t0
A system that does not satisfy this property is said to be shift variant.
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iv) Stability
Example
There are various ideas/notions about stability not all of which are
equivalent. We shall now introduce the notion of BIBO Stability, i.e.
BOUNDED INPUT-BOUNDED OUTPUT STABILITY.
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Statement:
Examples
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either a bounded or an unbounded output, i.e. nothing can be said for
sure.
v) Causality
Causality refers to cause and effect relationship (the effect follows the
cause). In a causal system, the value of the output signal at any
instant depends only on "past" and "present" values of the input signal
(i.e. only on values of the input signal at "instants" less than or equal
to that "instant"). Such a system is often referred to as being non-
anticipative, as the system output does not anticipate future values
of the input (remember again the reference to time is merely
symbolic). As you might have realized, causality as a property is
relevant only for systems whose input and output signals have the
same independent variable. Further, this independent variable
must be ordered (it makes no sense to talk of "past" and "future"
when the independent variable is not ordered).
Definition
Let x1(t) and x2(t) be two input signals to a system and y 1(t) and
y2(t) be their respective outputs.
This of course is only another way of stating what we said before: for
any t0 : y( t0) depends only on values of x(t) for t <= t0
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The two input signals in the figure above are identical to the point t =
t0, and the system being a causal system, their corresponding outputs
are also identical till the point t = t0.
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Now that we have defined a few system properties, let us see how
powerful inferences can be drawn about systems having one or more
of these properties.
Theorem
Proof:
Theorem:
Proof:
We have to show that the system response y(t) = 0 for all t less than
or equal to t0.
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Since the system is either additive or homogeneous the response to
the zero input signal is the zero output signal. The zero input signal
and x(t) are identical for all t less than or equal to t0.
Hence, from causality, their output signals are identical for all t less
than or equal to t0.
Review Questions:
4. What is causality?
As the name suggests the two basic properties of a LTI system are:
1) Linearity
y[n] = a
k yk[n] = a1y1[n] + a2y2 [n] + ......
2) Time Invariance
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Given the response of a system to a particular input, these two
properties enable us to find the response to all its delays or advances
and their linear combination.
Review Questions:
1. Define continuous time signal.
2. Define discrete time signal.
3. Find whether the signal given by x(n)=5 cos(6π n) is periodic.
ω
4. Determine the power and RMS value of the signal x(t) = ej t cosω ot.
5. State Parseval’s theorem for discrete time signal.
6. Check whether the system classified by y(t) = ex(t) is time invariant or
not.
7. Explain the concept of time scaling and time shifting.
8. State any two properties of discrete time systems.
α
9. Verify whether x(t)=Ae- t u(t), α >0, is an energy signal or not.
10.What is an energy signal? Check whether or not unit step signal is an
energy signal?
11. What do you mean by an even signal and an odd signal?
12. Draw the signal x(n) = u(n) – u(n – 3).
13. For a signal x(t) = e-tu(t), draw its reverse and scale changed versions
x(-t) and x(2t).
14. Define energy signal and power signal.
15. What is the relation between δ (t) and u(t)?
16. Define random signal.
17. Define deterministic signal.
18. Define unit step signal.
19. Define unit sample signal.
20. Define periodic and aperiodic signal.
21.When the discrete time signal is said to be even?
22.When the continuous time signal is said to be odd?
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