This document discusses the contribution of distributed generation to short-circuit current levels on distribution networks. It introduces the topic, noting that increased distributed generation like renewable sources can impact fault levels. The aim is to use IEC standards to calculate maximum fault levels on networks with distributed generation connected at medium-voltage and low-voltage levels. Example networks are used to demonstrate the methodology. Potential measures for reducing high fault levels are also discussed.
This document discusses the contribution of distributed generation to short-circuit current levels on distribution networks. It introduces the topic, noting that increased distributed generation like renewable sources can impact fault levels. The aim is to use IEC standards to calculate maximum fault levels on networks with distributed generation connected at medium-voltage and low-voltage levels. Example networks are used to demonstrate the methodology. Potential measures for reducing high fault levels are also discussed.
This document discusses the contribution of distributed generation to short-circuit current levels on distribution networks. It introduces the topic, noting that increased distributed generation like renewable sources can impact fault levels. The aim is to use IEC standards to calculate maximum fault levels on networks with distributed generation connected at medium-voltage and low-voltage levels. Example networks are used to demonstrate the methodology. Potential measures for reducing high fault levels are also discussed.
Distributed Generation Sreto Boljevic Michael F. Conlon Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland sreto.boljevic@cit.ie michael.conlon@dit.ie
Abstract-Electrical power production from distributed
generation (DG) is playing an increasing role in the supply of electricity in liberalised electricity markets. Currently DG is attracting both distribution utilities and electricity users, as it can provide meaningful advantages to both. The increasing demand on the distribution network (DN) imposed by new DG such as renewable sources and Combined Heat Power (CHP) will impact on the operation of the DN in a number of areas including short-circuit (SC) current and voltage levels. In general, all new DG causes some increase in fault levels. An increase in CHP generation, that would be most likely to occur in urban DN, would lead to an increase in fault level issues as urban networks tend to have the lowest fault level headroom. Fig. 1. Fault Level Capacity with the Addition of Distributed Generation The aim of this paper is to use the methodology of the latest edition of the IEC 60909 standard to calculate the maximum to the presence of DG. This fault current is detected by the fault level in a DN with DG connected at MV/LV level. The protection system and will be cleared by circuit breakers or application of the methodology is demonstrated using fictitious networks resembling typical DN configuration applied in fuses. commercial buildings where continuity of power supply is very Designers calculate fault levels during network planning important. A discussion is also included on potential measures and for operational reasons, in order to ensure that they available to reduce the fault level. remain within the design limits of the network. Fault levels can be an issue in all types of networks, at all voltage levels, I. INTRODUCTION and if fault levels exceed the equipment, cable or overhead line ratings, there are two broad options: Connection of DG plants fundamentally alters the • the network configuration may be modified and/or operation of networks. There will be observable impacts on additional equipment may be installed, to reduce the fault the network power flow, voltage regulation and fault level level at the specific parts of the network where the fault where generator capacity of DG is comparable to local level exceeds design limits; demand and specifically where export occurs. There is a risk • the appropriate equipment, and potentially cables and lines, that new connections will impact adversely on the security may be uprated to withstand the fault level. and quality of local electricity supplies and accordingly they Traditionally, in an environment where the primary forms must be evaluated carefully by Distribution Network of generation are connected to the distribution networks via Operators (DNOs). Historically the distribution network has supply transformers from the transmission network, the main been designed to accommodate power flow from the grid changes to fault levels over time were due to additional supply points downward through tiers of networks operating supply transformers and to changes in rotating load at at lower voltage to the electricity consumers. The network is customer sites. In today’s distribution networks, the presence designed to meet the needs of normal operation, fault of DG provides an additional contribution to the fault level, conditions and abnormal operation (e.g., when the network