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TERM PAPER
ELE
TOPIC-COMPARISON BETWEEN LINEAR AND DIGITAL
IC

SUBMITTED TO-
MISS- AMRINDER KAUR

SUBMITTED BY-
PUNEET
REG.NO.-10904420
ROLL NO-RM4901A21
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ABSTRACT

This paper addresses basically to the ICs. To date, there have been so much uses of IC’s make it
an important part of electronic field. There are several types of ICs which are used in several
manners and several fields. All the new equipments are full of integrated circuits (ICs). ICs are
divided according to their construction and according to their function, and in this paper there is
full description of ICs according to their function, i.e, digital and linear ICs. There is comparison
and uses of these types of ICs in this paper.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“THE BEST USE OF PEN IS FOR EXCELLENCE”. With these words I PUNEET .I would
like to thank the almighty GOD for showing all his blessings and giving me strength for
completing this project. She is the without whom this all would never had been possible. I
would also like to my teacher Miss AMRINDER KAUR for providing me with this
opportunity. She will help me in this project.She provide us knowledge about ieee
format.How to work in this format.Lastly my parents without whom my life would never had
been possible and also making me part for this esteemed institution.

equipment in use today and have revolutionized

Introduction:
In electronics, an integrated circuit
(also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip,
silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic
circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor
devices, as well as passive components) that has
been manufactured in the surface of a thin
substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated
circuits are used in almost all electronic
the world of electronics. Computers, cellular
phones, and other digital appliances are now
inextricable parts of the structure of modern
societies, made possible by the low cost of
production of integrated circuits.
An integrated circuit comprises of various
components like resistors, diodes, transistors,
capacitors etc, and their interconnections. All the
components and their interconnections are
formed on a very small piece of semiconductor
wafer called chip. On the surface of the small
chip, it is possible to produce circuits containing
many transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors.
Thus, the components of ICs are very small and
one needs a microscope to see the
interconnections of these components.

The basic definition of the integrated
circuit as: “The circuit in which various active
and passive components, such as transistors,
diodes, capacitors, resistors etc, are the part
of a small piece of semiconductor (silicon)
chip is called integrated circuits”
Fig: Synthetic detail of an integrated
circuit through four layers of planarized
copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon
(pink), wells (greyish), and substrate (green).
1. Invention
Early developments of the integrated circuit
go back to 1949, when the German engineer
Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG) filed a patent for
an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor
amplifying device showing five transistors on
a common substrate arranged in a 2-stage
amplifier arrangement. Jacobi discloses small
and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial
applications of his patent. A commercial use
of his patent has not been reported. The idea
of the integrated circuit was conceived by a
radar scientist working for the Royal Radar
Page |3
Establishment of the British Ministry of
Defense, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer (1909–
2002), who published it at the Symposium on
Progress in Quality Electronic Components
in Washington, D.C. on May 7, 1952. He gave
many symposia publicly to propagate his
ideas. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to
build such a circuit in 1956.
Fig: Jack Kilby’s original integrated circuit
2. Advances in integrated circuits:
Among the most advanced integrated
circuits are the microprocessors or "cores",
which control everything from
computer to cellular phones to digital
microwave oven. Digital memory
chips and ASICs are examples of other
families of integrated circuits that are
important to the modern information society.
While the cost of designing and developing a
complex integrated circuit is quite high,
when spread across typically millions of
production units the individual IC cost is
minimized. The performance of ICs is high
because the small size allows short traces
which in turn allows low power logic (such
as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds.
ICs have consistently migrated to smaller
feature sizes over the years, allowing more
 Page |4

