Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
T
he two principle challenges
facing shippers are to satisfy
both the customer and the
shipper. The customer requires
a secure and reliable method of carriage
whilst the shipper requires that the space
on his vehicle of carriage is fully utilised
in order to receive maximum freight.
The methods of cargo carriage and packaging must be considered at the very outset
of the shipping process. The size and quality of packages must be compatible with the
transport technology contemplated, e.g. utilisation of containers depends on
positioning packages to avoid empty space. Hence, the considered transformation of
commodity to cargo carries significant commercial, operational and economic impact.
Space with a container is not just loss of revenue but poses the danger of goods
shifting during transit and so sustaining damage.
Basically, packaging performs the following three basic functions, which we may call
the three P’s of packaging, namely: protection, preservation and presentation.
A package should protect and preserve the contents during storage and transit
from the harvesting (for agricultural products), manufacturing (for manufactured
goods) or mining (for ore or other mineral products), to the consuming centre.
Protection is required not only against loss, damage and pilferage, but also,
depending on the nature of the contents, against moisture entering or leaving the
package, high or low temperatures, light, gases, insect infestation, contamination
and other natural hazards.
In this chapter, we shall look at the transformation from commodity to cargo and
the packaging requirements for the various types of cargo, including its
implications on shippers of unitised cargo.
Chapter objectives
Commodities and cargoes may be in solid dry form, or they may be liquids or gases.
The physical state has clear implications for storing, handling and movement of
commodities. Different forms require different transport modes, means and
packaging.
Packaging will also have to be considered relative to the transport method chosen.
Some raw materials, like ores, need not be packaged at all. If finished goods are
moved in containers, the packaging required is much less than if the goods are
transported in individual cases.
In general, commodities are either moved in bulk or as general cargo. Bulk and
general cargoes are defined relative to their means of transport and the cargo mix
onboard. If, for example, a ship carries a homogeneous cargo lot which is not packed
in any form, this is a bulk cargo: oil carried directly in tanks, grain carried directly in
holds or pig iron loaded directly, in holds.
When cargoes are packed and mixed onboard, it is referred to as general cargo. Most
finished goods are shipped as general cargo, while raw materials in bigger lots are
usually bulk cargoes.
1
Example: Branch, A.E., Elements of Shipping, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London and New York, 1996.
2
Use of Maritime Transport. A Guide for Shippers, Freight Forwarders and Ship Operators, Volume 1,
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, ST/ESCAP/516, p. 50-51.
The distinction between bulk cargoes and general cargoes is not strict. There are
examples of more than one bulk cargo being carried onboard the same ship, in
different holds or sections. Similarly, there are general cargoes which fill up the whole
carrier, e.g. shiploads of sugar in bags. This is referred to as unit loads of general
cargoes (which does not necessarily involve pallets or containers). The opposite,
where the ship carries different cargoes packed differently is referred to as general
break bulk cargoes. Such cargoes may consist of pallets, unpacked machinery, drums,
crates and so on.
The table below clarifies the difference between the physical form of a cargo and the
way it is shipped. Commodities, dry as well as liquid, may be shipped in unit loads, in
break bulk or as bulk cargo. It should be noted that terminology with regard to the
above is not fully consequent, and that additional terms are in use. The term "parcel
bulk" in chemical carriers is one example of this; up to 30 different chemicals may be
transported simultaneously onboard the same ship.
The cargo characteristics will influence the choice of ship needed for a specific job.
Different ships are constructed to carry different bulk cargoes.
Similarly, the cargo access equipment have been constructed to cater for different
commodities. The equipment available for cargo handling at the intended ports of
loading and discharge will also be reflected in the type of ship needed for a specific
job. If, for example, no cranes are available in the discharging port, a ship equipped
with cranes will have to be chosen for the transport task.
General Cargo
General cargo is a term that covers a great variety of goods. In regard to modern
cargo handling it refers to loose cargo that has not been consolidated for handling
with mechanical means such as unitised or containerised cargo. It refers to individual
items of any type of cargo, bagged or baled items, cases or crates, individual drums or
barrels pieces of machinery or small items of steel construction.
If general cargo is to be loaded on a ship in general stow it is usually man handled into
place. Hence the reason why general cargo is rarely seen in developed countries today,
the cost of handling such items is prohibitive and the time taken is unacceptable for
most maritime operations.
General cargo must be appropriately labelled. Usually with the port of destination and
the consignee's identification, this is called the ‘cargo mark’. And it is this mark that is
also shown on the Bill of Lading and the Cargo Manifest.