and the embedded nature of the DG makes the fault current has been reconfigured for maintenance). calculations more complex as they should take into account When a short circuit fault occurs in the distribution the consequences of operational switching combinations to a degree not required when all generation was via the network, a fault current will flow to the fault location. The transmission network. The fault level contribution from DG is fault current comprises the current from connected generation determined by a number of factors, including: and from rotating load such as motors at customer sites. The • The type of DG, as different types of DG contribute power flow and SC current may even have an upstream different fault currents. direction of flow or at least their amplitudes will change due • The distance of the DG from the fault, as the increased three-phase faults, which provide the maximum fault current cable impedance over longer distances will reduce the fault when the network neutral is earthed directly or via an earth current. fault limiting impedance. In order to enhance the accuracy of • Whether or not a transformer is present between the fault the results, the various impedance factors recommended in location and the contributing DG (which is often the case the standard are used. for voltage regulation purposes), as transformer short Balanced (three-phase) and unbalanced faults are circuit impedance may assist in limiting the fault current. considered and in both cases, maximum and minimum values • The configuration of the network between the DG and the of the SC currents are calculated. The standard distinguishes fault, as different paths for the flow of the fault current will between approaches that are provided according to network alter the magnitude of the fault current (due to cable configuration – radial or mashed and to fault location. For the impedances and other installed equipment). calculation of the fault level, only the maximum SC currents • The method of coupling the DG to the network. Directly need to be considered. In distribution networks with a radial connected DG will contribute significantly higher fault currents than DG connected via power electronics (PE) configuration and low-impedance grounded neutral typically interfaces. requires the calculation of SC for three-phase far from Fault current in power systems determine the ratings of the generator. circuit interruption devices and the settings of power system protective relays. Once the circuit breakers (CB) are in place A. Short-Circuit Definitions and relay settings have been implemented there may be some The initial symmetrical SC current Ik” is the r.m.s. value of operating and planning implications imposed by the changing the a.c. symmetrical component of a prospective S.C current. fault current. Fault analysis should be carried out prior to the The initial symmetrical SC power Sk” (or the fault level) is installation of new DG units. The protection system and defined as Sk”=√3 Ik”Un where Un is the nominal voltage associated circuit interruptions may need to be upgraded or (line) at the SC location. replaced. Protection system planning is an indispensable part The peak SC current ip must be calculated to determine the of an electric power system design. Analysis of fault level making capacity of the required CB and to define the and the pre-fault conditions are required for the selection of electrodynamics forces that the installation as whole must be interrupting devices, protective relays and their coordination. capable of withstanding. Its value is determined by the Systems must be able to withstand a certain limit of fault that equation ip=k√2Ik” where k is indicated by the curve shown also effect reliability indices. in Fig 2. k is a function of the R/X ratio and is given by R −3 II. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATION k = 1.02 + 0.98e X (1) Short-Circuit currents introduce potentially destructive energy in the form of heat and magnetic forces in a power The symmetrical S.C. breaking current Ib is the r.m.s. value system. Calculations should be made to ensure that the SC of the symmetrical a.c. component of the prospective SC ratings of the equipment are adequate to handle the fault current at the instant of contact separation of the first pole to current available. In general, the procedure is to (a) develop a open of a switching device. The steady-state SC current Isc is graphical representation of the system with symbolic voltage the r.m.s. value of the SC current remains after the decay of sources and circuit impedance, (b) determine the total the transient phenomena. The equivalent voltage source equivalent impedance from the source to designated points cUn/√3 is the voltage of an ideal source applied at the SC and (c) at each point divide the voltage by the total location in the positive-sequence system for calculating the impedance to that point to derive the SC current. SC current according to the equivalent voltage source at the The IEC 60909 