Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 1

1. SIMULATION OF SHIP HANDLING

1.1 Model tests for design and training

Model tests are widely used for the assessment of hydrodynamic characteristics of ships. Ship
resistance, powering, seakeeping and manoeuvring characteristics are typical ship properties
that are assessed using model tests. Model tests are performed in specially constructed towing
tanks or as in case of manoeuvrability, sometimes in open water areas – ponds and lakes,
because of the need to have rather wide water areas.
In case of manoeuvrability models are used in the design stage of a ship in order to predict
manoeuvring characteristics of the ship to be built. Models are also used for training purposes.
In the first case models could be used for the estimation of hydrodynamic coefficients
describing forces in manoeuvring motion; the models are tested then in towing tanks - they are
usually smaller (3 to 6m long) - towed under so called planar motion mechanism (PMM).
Models could be also used for the estimation of manoeuvring characteristics of ships, such as
turning circle, stopping distance, dynamic stability on straight courese etc., and then they are
somehow larger, remote controlled or manned, and tested in open water areas.
In the second case, when models are used for training purposes, they are much larger (8 to 15
m long), manned and manoeuvring exercises are performed in wide open water areas.
In order to achieve good prediction of manoeuvring characteristics based on model tests as
well as a realistic representation of various maneouvres during the training, the models must
properly represent the behaviour of real ships. They have to be constructed and operated
according to requirements of simulation laws. This applies to the geometrical characteristics of
the model itself as well as to kinematic and dynamic charcterics of the motion.

1.2. Scaling down the ship’s geometry

First of all, the geometric similitude criteria must be satisfied. It means that the ratio of all
linear dimensions of the full-scale vessel to the corresponding dimensions of the model must
be the same and equal to the model scale - λ (fig, 1-1):

Lship Bship X ship

= = = scale = λ
Lmodel Bmodel X model

Fig. 1-1
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 2

Although the dimensions of the model are reduced, it is seen from the above figure that the
corresponding angles for the model and the full- scale vessel have the same value.

Of interest will be also the knowledge of the relationship between any surface for a model and
a ship. For example, a full-scale vessel rudder area is: ARS = H S ⋅ C S and a model rudder area
is: ARM = H M ⋅ C M (fig. 1-2).

Fig. 1-2: Comparison of rudder areas for a ship and a model

HS C
From the geometric similitude criteria, we have: = scale and S = scale .
HM CM
Hence the following ratio of ship and model rudder areas:
ARS H ⋅C
= S S = scale ⋅ scale = scale 2
ARM H M ⋅ C M
All other corresponding areas of the full-scale vessel and the model are also proportional to the
model scale squared, i.e.:
Aship
= scale 2
= λ2
Amod l

Corresponding volumes of the full-scale ship and the model are proportional to the model
scale in the power 3:
V ship
= scale 3
= λ3
Vmod el

because:
Ship volumetric displacement is: VS = C BS ⋅ LS ⋅ BS ⋅ TS

Model volumetric displacement is: VM = C BM ⋅ LM ⋅ BM ⋅ TM

Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 3

VS C BS ⋅ LS ⋅ BS ⋅ TS
Then we can write: =
VM C BM ⋅ LM ⋅ BM ⋅ TM
The same procedure can be extended over the calculation of corresponding mass (ship
displacement)

∆S V ⋅ ρS ρ S ⋅ C BS ⋅ LS BS TS
= S =
∆M VM ⋅ ρ M ρ M ⋅ C BM ⋅ LM BM TM
ρS , ρM - salt and fresh wate r densities;
Where:
C BS , C BM - block coefficien ts for ship and model

Assuming that C BS = C BM (because of the geometric criteria- the same form of hulls for a
full-scale ship and a model) and neglecting the differences in salt water and fresh water
densities we get:
∆S L ⋅ B ⋅T
= S S S = scale ⋅ scale ⋅ scale = scale 3
∆ M LM ⋅ BM ⋅ TM

1.3. Flow pattern around ship body and forces acting

A ship moving through the water generates a characteristic flow pattern. This flow pattern
consists of the system of surface waves moving with the ship, the boundary layer along the
ship hull and the ship wake (the fluid volume with fluid motion induced by the moving ship).
It is obvious that for good reproduction of ship's behaviour, the flow patterns for a model and a
full-scale vessel must be similar. The similitude laws assure the similarity.
The wave system moving with the ship is caused by the gravity forces. Around the moving
ship the pressures are different in different areas. Around the bow and also around and little
behind the stern there are high pressure areas, while along the majority of the ship body there
is a low pressure area. Pressure differences materialize in the differences of water level
(fig.1.3). Then there is a bow wave corresponding to the high pressure area at the bow (bow
cushion) and a stern wave corresponding to the high pressure area at the stern.

High Low pressure aerea

pressure High pressure area
area

Bow
Stern wave wave

Fig. 1-3 Pressure distribution along the moving hull

Along the ship body the water level drops down. This is called a primary wave formation.
Water particles raised by the moving ship fall down and initiate oscillatory motion creating a
wave train. This is called a secondary wave formation (fig.1.4).
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 4

Water particle
falling •

•
Water particles
raised

Bow wave
Stern wave system
system

Fig. 1-4 The secondary wave formation

Behind the stern of the ship the bow wave system interferes with the stern wave system
creating a complex wave system that is observed in reality. Apart from transverse waves
shown in fig 1-4, there are also observed short oblique waves as shown in fig. 1-5.

