Open Cycle

mf_dot fuel QH_dot

combustor

3
2 4

ma_dot air compressor turbine

W_dotnet=
1 Wt_dot+Wc_dot

power ... compressor ... ( )

Wc_dot = −ma_dot⋅ h 2 − h 1 = −ma_dot⋅ cp_air⋅ T2 − T1 ( )

turbine ...

⎛ mf_dot ⎞
( )(
Wt_dot = −ma_dot + mf_dot ⋅ h 3 − h 4 = −ma_dot⋅ ⎜ 1 +) ⎟ ⋅c ⋅ T − T4
ma_dot p_prod 3
( )
Jet engine ⎝ ⎠

as a side note: if the net work were converted to velocity via a nozzle (jet engine) the relationships would be

Wnet_dot = Wt_dot − Wc_dot determines state 4 out of turbine at p 4 > p1 atmosphere is state 5

T 4 determined from equation for net work (

wnet = cp ⋅ T3 − T4 )
γ−1 γ−1 γ−1
γ γ γ
T4 ⎛ p4 ⎞ T5 ⎛ p5 ⎞ T5 ⎛ p5 ⎞
could determine p 4 from =⎜ ⎟ determine T 5 from =⎜ ⎟ or ... = ⎜ ⎟

T3
⎝ p3 ⎠ T3
⎝ p3 ⎠ T4
⎝ p4 ⎠

nozzle anlysis: 2

V
First law, Q = W = 0 h4 = h5 + determines V, thrust from momentum change

combustor ...
1 = atmosphere ... adiabatic combustion Q = W = 0
0 = HR2 − HP3 0 = Enthaply of reactants at combustor inlet, compressor outlet
- Enthalpy of products out of combustor - first law

rewrite using LHV ... (

0 = HR2 − HR0 − HP3 − HP0 + LHV
)
rewrite using specifi enthalpy and mass flows ... on a per unit mass flow of fuel ...

ma_dot ⎛ ma_dot ⎞
0 = h f2 − h f0 + (
⋅ h a2 − h a0 − ⎜ 1 + ) (
⎟ ⋅ h p3 − h p0 + LHV )
mf_dot
⎝ mf_dot
⎠

to account for incomplete combustion introduce combustion efficiency ... only obtain η comb⋅HV

12/19/2005 1
 Given

ma_dot ⎛ ma_dot ⎞
0 = h f2 − h f0 + (
⋅ h a2 − h a0 − ⎜ 1 + )
⎟ ⋅ h p3 − h p0 + η comb⋅LHV ( )
mf_dot
⎝ mf_dot
⎠
can solve for mf_dot
ma_dot/mf_dot ( ) (
Find ma_dot → h f2 − h f0 − h p3 + h p0 + η comb⋅LHV ⋅
−h a2 + h a0 + h p3 − h p0
)
ma_dot (
η comb⋅LHV + h f2 − h f0 − h p3 − h p0 ) ( )
=
mf_dot (
h p3 − h p0 − h a2 − h a0 )
introduce average h a2 − h a0 h p3 − h p0
specific heat ... cp_bar_air = cp_bar_prod = h f2 − h f0
T2 − T0 T3 − T0 cp_bar_fuel =
T2 − T0

ma_dot (
η comb⋅LHV + cp_bar_fuel⋅ T2 − T0 − cp_bar_prod⋅ T3 − T0 ) ( )
=
mf_dot ( )
cp_bar_prod⋅ T3 − T0 − cp_bar_air⋅ T2 − T0 ( )

or ... inverting
mf_dot ( )
cp_bar_prod⋅ T3 − T0 − cp_bar_air⋅ T2 − T0 ( )
=
ma_dot ( )
η comb⋅LHV + cp_bar_fuel⋅ T2 − T0 − cp_bar_prod⋅ T3 − T0 ( )
gas turbine efficiency efficiency dividing by m a_dot

⎛ mf_dot ⎞
⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⋅c ⋅ ( T − T4 ) − cp_bar_air⋅ ( T2 − T1 )
Wt_dot + Wc_dot ma_dot p_bar_prod 3
η=
Wnet_dot
= =