international standard is applicable for the SC location [2]. The voltage factor c is the ratio between the calculation of SC current in three-phase a.c. system operating equivalent voltage source and the nominal system voltage at a nominal frequency of 50 Hz. The SC current is always (phase). considered as the sum of an ac symmetrical component and the aperiodic (d.c.) decaying component. A distinction is made between “far from generator” and “near to generator” faults. In the presence of multiple fault current sources within the DN, the total fault current is the vector sum of all contributions from upstream network, local generation and motor loads. The equivalent voltage source method is used, permitting calculation of fault currents using only the nominal voltage of the system and rated values of the equipment. In this paper the objective is to calculate the maximum SC current in the DN with and without DG. This is performed for Fig. 2. Variation of coefficient k depending on R/X B. Calculation of the SC current are often encountered. u Rr decreases with the size of the Determination of the total SC resistance and reactance transformer and if not given, it may be ignored. values of the main elements of a circuit allow the SC currents D. Contribution of the DGs units of the installation to be calculated. The total SC resistance DG units connected to the MV distribution network are and reactance values are the sum of respective network typically wind turbines and CHP over 1MW. Other types of elements. The SC total impedance value ZT is given by: DG units such as micro-turbines, small-scale CHP and fuel- cells are connected to the LV distribution network. The fault Z Tk = (RT2 + X T2 ) (2) contribution of DG units depend on the location of DG installation, the generator type and technology (synchronous The three-phase symmetrical SC current is given by: or induction generators directly connected or via a power electronics interface). Connection of a conventional generator cU n on MV busbars is shown in Fig. 3. I 3φ = (3) 3 ∗ Z Tk In Fig. 3, the SC current is: cmaxU n I k" = (9) This is generally considered as the fault which generates 3 (Z G + Z T + Z L + Z R ) the highest currents. When there are no rotaring machines, or when their effect is low, this value represents also the steady where the impedance of the generator (G), the transformer (T) state SC current and is taken as a reference to determine the (if used), the interconnection line (L) to the substation and the breaking capacity of the protection devices. reactor (R) (if used) are included, all referred to the voltage at In DN (with or without DG), the maximum fault level the SC location F. For a synchronous generator connected typically occurs at the busbars of the infeeding substation, directly to the grid, the impedance and its correction factor due to the large contribution of the upstream grid, which is are given by: rapidly diminishing downstream the network. In the presence of DG, the resulting total fault is the sum of the maximum Z G = RG + jX d" (10) fault currents due to the upstream grid, through the network U cmax KG = n ∗ (11) transformer and the DGs and large motors connected to the U rG 1 + xd" sin ϕ rG DN. C. Contribution of the upstream grid The contribution of the upstream grid is calculated by
cmaxU n cmaxU n I k" = = (4) 3 (Z Q + Z kT ) 3 (Z Q t r2 + KT Z TLV )
where ZQ is the impedance of the network feeder (upstream
grid) at the connection point Q and ZT is the impedance of the transformer. KT is a correction factor used for the impedance of the transformer. The above quantities are calculated using Fig. 3. DG connected at Bus Q the following relations: where X d" is the subtransient reactance of the synchronous cU n ZQ = (5) machine, R = 0.15 X " can be used and K is the applicable G G 3I kQ " d
2 correction factor from IEC 60909.
u U Z T = kr ∗ rT (6) For synchronous generators connected to the grid through a 100% S rT unit transformer, referred to as a power station unit in the IEC u U" P standard, the combined generator transformer impedance and RT = Rr ∗ rT = krT2 (7) 100% S rT 3I rT the relevant correction factor are given by: cmax K T = 0.95 ∗ where X T = Z T2 − RT2 (8) Z S = tt2 Z G + Z THV (12) 1 + 0.6 xT UnQ U cmax KSO = ∗ rTLV ∗(1± pT ) ∗ (13) UrG (1+ pG ) UrTHV " I kQ is the initial symmetrical SC current at the HV 1+ xd" sinϕrG connection point Q, u kT is the SC voltage of the transformer (in %) u kr is the rated resistive component of the SC circuit with R = 0.15 X " . p and p may be ignored here. The G d G T voltage (in %) and PkrT is the load losses at rated current. A impedance of the transformer ZTHV is expressed at its HV typical assumption is RQ X Q = 0.1 , although higher values side. SC current at point A is c ∗U n I k" 3 = = 13121.59 A (14) 3 ∗ ZQ Peak SC current at point A is i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 19670.13 A (15)
Case 2: SC current level occurs at point B (0.415 kV)
SC current at point B (0.415 kV) is