Transverse
waves

Secondary
wave system

Oblique waves

Fig. 1-5 The secondary wave system

In order to generate waves on the water surface, some energy must be transferred from the
moving ship. This energy is proportional to the wave amplitude squared, and is equal to the
work of the wave resistance force:

FW ⋅ v = EW ∝ 12 ρ g r02
Where: r02 is wave amplitude squared; g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 5

When the ship is moving in a viscous fluid like water, then around the ship hull a boundary
layer is created. In the boundary layer water particles close to the ship’s skin stick to the skin
due to the friction and their relative velocity with respect to the ship is zero. Particles farther
from the skin have a higher relative velocity and eventually at some distance from the hull
their relative velocity is equal to the ship speed, i.e. their absolute velocity is equal zero. The
boundary layer is thin, at a stern of a 200 m long ship moving at 20 knots its thickness is equal
to about 1m. Within the boundary layer the absolute velocities of water particles change from
zero on the outside the boundary to the velocity equal the ship speed close to the skin, and
relative velocities change from zero close to the ship skin to the ship speed at the outside of the
boundary (fig. 1-6).
At the stern of the ship at a certain point a separation of the flow occurs, behind this point
vortices are created and the flow is highly turbulent (fig.1-6)


Separation Separation zone
point

Boundary Separation
layer thickness point
Fig. 1-6.
The viscosity of water causes that between the hull skin and the surrounding water a tension
(friction) is created. Summation of the elementary tensions over the hull surface gives the total
viscous (frictional) force acting on the ship opposite to the direction of motion. This force is
viscous or frictional resistance.
If the ship is moving over the water at a constant speed on a straight course, the total force
opposing this motion, or the ship total resistance is composed of two components:
- pressure resistance (wave making resistance, form resistance – hull curvature and
transom form influence)
- viscous (frictional) resistance
If one wants to accelerate or to slow down the ship, then additional force must act on the ship,
and the value of the additional force is almost equal to the acceleration times the mass of the
ship:
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 6

Rinertia = m ⋅ a

The same happens with the water particle moving along a curved hull surface: the velocity
vector of the particle changes its direction thus there is acceleration, so the force must act on
the particle. Therefore the particle will exert a force on the ship’s hull, ant this kind of force
will be called the inertia force as well. These inertia forces are caused by the change of the
water particles speed or the direction of particles motion (ultimately they are “seen” on the hull
surface as pressure forces).
In order to properly simulate the behaviour of the model in comparison to a full-scale ship all
forces must be properly scaled down. It is clear that three kind of forces act on the
manoeuvring ship:
- Viscosity forces
- Gravity forces
- Inertia forces
Different laws of dynamic similitude govern scaling (or modelling) of different forces
categories.
The laws of dynamic similitude serve two purposes:
a) determining the conditions of the tests (e.g., velocity, pressure, temperature),
b) determining the method of scaling the measured quantities from model to full-scale
ship.

Gravity forces are proportional to the mass of the ship (or the mass of particle) and the
acceleration.
The wave resistance that is caused by the gravity forces is equal to:

RW = CW ⋅ 12 ρ S wV 2
where: Sw is wetted surface
CW is a non-dimensional wave resistance coefficient that is a function of the non-
dimensional parameter called Froude’s number, so CW = f (Froude number)
The governing law for the wave resistance is FROUDE'S law of similitude
FROUDE'S law of similitude says that: if one wants to obtain the same scaled (coefficients
CW) wave resistance (pressure) forces, then the Froude's numbers for the ship and its model
must be equal:
Fn SHIP = Fn MODEL

VS VM
=
g ⋅ LS g ⋅ LM

where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Viscous (frictional) forces are proportional to the velocity squared, wetted surface and the
friction coefficient.
Viscous (frictional) resistance is equal to:
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 7

1
Rf =C f ⋅ ρS wV 2
2

where: Cf is a non-dimensional viscous resistance coefficient (friction coefficient) that is

function of the non-dimensional parameter called Reynolds number, so Cf = Cf
(Reynolds number).
The governing law for the viscous resistance is REYNOLDS law of similitude.
REYNOLD’S law of similitude says that if one wants to obtain the same scaled (coefficients
Cf) viscous resistance (frictional) forces, then the Reynolds numbers for the ship and its model
must be equal:
Re SHIP = Re MODEL

VS ⋅ LS VM ⋅ LM
=
νS νM
where: νS and νM are kinematic viscosity coefficients for sea and fresh water
VS and VM is velocity of a ship and a model

Inertia forces are proportional to the mass of ship and acceleration. To inertia forces the
general law of dynamic similitude applies.

1.4. Conditions of similitude for model tests and work with models
The REYNOLDS law and the Froude’s law provide different dynamic conditions for the
model tests and the work with models. From the Reynolds law we have:
VS ