Professional Documents
Culture Documents
3
Cooling Equipment
Compressor
Expansion Valve
etc.)
5
Compression Cycle
High Compressor
Pressure Expansion Work
Low Valve
Pressure
Evaporator QE
6
Compression-Based Liquid
Chilling Systems (cont’d)
Cycle Details
High pressure side: from compressor outlet through
condenser to expansion valve inlet
Low pressure side: from expansion valve outlet
through evaporator to compressor inlet
Utilize the fact that the boiling point of the refrigerant
changes as the fluid pressure changes: lower pressure
means a lower boiling temperature
Refrigerant picks up heat in the evaporator (refrigerant
evaporates) because the chilled fluid temperature is
higher than the refrigerant temperature
Refrigerant rejects heat in the condenser (refrigerant
condenses) because condenser fluid temperature is
lower than refrigerant temperature
Compressor drives the cycle by compressing the
refrigerant through the addition of work
First Law of Thermodynamics
7
Chillers/Heat Pumps for
Conditioning
Cooling: Normal operation mode
Goal is to provide cooling at the evaporator where there is
8
Chillers/Heat Pumps for
Conditioning (cont’d)
Efficiency and Energy Issues
Work is required because we are trying to get heat to flow in a
direction that is counter the natural flow of heat (natural
would be from higher temperature to lower temperature)
COP is generally greater than 1.0 so we get more kW-h of
cooling or heating than electric kW-h that we put into the
compressor
Performance (and COP) of the system is highly dependent on
the fluid temperatures that the condenser and evaporator are
in contact with
Lower evaporator temperatures result in lower COP
Higher condenser temperatures result in lower COP
More extreme temperatures lower COP and can lower available
capacity
Temperature relation to performance can be a hindrance to the
system or a potential advantage
Heat pump may struggle and require more energy as outside
temperatures become more extreme
Presence of a more moderate/constant temperature source can
keep system running efficiently (e.g., ground)
9
Chillers/Heat Pumps for
Conditioning (cont’d)
Chiller vs. Heat Pumps—what’s the
difference?
Difference in system components: none
Chillers are generally cooling only device and
are used to produce chilled water for cooling
coils (size range can be quite large)
Heat pumps can provide both heating and
cooling and are typically smaller in size
(often residential units)
Heat pumps are typically compression cycle
only and almost all use electric energy as
input
Chillers can use various cycles and may
actually use other energy sources as the
system energy input 10
Condensers
Purpose: to reject heat from refrigerant to
surrounding environment, condensing the
refrigerant from a (superheated) vapor to a
(subcooled) liquid
Condenser is really a “heat exchanger” which
transfers energy from one fluid stream to another
without mixing the two streams
Water-Cooled Condensers
Heat exchanged with water which is circulated to another
“component” (ground, lake, pond—natural or constructed,
river, cooling tower, etc.) as closed or open loop
Condenser temperature depends on water source
temperature
11
Condensers (cont’d)
Air-Cooled Condensers
Heat exchanged with outdoor air
12
Condensers (cont’d)
Cooling Towers
Similar concept as evaporative
condensers
Condenser water “open” in the tower
Some water evaporates, requiring
make-up water
Some systems eliminate the fan
requirement
13
Condenser Examples
14
Condenser Examples
(cont.)
15
Digital images on this slide
courtesy of: Lisa Fricker, Graduate
16
Condenser Examples
(cont.)
17
Evaporators (Liquid
Coolers)
Purpose: to absorb heat in the
refrigerant from the surrounding
environment, evaporating the
refrigerant from a liquid (or liquid/vapor
mixture) to a (superheated) vapor
Evaporator is also a heat exchanger
Evaporator can be a cooling coil itself or
a refrigerant (DX or direct expansion
coil) to water heat exchanger to the
chilled water loop
18
Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger Types (largest to
smallest):
Shell-and-Tube
Plate/Plate-and-Frame
Tube-in-Tube
Shell-and-Coil
Heat Exchanger Issues:
Larger exposed air means largest UA (more
heat transfer)
Fouling can affect performance over time
(maintenance issues)
Interior and exterior fins on coils
19
Compressors
Purpose: to compress the refrigerant vapor to a
higher pressure (also increases the temperature)
Mechanical device: power input converted to
mechanical energy
Types of Compressors:
Positive-displacement: “squeeze”—increase pressure
be decreasing vapor volume
Reciprocating
Rotary
Scroll
Trochoidal
Dynamic: “spin”—increase pressure by transferring
angular momentum, momentum converted to pressure
increase
Centrifugal
Centrifugal tend to be used in larger systems
20
Compressors (cont’d)
Motor Types
Open: motor and compression
chamber separated via shaft link
Hermetic: motor and compression
chamber same, motor shaft and
compressor crankshaft integral
Semi-hermetic: bolted construction
allows field service
21
Compression Cycle: Big
Picture
Cooling Tower
Direction of heat transfer
Condenser Compressor
Expansion
Valve
Evaporator
24
Absorption Chillers (cont’d)
Cycle Details (LiBr system)
Pure water (vapor/liquid) in the condenser and evaporator
chamber
Strong(er) solution (liquid) is sent to absorber
25
Absorption Chillers (cont’d)
Cycle Details (LiBr system, cont’d)
Condensed water is pushed to the evaporator as a result of the
pressure difference/gravity
Liquid water in the evaporator is boiled off with the addition of heat
at low temperature/pressure
Water vapor boiled off from evaporator is sent to absorber
Absorber: Water vapor condenses (potential heat rejection) and gets
reabsorbed into the water-LiBr solution, weakening the solution
Absorber sends weakened solution back to generator where cycle
starts over again
Pumps used to send solution from absorber to generator and to
circulate liquid water over evaporator coil
Heat exchanger used between lines connection generator and
absorber—reduces heat addition needed in generator (improving
efficiency)
Goal is cooling at the evaporator (forward cycle) or heating at the
generator (reverse cycle)
Many slight variations on this basic cycle
26
Absorption Chillers (cont’d)
Performance Issues
Capacities typically range from 180-almost 6000 kW
(big!) though smaller units on the range of 18-35 kW
available internationally
Typical COP values are much lower than for compression
cycle chillers: 0.7-0.8 or lower is common
Low COP not necessarily a problem if heat source is free:
COP = Usable cooling/energy input
Other Issues
Is a heat source available that can be used?
27
Thermal Energy Storage
Concept
Produce and store energy for use during another time
Initially, this was as simple as cutting ice blocks from
Lake Michigan and storing those until summer
Now, energy storage is produced during off-peak hours
when energy costs are lower
Overall dollar effect is a reduction in the conditioning costs
for the buildingprimary (or only) benefit is economic
Reduction in cost per kW-hr and reduction in demand costs
Costs based on type of power plants running
Cost of start-up and shutdown of power plants
Mainly an issue for industrial customers, usually used for
cooling
Utilities have in the past actually paid (in part) for systems
Reduced demand reduces need for new power plants
Shift of electric load uses power that might not
otherwise be used (hydroelectric, nuclear, etc.)
28
Thermal Energy Storage
(cont’d)
System Types
Tempered Water Storage
29
Thermal Energy Storage
(cont’d)
System Types (cont’d)
Ice Storage
Storage of cooling energy in the form of ice
Latent heat of solidification allows large
amount of energy storage in a much smaller
area than a water system
System types:
Ice-on-coil outside melt (obsolete)
Ice-on-coil inside melt
Encapsulated ice (ice container)
Ice harvester
Ice slurry
30
Thermal Energy Storage
(cont’d)
Efficiency Issues (Ice Systems)
Process for producing ice less efficient than chilled
water production (temperatures required for making
ice are much lower, resulting in lower efficiency/COP
and capacity of chiller)
This may be offset somewhat be reduced condenser
temperatures due to cooler outdoor conditions at
night
Systems can produce lower supply air temperatures,
reducing the flow rates needed to provide same
cooling (which lowers fan energy)
Do ice storage systems save dollars and energy?
31
Thermal Energy Storage
Controls
Full Storage (discharging)
Minimizes on-peak energy consumption,
maximizes energy consumption shift
Largest storage requirements and perhaps
largest chiller (and initial costs)
Probably largest potential savings on operating
costs
Partial Storage (discharging)
Types:
33
Heating Equipment
Boiler
Furnace
Heat Pump
Heating Equipment
Furnace (air)
35
Boilers
Definition: equipment whose sole
purpose is to provide hot water or steam
for various uses within a building
Size (capacity) range:
15 kW 30+ MW
Fuels: coal, wood, fuel oil, (natural) gas,
electricity
36
Boiler Uses
Steam:
Heating coils (reheat, preheat)
Hot water heat exchangers
Absorption cooling
Laundry
Sterilizers
Water:
Heating coils (reheat, preheat)
Domestic hot water
37
Boilers: Basic Layout
stack/flue/ Goal:
chimney Try to get
most efficient
transfer of
water
water
water
water
40
Boilers: Efficiency
Sizes:
Residential units (smallest)
Commercial (44 600+ kW)
Generally smaller than boilers
Various configurations:
Combustion systems
Air flow variations (single/multi-pass)
43
Furnace
(AHU)
Example
44
Boiler/Furnace Stack
45
Furnace Efficiency
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 103
Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE)
air
supply fan
surroundings Secondary
System
heating coil cooling coil
pump pump