c ∗U n I k" 3 = = 5563 A (16) (a) (b) 3 ∗ZB Fig. 4. (a) DG connected at 11kV; (b) DG connected at 0.415kV Peak SC current at point B is i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 12351.6 A (17) III. NUMERICAL E XAMPLE The application of the SC currents calculation methodology Case 3: SC current level on 11 kV busbars with DG connected to 11 kV busbars is demonstrated on the fictitious 11 kV DN shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 showing DG connection on MV and LV busbars. SC current contributed by DG To determine the impact of DG installation on the SC current, c ∗U n two cases of DG connection were examined and results are I k" 3G = = 192.45 A (18) compared and discussed. To simplify the SC calculations a 3 ∗ ZG number of basic assumptions are required. These impose Peak SC current contributed by DG limits for which the calculations are valid but usually provide i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 484.45 A (19) good approximations, facilitating comprehension of the physical phenomenon and consequently the SC current Total SC current = ∑I " k3 + I k" 3G = 13314.04 A calculations. They nevertheless maintain a fully acceptable Total peak current = ∑ i pk + i pG = 20154.58 A level of accuracy, erring on the conservative side. The Case 4: SC Current on 0.415 kV busbars with DG connected assumptions used in this paper include: at 0.415 kV - The given network is radial with nominal voltage of 11kV and 0.415kV. DG generator contribution to the SC at point B - The SC current, during a three-phase SC, is assumed to c ∗Un 1 ∗ 415 occur simultaneously on all three phases I k" 3G = = = 89247.3 A (20) - During the SC, the number of phases involved does not 3 ∗ ZG 3 ∗ 2.689 ∗ 10 −3 change i.e. a three-phase fault remains three-phase. Peak SC current at point B produced by DG is - For the entire duration of the SC, the voltages responsible i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 224662.2 A (21) for the flow of the current and the SC impedance do not change significantly. Total SC current = ∑ I k" 3 + I k" 3G = 94810.3 A - Transformer tap-changers are assumed to be set to a main Total peak current= ∑ i pk + i pG = 237013.8 A position. - Load currents are neglected From the numerical example shown above it is obvious that - Arc resistance are not taken into account connecting DG on the LV 0.415 kV busbars substantially In order to perform SC calculation according IEC 60909 increases the SC current from 5.5 kA to 95 kA which in most the following informations are essential and these include: cases will exceed the thermal capacity of breaking devices Upstream Network SC MVA SQ = 250 MVA installed in the LV section of the network. In the case where Transformer rating = 750 kVA DG is connected to the 11kV busbar, the impact of DG is usc= 5% minor regarding the SC current level on both MV and LV Connection symbol Dyn5 section of the network. Generator SG = 0.5MVA Xsubtran = 5% ; IV. SOLUTIONS FOR SC FAULT LEVEL REDUCTION In addition to the assumptions outlined above, for these calculations the impedances of the circuit breaker, connection The issue of fault level management (reduction) is not a lines and busbars are neglected. new phenomenon and practicing power engineers are familiar with its implications. Solutions to the problem are grouped in E. SC Current Level without DG connected on the Network four categories and these are discussed in this section. Case 1: SC occurs at point A (11kV) A. Increase the design maximum fault level converter interface. These provide a much lower fault current When faults levels go beyond the existing design limits due contribution than either synchronous or asynchronous to the connection of DG, uprating the capability of existing machines, effectively providing no additional contribution to equipment such as CBs is an option to increase the fault level the fault level. capabilities of the network. Most often the network Another option is to select equipment with increased SC equipment is replaced with equipment having a higher design impedance. This includes step-up (LV/MV) transformers with rating. This is not a realistic option in DN where equipment higher SC voltage and synchronous generators with higher and construction are largely standardised by the utilities, subtransient reactance. since a global upgrade would be required for the switchgear Another common measure is the installation of current in the network and customers user installations. limiting reactors in series with DG unit, effectively increasing B. Reduce prospective SC current of the grid its total SC impedance. It is possible to introduce higher impedances in the network F. Active limitation of the SC current to limit the fault level. The use of current limiting reactors is Active fault level management of fault level could be a relatively effective solution but needs additional efforts to carried out within operational as well as planning timescales maintain the voltage profile, and causes increases in the by developing the evolution of the network from “fit and network