⎝ ⎠
mf_dot ⋅LHV mf_dot ⋅LHV mf_dot

⋅LHV
ma_dot

fuel
kg⋅
hr kg lb
SFC = = = not equality ...

power = kW kW⋅ hr hp⋅

hr

mf_dot mf_dot LHV 1

SFC = = ⋅ =
Wnet_dot Wnet_dot LHV η ⋅ LHV

12/19/2005 2
 Open cycles have similar alternatives to closed
analysis would be similar as well so not repeated here
Open Cycle Regenerative (Recouperative)

6 regenerator

3 combustor
mf_dot fuel
mp_dot products

2 5
4

ma_dot air compressor turbine

W_dotnet=
1 Wt_dot+Wc_dot

static data for plot

T-s diagram

1000
temperature

500
irreversible cycle
irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2

entropy

N.B. cycle is drawn closed from state 6 to 1 but is taking place in atmosphere

12/19/2005 3
 Intercooled Regenerative (Recouperative) Cycle Rolls Royce WR-21 is an example see links

stack
8 regenerator

5 combustor
mf_dot fuel
6 mp_dot products

QL_dot 7
4

3
1 compressor compressor turbine
2
ma_dot air W_dotnet=
Wt_dot+Wc_dot

static data for plot

T-s diagram

irreversible cycle
1200 irreversible, heat exchanger maximum
regeneration inlet temperature irreversible
1000
temperature

800

600

400

0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

entropy

12/19/2005 4
 thermodynamic models for combustion

Various thermodynamic models can be used for analysis of products of combustion:

1. Single gas model

perfect gas, constant cp (1 kJ/kg*K close enough), γ = 1.4
2. Two gas model
a) perfect gas - air for compression, c p = 1.0035 kJ/kg*K, γa = 1.4

b) perfect gas combustion products; c pp = 1.13 kJ/kg*K, γp = 1.3

3. Tabulated data (e.g. Keenan & Kaye Gas Tables)

property data for air:
Table 1: Air at low pressure: T deg F abs, t deg F, h, pr, u, v r, φ
Table 2. Air at low pressures: T, t, c p , cv, k = cp /cv, a, Gmax/pi , μ, λ, Pr

Table 3: R Log N for air

Table 4: Products - 400% Theoretical Air (for One Pound Mole)

Table 5: Products - 400% Theoretical Air (for One Pound Mole) fuel data

Table 6: Products - R_bar Log e N +4.57263 n

Table 7: Products - 200% Theoretical Air (for One Pound Mole)

etc. data for oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, dioxide etc.

T = deg F abs
c p = specific heat at constant pressure
t = deg F
h = enthalpy per unit mass c v = specific heat at constant volume
pr = relative pressure G = flow per unit area or mass velocity
u = internal energy per unit mass k = cp /cv
vr = relative volume p = pressure
T Pr = Prandtl number = cp*μ/λ
⌠
⎮ cp R = gas constant for air
φ= ⎮ dT a = velocity of sound
⎮ T
⌡ λ = thermal conductivity
T0
μ = viscosity

Notes: Appendix (Sources and methods

- " ...calculated for one particular composition of the hydrocarbon fuel, it has been shown that it represents
with high precision the properties of the productsof combustion of fuels of a wide range of composition - all
for 400% theoretical air." page 205 bottom
- problems involving intermediate mixtures to Table B:
can be solved by interpolation based on theoretical air
or ... extrapolated to 100% for products is valid except for effects of disassociation

⎛ . .products . reactants air_and ⎞

⎜ Table %theor %theor %theor water_vapor ⎟
⎜ ⎟
Table_B = ⎜ Number air fuel fuel mass_%_water ⎟
⎜ 1 inf 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ 4 400 25 14 6.7
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝
7 200 50 28 . ⎠