It is the responsibility of the
shipper to ensure that general
cargo is presented for shipment
suitably packaged to prevent
damage in handling. If there is any
risk in handling damage then the
items should be clearly marked
with the international symbols as
shown above.
Tallies, Mates Receipts and thence Bill of Ladings must accurately record the quantity
and condition of the cargo. The ship is then obliged to discharge the cargo at its
destination in the same quantity and condition as stated on the Bill of Lading. If it
does not then the carrier (the shipowner) is liable.
It is important therefore, that any defects, damage, lack of suitable packaging, or any
deterioration whatsoever to general cargo sighted by the ship during or prior to
loading is outlined on the Mates Receipt. The Bill of Lading must then be suitably
claused prior to signing by the ship's Master or his agent.
Obviously the usual type of ship carrying general cargo are general cargo vessels,
although it is not unusual for bulk carriers to carry certain types of general cargo such
as forest or steel products. In addition it is fairly common for bulk carriers to also
carry large quantities of bagged cargo, although this is often referred to a specialised or
particular bulk cargo.
Containerised Cargo
General cargo moving between developed countries today is usually containerised and
carried on cellular container or Ro/Ro vessels. So just what is the difference when we
refer to containerised cargo?
Almost any commodity can be containerised. The great advantages to the industry
with containerisation is that the cargo is not man handled on and off the ship, instead
the container is handled with fast and sophisticated handing equipment. Naturally in
developed countries where labour is expensive significant savings can be made, less so
initially for developing countries but over time as they become developed this will
change.
There are of course many specialised, or special purpose containers in use. The full list
is endless but some of the more common are listed below:
Compared with general cargo carried break bulk, cargo damage in containers is
considerably reduced, however, it still exists. Some of the more common forms of
damage are explained below.
Cargo not properly secured or trimmed-off within the container will damage
either due to heavy rolling of the ship or from shunting if transported by rail. The
further a container is stowed away from the ship's centre of motion the greater
will be the acceleration forces on the cargo and therefore the greater risk of
damage in heavy weather.
Water damage can be expected if the container has a leaking roof, although the
majority of water damage sustained by a substandard box is caused at the terminal
while the container is waiting in the stacks. Water damage on board is usually
caused by a flooded hold due to blocked bilges or a leaking ballast tank. Another
source of water damage is often caused when a container is stowed outside on
deck where the seas can reach the underside of the unit.
open hold.
Pilferage can still take place with containerised cargo. Despite the fact that the
door leaves are sealed it is still possible for the doors to be sprung open with the
use of heavy machinery, individual items within the container can then be stolen
and the doors sprung shut without the door seal being broken. Although in most
cases of container pilferage the entire container is hijacked and box and contents
disappear without a trace!
Packing a container should always be done on level plane either on the ground,
on a railcar, or on a trailer. In the case of a trailer, care should be taken to ensure the
trailer cannot tip whilst being packed especially if a forklift truck is being used. If
necessary the trailer should be propped. Brakes should be securely applied and wheels
choked.
The planned load should not weight more than the payload of the container
which is marked upon it. This ensures that the permitted maximum gross weight of
the container on the CSC Safety Approval Plate (which includes the payload) will
never be exceeded. A picture of the rear end of a typical container is shown below:
In such a case the method of securing the load should be planned before packing
occurs and any necessary preparations made.
It is essential to make the cargo in a container or vehicle secure against any reasonably
foreseeable movement. At the same time, the method of securing the cargo should
not itself cause damage or deterioration either to the cargo or the container or vehicle.
Where goods of regular shape and size are concerned, a tight stow from wall to wall
should be sought. However, in many instances some void spaces will occur. These
can be tolerated if security is obtained by the frictional effect between adjacent
packages. If there is an insufficient frictional effect, or if the spaces between the
packages are tool large, then the stow should be completed by using dunnage, folded
cardboard, air bags or other suitable means.
The cargo weight should be evenly distributed over the floor of a container or vehicle.
Where cargo items of a varying weight are to be packed into a container or vehicle or
where a container or vehicle will not be full (either because of insufficient cargo or
because the maximum weight allowed will be reached before the container or vehicle
is full), the stow should be so arranged and secured that the approximate centre of the
weight of the cargo is close to the mid-length of the container or vehicle. In no case
should more than 60 per cent of the load be concentrated in less than half of the
length of a container measured from one end.
Heavy goods should not be placed on top of lighter goods and liquids should not be
placed on top of solids. The centre of gravity should be below the half height of a
container.