circuitry to be packed on each chip. This 3. Classification

increased capacity per unit area can be used
to decrease cost and/or increase functionality o Linear:
—see Moore’s law which, in its modern These ICs process analog signals. An
interpretation, states that the number of analog signal is that signal which varies
transistors in an integrated circuit doubles continuously in proportion of its input. The
every two years. In general, as the feature size linear ICs chips generally contain several
shrinks, almost everything improves—the amplifier circuits for either audio or RF
cost per unit and the switching power signals. The output of a linear IC varies in
consumption go down, and the speed goes direct proportion of its input.
up. However, ICs with nanometer -scale
devices are not without their problems,
principal among which is leakage current,
o Digital:
although these problems are not
insurmountable and will likely be solved or at These ICs process digital signals and
least ameliorated by the introduction of high- basically pulse circuits. A digital signal is that
k dielectric. Since these speed and power signal in which only two discrete voltages are
consumption gains are apparent to the end used; these levels are sometimes referred to
user, there is fierce competition among the as logical 0 and 1.The digital IC may be
manufacturers to use finer geometries. This further classified according to the complexity
process, and the expected progress over the of their circuitry such:
next few years, is well described by the
International Technology Roadmap for (a) VLSI chips: A very-
Semiconductors (IRTS). large-scale integration
(VLSI) chip is that
In current research projects, integrated chip which contains
circuits are also developed circuitry equal to 1000
for sensoric applications in medical or more logic gates or
implants or other bioelectronics devices. integrated
Particular sealing strategies have to be taken components.
in such biogenic environments to
avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the (b) LSI Chips: The large-
exposed semiconductor materials. As one of scale integration (LSI)
the few materials well established in CMOS chip is that which
technology, titanium Nitride TiN turned out contains circuitry
as exceptionally stable and well suited for equal to 100 to 1000
electrode applications in medical implants. logic gates or
integrated
components.

(c) MSI Chips: The

medium-scale

integration-scale
(MSI) chip is that chip
which contains
circuitry equal to 12 to
100 logic gates or
integrated
components.
(d) SSI Chips: The small-
scale integration (SSI)
4.
Comparison and contrast between
linear and digital ICs:
Linear or analog integrated circuit:
Analog circuits are circuits dealing with
signals free to vary from zero to full power
supply voltage. This stands in contrast to digital
circuits, which almost exclusively employ all or
nothing” signals: voltages restricted to values of
zero and full supply voltage, with no valid state
in between those extreme limits. Analog circuits
are often referred to as linear circuits to
emphasize the valid continuity of signal range
forbidden in digital circuits, but this label is
unfortunately misleading. Just because a voltage
or current signal is allowed to vary smoothly
between the extremes of zero and full power
supply limits does not necessarily mean that all
mathematical relationships between these signals
are linear in the straight-line or proportional
sense of the word. As you will see in this chapter,
many so-called linear circuits are quite nonlinear
in their behavior, either by necessity of physics
or by design. Essentially nothing more than a
differential amplifier with very high voltage
gain, op-amps are the workhorse of the analog
design world. By cleverly applying feedback
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chip is that chip which
contains circuitry
equal to less than 12
logic gates or
integrated
components.
from the output of an op-amp to one or more of
its inputs, a wide variety of behaviors may be
obtained from this single device.
Digital Integrated Circuits:
Digital circuits are circuits dealing with signals
restricted to the extreme limits of zero and some
full amount. This stands in contrast to analog
circuits, in which signals are free to vary
continuously between the limits imposed by
power supply voltage and circuit resistances.
These circuits find use in true/false logical
operations and digital computation. Such
components are actually networks of
interconnected components manufactured on a
single wafer of semiconducting material.
Integrated circuits providing a multitude of pre-
engineered functions are available at very low
cost, benefitting students, hobbyists and
professional circuit designers alike. Most
integrated circuits provide the same functionality
as ”discrete” semiconductor circuits at higher
levels of reliability and at a fraction of the cost.
Circuits in this chapter will primarily use CMOS
technology, as this form of IC design allows for a
broad range of power supply voltage while
maintaining generally low power consumption
levels. Though CMOS circuitry is susceptible to
damage from static electricity (high voltages will
 Page |6

puncture the insulating barriers in the MOSFET
transistors), modern CMOS ICs are far more
tolerant of electrostatic discharge than the
CMOS ICs of the past, reducing the risk of chip
failure by mishandling. Proper handling of
CMOS involves the use of anti-static foam for
storage and transport of IC’s, and measures to
prevent static charge from building up on your
body (use of a grounding wrist strap, or
frequently touching a grounded object). Circuits
using TTL technology require a regulated power
supply voltage of 5 volts, and will not tolerate
any substantial deviation from this voltage level.

are used indifferent combinations and variations

5. Digital IC group:--The basic building
blocks of digital logic circuits contained in a
computer are logic gates. The logic circuits
contained in digital logic circuits can be
classified into two groups: combinational
and sequential.
to form logic gates that perform decision-
making functions throughout the computer.
The symbols associated with the logic gates. The
basic logic gates with their symbols are as
follows:--

 Combinational digital logic circuits --

The basic building block for
combinational digital circuits is the
logic gate.