12/19/2005 5
 4. Polynomial equations
- example in combustion example c p = f(θ
polytropic process
compressor
isentropic process

dT dp
ds = cpo⋅ − R⋅ (7.21) in gas relationships dp dT
T p R⋅ = η pc⋅ cpo⋅
p T
T
η pc ⌠
1s
dp 1 dT cp
= ⋅c ⋅ ⋅ ⎮
p R po T R ⎮ T
dT
p1 ⌡T
2
T =e
⎛ p1 ⎞ 1 ⌠ 1s cp p2
ln⎜ ⎟ = ⋅ ⎮ dT
⎝ p 2 ⎠
R ⎮
⌡T
T
2 turbine
T
⌠ 1s c T
1 ⎮ p ⌠ 1s c
⋅ 1 p
⋅⎮
dT
R ⎮ T ⎮
dT
p1 ⌡T η pt⋅R T
2 p1 ⌡T
=e 2
p2 =e
p2

High Temperature Gas Turbines

Advantages:
high efficiency - low specific fuel consumption

high specific horsepower - small size and weight

Disavantages:
materials strength problems (Creep) see separate notes re: creep
corrosion

Solutions:
better materials
blade and combustor cooling
ceramic materials

12/19/2005 6
 blade cooling

mf_dot fuel QH_dot

combustor

3
2 4
to blades
ma_dot air compressor turbine
W_dotnet= cooling flow
1 Wt_dot+Wc_dot

compressed air ducted into stationary AND rotor blades. Temperature reuduced by:
convective heat transfer
transpiration (evaporation of water from surface)
film

nominal data for plot

Cooling effectiveness (nominal)

60
effectiveness %

40

20
convective
film
transpiration
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

cooling flow/turbine flow %

Tblade_gas − Tblade_metal
cooling_effectiveness =
Tblade_gas − Tcooling_air

12/19/2005 7
 1500 K
T3 nominal ΔT over stages defining where
1st nozzle @ stator
cooling is required
1st rotor
2nd nozzle @ stator
2nd rotor
metal temperature

@ critical value

800 K T4

Ceramic materials
examples silicon nitride, silicon carbide
can be pressed, bonded and/or sintered to produce complete rotor system

⎛ . 25 _deg_C ( 75_deg_F) . . 1400 _deg_C ( 2500_deg_F) ⎞

⎜ ⎟
tensile_strength = ⎜ ⎟
. MPa ksi MPa ksi
⎜ Si3 ⋅ N4 552 80 172 25 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝
Si⋅ C 193 28 138 20 ⎠

12/19/2005 8
 Intercooled Regenerative Gas Turbine
typically two spool design

stack
10 regenerator

5 combustor
mf_dot fuel
6 mp_dot products 9
QL1_dot
2 3
4 7 8

1 lp power
lp hp hp turbine
compressor compressor turbine turbine W_dotnet=
ma_dot air Wt_dot+Wc_dot

8
T
5 9

10
4
2

3 1

s
powers ... (review) reversible

(
LP_comp = −mair_dot⋅ h 2 − h 1 ) ( )(
QH_dot = mair_dot + mfuel_dot ⋅ h 6 − h 5 )
HP_comp = −mair_dot⋅ ( h 4 − h 3 ) w_dot LP_comp = −w_dot LP_turb

HP_turb = ( mair_dot + mfuel_dot) ⋅ ( h 6 − h 7 ) w_dot HP_comp = −w_dot HP_turb

mair_dot
(
LP_turb = mair_dot + mfuel_dot ⋅ h 7 − h 8 )( ) mfuel_dot
from combustion analysis

(
Power_turb = mair_dot + mfuel_dot ⋅ h 8 − h 9 )( )

12/19/2005 9
 Marinization
Problems:
1. sea water droplets in air (inlet)
2. sea water in fuel
3. coupling to the propeller
4. long ducting

Solutions:
1. sea water in air
1. design of inlet - demisters to remove droplets
demisters

wire mesh

inertial separation

2. select corrosion resistant materials

3. surface treatment of components - plating to improve corrosion resistance
4. water washing and abrasive cleaning
2. sea water in fuel
1. treat to remove sodium
3. coupling to propeller (later)
4. long ducting
inlet and exit pressures reduce the pressure ratio across turbine
reduction in power
increase in fuel consumption
additional effect from inlet density