In order to avoid cargo damage from moisture, wet cargoes, moisture inherent
cargoes or cargoes liable to leak should not be packed with goods susceptible to
damage by moisture. Wet dunnage, pallets or packaging should not be used. In
certain cases, damage to equipment and cargo can be prevented by the use of
protective material such as polythene sheeting.
Damaged packages should not be packed into container or vehicle unless precautions
have been taken against harm from spillage or leakage.
Where open-sided vehicles are concerned, particular care should be taken to secure
cargo the forces likely to arise from the rolling of the ship. In order words, a check
should be made to ensure that all side battens are fitted or other adequate precautions
are taken.
Goods marked "protect from frost" should be packed away from the walls of
a container;
During the final stages of packing a container, care should be taken, so far as
practicable, to build a secure face of the cargo so as to prevent "fall out" when the
doors are opened. Where there is any doubt as to the security of the cargo, further
steps should be taken to ensure security by weaving strapping between securing points
or placing timber between the rear posts. Two factors should be borne in mind:
that a cargo may move against the doors due to jolts etc. during the transit.
When a container, or its contents, has been fumigated and is to be shipped under
fumigation, then a warning label should be placed on the outside of the doors so that
it is clearly visible to any person operating the doors. The label should state the
method of fumigation employed and the date and time on which it took place.
As containers offered for shipment under fumigation may require special precautions,
they should only be accepted with the agreement of the carrier and they should be
identified to him prior to loading. Note: point 4 and 5 do not apply to containers
which have been fumigated, ventilated thereafter and certified as safe.
Consider some of the more common bulk cargoes and their properties:
Coal – Coal is transported on all types of bulk carriers from handy size to VLCBs.
However, it is not an easy or straight forward cargo to handle. It can emit methane
gas and it is self-heating. In addition coal contains sulphur which causes severe
corrosion when in contact with the ship's steelwork. In most ports the cargo is loaded
wet to reduce dust. Much of this moisture settles on passage and is pumped out
through the ship's hold bilges which means that less weight is discharged than is
loaded.
Iron Ore - This cargo is loaded very fast, 10,000 tonnes an hour is not unusual. The
loading and de-ballasting of the ship must be meticulously planned to ensure that the
vessel is not overstressed. There is very little chance of damaging the cargo but the
ship can receive extensive damage during the discharge operation from the equipment
used.
Vermin can also be a problem. Cargo holds must be clean and dry prior to the loading
of any grain cargo and most grain charters demand a survey of the ship's hold prior to
loading for this reason.
Cement - Obviously any moisture is going to ruin a cargo of cement but probably a
greater danger to the vessel is the dust that can be produced during the loading and
discharge of the cargo. If it is not removed promptly or gets into the ship's air intakes
it can cause some long term problems to the vessel.
Salt- Salt, strangely enough, is not damaged from water, in fact the cargo can be
loaded slightly moist. However, it can get rust stained from the ship's steelwork,
therefore the ship must cover all the steel within the cargo hold with a lime wash
solution thereby keeping the salt off the steelwork.
Woodchips - Again a supposedly harmless cargo that does have some hidden
dangers. Some shipments many be subject to oxidation leading to depletion of oxygen
and an increase of carbon dioxide in the cargo hold and adjacent spaces. In addition,
woodchips can be easily ignited by external sources, it is readily combustible and can
also ignite by friction. The stowage factor can vary greatly with this cargo depending
on the wood type, the moisture content and the type of loading head used. Even
different loading operators can achieve varying stowage factors with the same cargo.
Liquid cargo
On oil tankers it is normal to have a common cargo tank ventilation system. The
vapours from one cargo tanks can easily enter a different tank in the system. This may
result in cargo contamination or change the flash point of the product. Petroleum
products are classified into volatile and non-volatile cargoes. A cargo with a flash
point below 60°C is a volatile product and a cargo with a flash point above 60°C is a
non-volatile cargo (different rules apply to the handling of volatile and non-volatile
cargoes). Diesel oil has a flash point of around 63°C and vapours from a volatile cargo
can easily change the flash point to below 60°C, causing the cargo to be re-classified.
Many lube oils and lube additives are heated during transport. Steam coils are
normally used for this purpose. A leaking heating coil can lead to water entering the
cargo tank and consequently contaminating the cargo. Laboratory tests should be
carried out on cargoes contaminated by water. It should be established whether the
water is fresh or salt water. Contamination caused by fresh water is most likely to be
caused by a leaking heating coil whereas salt water contamination would probably be
caused by a leaking tank hatch, in which case the hatch packing should be checked.