Fig:--1( Digital Logic Gates)

 Sequential digital logic circuits--The
basic building block for sequential
digital circuits is the flip-flop. Flip-flops
are formed from variations of the
combinational digital circuits.
Simple variations of the three basic functions
AND,OR, and NOT gates are used as building
blocks for the other types of logic gates used in
the computer. These logic gates with their
symbols are as follows:--

8:--Digital Logic Gates:--Digital logic gates are

the basis for operations in a digital computer.
The digital logic gates you will encounter
operate with binary numbers; hence, the
term digital logic gates. They are
combinational and sequential logic elements.
The AND, OR, and NOT logic gates are the
basis for all logic gates. These three logic gates

9:--Functional uses in digital (IC):-- We can
divide the functional uses of digital ICs into two
distinct areas. There are those IC circuits that
make decisions based on their inputs, and there
are IC circuits that hold the data in memory-type
circuits. They are used together to route the data
throughout the computer. Let’s begin with the
decision-making function.
 Decision Making Functions :--Decision-
making functions consist mainly of
combinational gates. For every
combination of bits in the various input
wires, there is a definite, prearranged
combination in the output wires to be
decided upon. The output combination
is the same every time a particular input
combination occurs. Gates are grouped
together in various combinations to
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form the decision-making circuits.
Decision-making functionsin the
computer can be separated into two
distinct classes—code converter circuits
and data routing circuits.
 Code converter circuits :-- Code
converter circuits are capable of
encoding data to a usable form for the
computer and decoding the data soit can
be displayed or used by a peripheral. An
example of encoding and decoding on
a microcomputer is given.
(fig3:-- Example of a gated operation)
10:--Digital IC convention:-- The theorems of
Boolean algebra are applied to the AND,
OR, or NOT logic gates, or any logic gates, on
the basis that only two possibilities exist as far
as any statement of their outputs is
concerned. Their statement either true or false.
A 1 symbol is true and a 0 symbol is false. In
digital logic circuits, the 1and the 0 are
represented by different voltage levels and the
particular logic convention must be specific.
When the logic levels for a computer are
defined, the two voltages will be relative to each
other when determining if it is positive or
negative logic. Digital computers can use either
positive or negative logic. There are
advantages and disadvantages to both
 Page |8

types. Depending on its application in a important role in the operation of the digital
system, the specific logic convention is logic gates, combinational and sequential.
consistent throughout the entire computer. Wave shapes come in two types:-- non-
The concept of positive and negative logic is symmetrical and symmetrical.
more than a matter of voltage levels. Positive
logic indicates that the voltage level for a 1 will
be more positive than the voltage level for a 0.
Negative logic indicates that the voltage level
for a 1 will be more negative than the voltage
level for 0. The following examples are given:--

(fig4:--Examples waveshapes:--Non-
symmetrical, Symmetrical)

Three characteristics of wave shapes can play an

important role in your understanding of
computers. You can use them to monitor
and/or analyze wave shapes.

12:--Pulse width (PW) --PW is the time interval

When it is necessary to use apiece of test
equipment in performing maintenance on the
computer, you will need to know the logic
convention the computer uses.
between specified reference points on the
leading edge and trailing edges of the pulse
waveform. Pulse widths are usually further
defined as a positive PW and a negative PW.

11:--Digital logic gate input and output :--The

wave shapes of the inputs and outputs of digital
logic gates are important when analyzing the
operation of digital logic gates. They can
provide you valuable information when you
perform maintenance. All digital logic gates
produce wave shapes on the input or the output
of the gate(s). The input and the output can be ( Fig5:--Pulse width )
monitored individually or they can be monitored
at the same time. what the wave shapes mean
and learn how to analyze them. Remember, the
clock pulses and timing signals play an
 Page |9

13:--Pulse-repetition time (PRT)--The PRT of a

signal refers to the time period from the starting
point of a repeating wave shape until the starting
point of the next repetition.

14:--Pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) --The

PRF of a signal is the number times per second
that a complete cycle of the signal occurs and is
expressed in hertz (Hz).Learn the relationships
between PW, PRT, and PRF.They can be very
helpful and can save you valuable time when
you analyze wave shapes. You can apply them to
non-symmetrical and symmetrical wave
shapes. The basic formula is as follows: PRF =
1/PR.