=> p p
p ⋅ v = R⋅ T = R⋅ T ρ =

ρ R⋅ T

static data for plot

12/19/2005 10
 T-s diagram

irreversible cycle
nominal pressure losses inlet and exaust

1000
temperature

500

0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

entropy

similar effect for T inlet > nominal

cycle will walk up p1 curve

normally cannot increase T H to account for these losses

other issues/topics
Materials
coatings
use of titanium

fuel treatment
sodium - bad - corrosion from products
remove by washing
add agents such as demulsifiers
water combines with sodium - remove by centrifuge
vanadium - in Bunker C combines with sulfur - creates corrosive combustion products
GE fro example has an additive to modify ash to prevent adhering to blades

problem 3 above: coupling to propeller

1. Controllable Reversible Pitch Propeller (CRP)
2. reversing gearbox
3. electric drive
4. reversing turbine
concentric opposite direction direction blade annuli

12/19/2005 11
Brayton cycle applied to turbocharging reciprocating engines
power ...
mf_dot fuel

in out (

comp = −mair_dot⋅ h 2 − h 1 )

3
stack (
) (

turb = mair_dot + mfuel_dot ⋅ h 3 − h 4 )

2 4

ma_dot air compressor turbine

( ) (

w_dot comp + w_dot turb = 0 = mair_dot + mfuel_dot ⋅ h 3 − h 4 − mair_dot⋅ h 2 − h 1)

(
)

⎛ mfuel_dot ⎞
h2 − h1 = ⎜ 1 + (

⎟ ⋅ h3 − h4 )
p3 may be > or < p2 depending on
⎝
mair_dot
⎠ what happens in engine

combined cycles - gas turbine and Rankine - or other

maximum available power from T 4 -> T5 T

4

2
5

⎛ w_dot rev ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ψ 4 − ψ 5 = h 4 − T0 ⋅ s4 − ( h 5 − T0 ⋅ s5 )
= h 4 − h 5 − T0 ⋅ (
s4 − s5 )

⎝
m_dot ⎠
max
dh
T⋅ ds = dh − v ⋅ dp if ... p 4 = p 5 = p atmos dp = 0 ds =
second law ... T

dh cpp⋅dT ⎛ T4 ⎞
assuming cpp constant ds = = => s4 − s5 = cpp⋅ ln⎜ ⎟
T T
⎝ T5 ⎠

⎛ w_dot rev ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ T4 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ψ 4 − ψ 5 = cpp⋅ ⎜ T4 − T5 − T0 ⋅ ln⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝
m_dot ⎠
max ⎝
⎝ T5 ⎠ ⎠

12/19/2005 12
 kW kJ := 1000J
example LM 2500 T4 := 825 K GT_power := 330
kg
T0 := 300 K
s

kJ

cp_prod := 1.08
1 < cp_prod < 1.33 kg⋅ K

⎛ 500 ⎞
T5 := ⎜ 400 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝
300 ⎠ ⎛ w_dot rev ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = W_m_dot_max
⎝ m_dot ⎠
max
⎛ 325 ⎞ ⎛ 150.233 ⎞
⎛ T4 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ T4 ⎞ ⎞
T4 − T5 = ⎜ 425 ⎟ T0 ⋅ ln⎜ ⎟=
⎜ 217.176 ⎟ W_m_dot_max := cp_prod⋅ ⎜ T4 − T5 − T0 ⋅ ln⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⋅K
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝
525 ⎠
⎝ ⎠

T5
⎝
303.48 ⎠
⎝
⎝ ⎠⎠
T5

⎛ 188.749 ⎞
W_m_dot_max = ⎜ 224.45 ⎟
kJ
⎜ ⎟ kg
⎝
239.241 ⎠

⎛ 0.572 ⎞
= ⎜ 0.68 ⎟
W_m_dot_max
GT_power ⎜ ⎟
⎝
0.725 ⎠

12/19/2005 13