Cargo Handling
(d) The new and modern techniques of refrigeration, particularly with container
carriage.
The shipper will have to prepare consignments for transport. The handling and
storage of cargo is not his immediate responsibility, but as it will influence the total
transport cost and quality, shippers' will have to ascertain that the best available
methods are provided and used. While in transit, commodities are represented by
documents. It is in the shipper's interest to see to that the paper work is handled
efficiently.
Cargo preparations
(c) Dangerous goods: Some goods are classified as dangerous. In general, goods are
regarded as dangerous if they have chemical or physical properties which can damage
other goods, materials or the environment. Examples are explosives, flammable
liquids or gases and poisons.
IMO, the International Maritime Organisation, has worked out rules for the handling
of dangerous goods at sea in conventions which have been ratified by most member
countries. These rules contain regulations regarding packaging, marking and labelling,
stowage requirements, etc. for various types of explosives, gases, and various types of
inflammable materials. This is discussed later in detail.
Thus it is only with the adoption of unitisation that general cargo carriers have
achieved high transfer rates and been able to take advantage of handling techniques
similar to those which have been developed for homogeneous cargoes.
Not all horizontal loading ships are strictly Ro-Ro ships. Pallet carriers may, for
example, have side doors only and the cargo is loaded or discharged by fork-lift trucks
operating on the quayside.
Cargo stowage
The safety of the cargo Systematic and efficient stowage of cargo will help
prevent cargo damage and ensure maximum
utilisation of hold space.
The highest possible port speed
When loading a general cargo at a variety of ports for a variety of ports, the problem
of where to place the individual cargoes must be solved to secure minimum time in
port. The cargo must be stowed in reverse order of the intended discharge to avoid
rearrangements of the consignments. At the same time the amount of unused space
should be kept as low as possible to obtain the best economical use of the vessel.
The given stowage factor of a particular cargo will normally take what is called broken
stowage into account. Broken stowage is space lost because of the shape of the
cargo and/or particular requirements in regard to stowing it in the cargo holds. For
example, there may be limitations on how many units or consignments which may be
placed on top of each other. For homogeneous bulk commodities, broken stowage is
usually small. For irregular packages, as often found in typical general cargo lot, it may
be substantial.
Broken stowage
The stowage factor is important for the loading of cargo in the various means of
transport, as it indicates the amount of the cargo which can go into the holds. Either
the volume or the weight will be the limiting factor. The stowage factors of various
products are given in published stowage tables.
While stowage of goods is important for the utilisation of space in containers and
holds, packaging and stowage must also be carefully considered in relation to
marketing and the needs and specifications of the customers as well as in relation to
minimising damage.
Cargo documents
When the cargo is delivered to the warehouse or to the ship, a receipt for that cargo
must be obtained by the shipper. When the cargo is placed onboard, this is called a
"mate's receipt". This receipt acknowledges that the goods ha ve been loaded and
have been properly and carefully handled, loaded and stowed. If there are any
damages to the goods before loading, this will be recorded on the receipt, and it is no
longer "clean".
In some trades, it is customary for the shippers to have a "boat note" following the
cargo. When the "boat note" is signed by the cargo officer aboard the ship, it becomes
a "mate's receipt". With many shipping companies it is the practice to give an official
"mate's receipt" irrespective of the fact that a boat note may be provided by the
shipper. Modern practice is to present a copy of the shipping note as the boat note,
which when endorsed, become the "mate's receipt".
Special tally companies are engaged by the shipowner to check or keep record of all
cargo loaded into and discharged from a vessel. This is an essential part of cargo work
in order to prevent claims upon the ship for so-called "short" discharge, i.e. when
some of the cargo is missing. It is sometimes customary for the shipper or consignee
to provide his own tally clerks, particularly with cargoes of a straight nature, such as
bags, bales etc.
A copy of the "mate's receipt" will be returned to the shipowner, so that a "bill of
lading" can be issued to the shipper. The "bill of lading" acknowledges that the goods
have been "shipped in apparent good order and condition" if the "mate's receipt" is
clean. Otherwise, comments are transferred to the "bill of lading". This document is
issued under all forms of shipping, scheduled or not. The complete list of cargo
loaded, as compiled from the "bills of lading" form the "manifest" of the ship.
Customs regulations at most ports require at least one copy of the manifest and
copies are also required for stevedores at discharging ports.