15:--Linear IC gates:--The basic gate for a linear

IC is an operational amplifier (op amp). Its basic
function is to increase the power, current, or
voltage applied to its inputs. It is thebasis for
other amplifiers used in linear ICs. Atypical o-
amp has three basic characteristics as follows:--
1:-- Very high gain.
2:-- High input impedance.
3:-- Low output impedance
A typical op amp has two inputs called the
inverting input (–) and the non inverting input
(+).The inverting input provides a 180-degree
phase shift at the output. The no inverting input
is in phase with the output. Two power-supply
terminals are provided. They are usually called
Vcc (the collector terminal) and Vee (the emitter
terminal).
(fig6:--Example of an op amp: --power supply
requirements, Shows only input and output
terminals)
The op - amp to produce either a positive or
negative output. The schematic symbols for an
op amp are shown in figure 4-31. View A shows
the power supply requirements, while view B
shows only the input and output terminals. An
op amp can have either enclose-looped
operation or an open-looped operation
depending on its application. Refer to figure for
an example of a closed-loop op amp.
6. Linear IC groups:--The linear ICs
contained in a computer can be classified
into four groups: analog signal conversion
circuits, regulator integrated circuits, driver
integrated circuits, and line driver and
receiver integrated circuits. The
operational amplifier is the key building
block inall of these linear ICs because of its
ability to amplify without the need for
inductors or transformers. Basic variations
of the operational amplifier are included in
the classification of the four groups of linear
circuits.

 Analog Signal Conversion Circuits:--
Analog signal conversion circuits
convert an electrical or non-electrical
variable to digital. These linear circuits
include analog-to-digital
(A/D)converters, comparators,
memory drivers, sense amplifiers, and
timers.
 Regulator Integrated Circuits:--
Regulator integrated circuits provide a
constant voltage or current supply. They
can accomplish this from a constant or
variable power source. Regulator
integrated circuits include voltage
regulators and switching regulators.
 Driver Integrated Circuits:--Driver
integrated circuits generate large voltage
or current output digital signals from
small voltage and current bipolar or
MOS digital signals. Driver
integrated circuits include peripheral
and display drivers used inside an
equipment.
( Fig7:-- Driver Integrated
Circuits)
 Line Driver and Receiver Integrated
Circuits:--Line driver and receiver
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integrated circuits are used to transmit
digital information from one subsystem
or system to another. A line driver is
used at the transmitting end and a
matching line receivers required at
the receiving end. Line drivers and
receivers provide a reliable transfer
over short and long distances for the
high-speed digital signals, which are
degraded by noise and attenuation
(especially over long distances). They
accomplish this by the line driver
converting the input digital signals to
current pulses in the transmission
line(cable). During the course of travel,
the current pulses produce very low
voltages at the receiver. The receiver
detects the signals using high gain and a
very low threshold.
17:--Functional uses of linear IC:--The functions
of linear circuits can be classified into three
groups: general linear circuits, systems
interface circuits, and consumer-and-
communications circuits. The first two types,
general linear circuit and system interface circuit
functions, are used in the architecture of
computers.
( Fig8:-- Functional uses of linear IC)
 P a g e | 11

(ii):--Temperature compensated

(iii):--Greater than 110dB dynamic range

(iv):-- Operates down to 6VDC

(v):--System levels adjustable with external

components

(vi):-- Distortion may be trimmed out

(vii):--Dynamic noise reduction systems

(Fig9:--output linear ic)

18:--General Linear Circuits :--General linear

circuits perform the amplifying functions inside
the computer. They are used for a variety of
functions in the computer’s memory, I/O, and
power supply. Some of the functions are
analog-to-digital converters, comparators,
voltage regulators, switching regulators, and APPLICATIONS:--
timers.
 Cellular radio
19:--Linear intregrated circuit(UTC71)  High level limiter
 Low level expandor—noise gate
COMPANDER  Dynamic filters
 CD Player
 DESCRIPTION:--The UTC571 is a
versatile low cost dual gain control
circuit in which either channel may be
used as a dynamic range compressor or
expander. Each channel has a full wave
rectifier to detect the average value of
the signal, a liberalized temperature
compensated variable gain cell, and an
operational amplifier. The UTC571 is
well suited for use in cellular radio and
radio communications systems,
modems, telephone, and satellite
broadcast/receive audio systems.