losses. Also, one to one [6] transformers can be used forget” to “actively managed” as part of the transition to an to connect the larger individual DG unit to the network. “intelligent network”. Active fault management would consist Another alternative is a fault current limiter which senses of simple activities such as reconfiguring the network the rapid rise of the fault current and fires a pyrotechnic combined with more dynamic and active measures like charge to open the main current path. The current is temporarily introduced impedances and actively shifted loads. commutated to the parallel path where a conventional fuse V. CONCLUSION operates. The key advantages of using a limiter is that it retains the existing low network impedance under normal The SC capacity of existing DN is often close to their network conditions (no losses), combined with the design level, leaving little margin for the interconnection of effectiveness of a fuse. A major disadvantage is the DG resources. In general all forms of DG contribute to fault replacement of contacts and fuses after each operation and the levels. The connection of DG to the DN could therefore result requirement for careful adjustment of protective relay settings in fault level exceeding the design limit of the network, to maintain selectivity particularly if it is already being operated close to its design limit. C. Network Changes In this paper the main objective is to outline simple Network Splitting and reconfiguration can significantly application of IEC 60909 standard for the calculation of fault reduce the fault level at a busbar. However, network splitting level in DN with DG. Besides all the great benefits of DGs, reduces power quality in general due to the increased source some incompatibility problems between the DG units and the impedance, and it increases system losses and the risk of protection system of the network and rating of other supply failure. Another possibility to reduce the fault level is components can arise. As it can be seen from the numerical to reconfigure and alter the existing connectivity to be altered, examples, fault level contribution is an important either in response to a fault or to allow a section of network to consideration for the interconnection of DG to the DN. be isolated for maintenance purposes. Both solutions require The connection of DG can raise the fault levels on existing new protective settings and switching sequences. equipment, due to the fault contributions from the DG itself, D. Sequential Switching to values beyond the capacity of existing switchgear. From Sequential switching is a method by which the multiple the results it can be seen that connecting DG on 11kV busbars sources contributing to any fault current are separated prior to produce less increase in SC current level than when DG is the clearance of the fault section. This solution has some connected to LV busbars. safety risks to people and equipment because there is the risk At the planning stage, fault levels are calculated in order to that a sequential switching scheme could fails to prevent a determine whether or not they exceed the design limit of circuit breaker opening before the fault current has been existing equipment, and to determine the design limit reduced sufficiently. Another issue is the increased required of new equipment. complexity and dependency on information and Due to the practical significant of the fault level constraints communication technology, particularly if equipment at more and the uncertainty of the SC current contribution by DG than one site is involved, and the technical issues associated units, establishing a straightforward SC calculation procedure with the deliberate introduction of a protection operation time would definitely contribute to the more objective evaluation delay. of their interconnection requirements. The need for more active fault management to permit E. Reduce the prospective SC current of the DG increase in DG penetration levels in DN, a number of For various reasons, an increasing number of DG types possible solutions fault management (reduction) are outlined have become available which use a power electronics and briefly explained. REFERENCES [1] I. Kasikici, Short Circuits in Power Systems, A practical Guide to IEC 60909, John Wiley and Sons, 2002 [2] IEC 60909-0, Calculation of short-circuit currents, 2001 [3] B. De Metz-Noblat, F. Dumas, G. Thomasset, Calculation of short- circuit currents, Schneider Electric, Cashier Technique no. 158, 2002 [4] T.N. Boutsika, S.A. Papathanssiou, Short-circuit calculation in network with distributed generation, Science Direct, 2007 [5] J.C.Das, Power System Analysis: Short-Circuit, Load Flow and Harmonics, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, 2002 [6] DTI, The Contribution to Distribution Network Fault levels From the Connection of Distributed Generation., KEMA Limited., 2005 [7] Gerald T. Heydt, Anjan Boser, A.P. Sakin Meliopoulos., New Implications of Power System Fault Current Limits., PSERC Publication., 2005