While cargoes are in transit, they may be sold so that the goods change ownership.
Such a sale will be represented by the "bill of lading" changing hands. At the port of
discharge, the consignment will be handed over to the party presenting the original
"bill of lading".
Packaging of Cargo
As mentioned earlier, packaging perform the following three basic functions, which
we may call the three P’s of packaging, namely: protection, preservation and
presentation.
Appropriate strapping and banding techniques should be used for all packages.
The regulations of the destination country as well as those of any transit countries
should be checked in order to ensure that they do not prohibit certain types of
packing material, particularly material which is harmful to the environment.
The re-use of second-hand cartons or cases should be avoided as they are more liable
to collapse or and may invite pilferage (stealing in small quantities) if the contents
become exposed.
To improve the handling of bigger volumes of cargo, the design of the package
should match the dimensions of the product so as to save packaging and freight costs.
From the shipper's point of view, it is desirable that the following considerations
should be borne in mind in order to minimize the cost of freight:
goods attracting different freight rates should not be packed together in one
package, in case the carrier charges freight for the whole package at the rate
applicable to the highest-rated commodity.
It is essential that waterproof wrapping for the contents and waterproof lining for
packages should be provided, particularly when the packages are likely to remain in an
unprotected area, such as the customs area.
3 Igloo: An open front, bottomless, rigid shell made of fiberglass, metal or other suitable materials. The
slope conforms to the contours of the cargo aircraft envelope, i.e. the interior cabin cross-section.
characteristics.
Volume
Weight
Number of packages
Types of packages
Mode of transport
Final destination
The exporter or seller is usually responsible for packing the goods for break bulk
cargo, whereby a consolidated consignment is broken down on delivery for
distribution to individual consignees. The type of packaging required for any product
varies with the nature and volume of the product as well as the method of transport it
is carried over. Generally the following types of packaging are used:
Bagged cargo
Wooden cases
Wooden crates
Bales
For certain trades, the use of hessian-wrapped bales is suitable, particularly when the
product permits pressure baling or compression by banding. It is, however, vulnerable
to pilferage, damage by handling using looks, etc..
Drums, barrels, casks
Shrink wrapping
Dry chemicals, granular and powdered substances in bags cannot be easily strapped
on to a pallet. When these items have to be unitised, bags are stowed on the pallet and
interlocked; a polythene sheet of suitable gauge is then draped over the bags. This unit
is then passed through a tunnel oven where polythene is heat-sealed tight, binding the
bags to the pallet to form a good unit load.
Lift vans
When household goods such as tables, chairs, cupboards, glassware, brassware, etc.,
have to be moved, especially from one country to another, they have to be packed in
"lift vans" which are unit loads specially built for the purpose. They are generally made
of wood, lined with waterproof material on all sides and additional metallic proofing
on the roof to prevent damage by rain and sun. These units are made to be handled
by forklift trucks and packed in ISO 20 foot containers.
Machinery when being packed for export by sea has to be preserved against humidity
and corrosion. All the open parts are chemically treated and sometimes greased. The
best preservation is to vacuum-seal the machine. The machine is covered by high
density polythene which is draped aver the unit and heat-sealed. A vacuum pump
then draws the air out of the polythene and the machine is preserved for as long as
one year under vacuum. In lift vans and other packaging, silica gel in sufficient
quantity is used, depending on the volume of the package.
Special cargo
Bulk commodities like ore and food grains, heavy equipment and machinery,
locomotives and structures, do not require packing. They require suitable vessels with
suitable handling gear and the like.
(b) Goods of high value
Goods of high value such as gold and platinum in all forms, coins,
jewellery, live animals, legal banknotes, securities, at present are
mostly moved by air. They need special care and protection. Direct
delivery to the vessel and direct collection upon arrival of the vessel is
advisable.
(c) Perishables and refrigerated cargo
This kind of cargo requires special packing, marking and labelling, which is a task
undertaken by the shippers themselves. There is a separate section on the carriage of
dangerous goods later in this manual.
Packing principles relating to cargo in containers
The principles below are applicable to cargo stowage in containers carried by sea, air,
road or rail. This topic will be further discussed and illustrated in the relevant modules
on the carriage of goods by sea, by air and by road and rail.
There are a number of basic principles applicable to the stowage of ALL cargo into
containers. The maxim which summarises this set of principles is: safe container
transport depends chiefly on a correct and immovable stow and an even
weight distribution.