FEATURES:--

(i):--Complete compressor and expander in one I

Chip Fig11:--Linear integrated circuit(UTC71
 P a g e | 12

20:--Linear integrated circuit (V575M) Block diagram:--

LOW VOLTAGE COMPANDOR

 DESCRIPTION:--The V575M is a
precision dual gain control circuit
designedfor low voltage applications
.The V575M’s channel 1 is an
expander ,while channel 2 can be
configured either for expander
,compressor, or automatic level
controller (ALC) application.

FEATURE

 Operating voltage range from 3V to 7V.

 Reference voltage of 100mVRMS
=0dB.
 One dedicated summing op amp per
channel and two extra
uncommitted op amps.
 600drive capability
 Single or split supply operation
 Wide input/output swing
capability
 3000V ESD protection
APPLICATION:--
 Protable communications
 Cellular radio
 Cordless telephone
 Protable broadcast mixers
 Wireless microphones
 Modems
 Electric organs
 Hearing aids
 Consumer audio
7. Future aspects: ICs have
consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over
the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on
each chip. This increased capacity per unit area
can be used to decrease cost and/or increase
functionality—which, in its modern interpretation,
states that the number of transistors in an
integrated circuit doubles every two years. In
general, as the feature size shrinks, almost
everything improves—the cost per unit and the
switching power consumption go down, and the
speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-
scale devices are not without their problems,
principal among which is leakage current
although these problems are not insurmountable
and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by
the introduction of high-k dielectrics. Since these
speed and power consumption gains are apparent
to the end user, there is fierce competition among
the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This
process, and the expected progress over the next
few years, is well described by the International
Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS).

8. Conclusion:
A linear integrated circuit (linear IC) is a solid-
state analog device characterized by a theoretically
infinite number of possible operating states. It
operates over a continuous range of input levels.
In contrast, a digital IC has a finite number of
discrete input and output states. Within a certain
input range, the amplification curve of a linear IC
is a straight line; the input and output voltages are
directly proportional. The best known, and most
common, linear IC is the operational amplifier or
op amp , which consists of resistors, diodes, and
transistors in a conventional analog circuit. There
are two inputs, called inverting and non-inverting.
A signal applied to the inverting input results in a
signal of opposite phase at the output. A signal
applied to the non-inverting input produces a
P a g e | 13
signal of identical phase at the output. A
connection, through a variable resistance ,
between the output and the inverting input is used
to control the amplification factor . Linear ICs are
employed in audio amplifiers, A/D (analog-to-
digital) converters, averaging amplifiers,
differentiators, DC (direct-current) amplifiers,
integrators, multivibrators, oscillators, audio
filters, and sweep generators. Linear ICs are
available in most large electronics stores. Some
devices contain several amplifiers within a single
housing.
 P a g e | 14

9. References
o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit#Introduction

o IC Die Photography – A gallery of IC die photographs

o a large chart listing ICs by generic number and A larger one listing by mfr. number,
both including access to most of the datasheets for the parts

o Hodges, D.A., Jackson H.G., and Saleh, R. (2003). Analysis and Design of Digital
Integrated Circuits. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-228365-3.

o ^ H. Hämmerle, K. Kobuch, K. Kohler, W. Nisch, H. Sachs, M. Stelzle (2002).

"Biostability of micro-photodiode arrays for subretinal implantation". Biomat. 23:
797-804. doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(01)00185

o ^ M. Birkholz, K.-E. Ehwald, D. Wolansky, I. Costina, C. Baristiran-Kaynak, M.

Fröhlich, H. Beyer, A. Kapp, F. Lisdat (2010). "Corrosion-resistant metal layers from
a CMOS process for bioelectronic applications". Surf. Coat. Technol. 204: 2055-
2059. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.09.075

• Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering by S.K. Sahdev

• http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/pdf/EXP.pdf
• www.flipkart.com/comprehensive-linear-digital-integrated-circuits-book-817008212

• www.ebook3000.com/Digital-Integrated-Circuit-Design--The-Oxford-Series-in-
Electrical-and-Computer-Engineering-_93739.html

• www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_6/chpt_7/7.html

• www.niceindia.com/qbank/EC_1313.pdf

• www.scribd.com/doc/.../rr220203 linear and

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