Either the container must be stowed tightly so that lateral and longitudinal
movement of the cargo within it is impossible;
Tight stowage
This can be achieved by making the shape and the dimensions of the package an
optimum module of the container or making the base of a unit load a module of the
container.
Restraint
It is always necessary to restrain the cargo for one or more of the following reasons:
To prevent the "face" of the stow collapsing and leaning against the container
doors to fall out when the doors are opened at the final destination or for
customs inspection.
There is no simple formula to follow when securing cargo. Each stow must be treated
on its own merits - the type of cargo, the way it is stowed, the equipment available, or
the permanent fittings in the container. But the following points should be borne in
mind when applying restraint:
Always use the built-in securing points which are provided. For obvious reasons
comply with the safe loading limitation on the securing points.
Any timber used - i.e., dunnage or filler pieces - should be dry. It may also have to
comply with certain quarantine regulations in force.
If nails have to be used to secure cargo to a wooden floor, they should only
penetrate about two-thirds the thickness of the floor to achieve adequate grip
without total penetration. Holes must not be drilled in walls or floor. Never use
nails in a reefer container (a refrigerated container).
Any shoring which presses against the container wall should have extra timber
laid longitudinally between the wall and point of support to spread the weight
over two or more side posts.
Useful filler pieces for wedging or preventing rubbing, sometimes called chafe,
are old tyres, paper pads softened by soaking (macerated) or, for light packages,
rolled-up cardboard.
Heavy weights should be secured to stout ring-bolts (sited in the container floor
and side walls) and/or be shored with timber. They should be chained or wired
with bottle-screws (e.g., 1/2 in chain; 11/4 inch bottle-screws; three ton “D”
shackles are adequate for lashing cargo up to 18 tons in weight).
Resilient loads can cause lashings to slacken - this may sometimes be overcome
by introducing elasticity (e.g. rubber rope) into the lashing pattern.
Stowage precautions
In the majority of cases, there is a space (1" to 24") left between the face of the cargo
and the container doors. It is important that the cargo does not collapse into this
space. It can be prevented in a variety of ways, such as:
(a) Using suitably positioned lashing points with wire, rope, strapping, etc., woven
across
(b) Inserting a simple wooden gate for the wider gaps and heavier cargo
(c) Providing filler pieces i.e., macerated (water-softened) paper pads, wood-wool
pads made of fine shavings and used for packing, etc., for narrower gaps and
lighter cargoes (like cartons of biscuits).
It is also important to ensure that the cargo does not fall out when the container
doors are opened. This is particularly relevant to a container which has been
completely packed (as with cartons or sacks). Although this can sometimes be
achieved by interlocking tiers of packages, it is better to use the fixing points located
in the door posts of general cargo container. Nylon strapping in polypropylene cord
or wire (1/4" diameter or less) threaded through these points forms an effective
barrier.
Securing the goods in their packages and making the pack itself as full as possible
so as to resist external pressures.
Making packages sufficiently rigid to withstand the weight imposed upon them
when stacked to a minimum height of 8ft.
Making sure, if more than one type of cargo is stowed in a container, that they are
compatible and cannot cause contamination or become contaminated.
Placing heavy items and liquids at the bottom, with light and dry items on the top.
Within practical physical limitations of handling, the unit package should be as large as
possible, since this can reduce costs by up to 20 percent and increase the
efficiency in volume by up to 10 percent.
Where relevant, stowing should be carried out in a sequence which will permit
rapid checking and storage operations during and after unloading. Should the
consignment include cargo subject to customs pre-entry procedures, customs
examination would be made easier and unloading avoided if the cargo were
stowed at the end of the container by the door.
One should try to arrange for any unavoidable gap in the stowage to be along the
centre line of the container and not at the sides. It is much easier and cheaper to
restrain the shifting of cargo in this way.
A lighted cigarette end can destroy the contents of a container and even endanger
the ship. When stowing a container the rule should therefore be NO
SMOKING.
Load factors
Heavy loads must be assessed according to their shape, dimension and weight. How-
ever, as a guide, the weight or loads should be distributed over the container floor by
means of suitable bearers or dunnage as follows:
(a) Width: distribution should be over the entire width of the container;
(b) Length: each ton weight of cargo should be spread over at least two floor
members, which run transversely under the container floor at 1 foot centres (e.g.,
a 13 ton integral load would require to be distributed over 14 floor members i.e.,
14 foot run of container floor).
The total load should be distributed as evenly as possible, but in certain circumstances
the closed end half of the container can carry more than 65 per cent, or conversely the
door end half more than 60 per cent, of the total load.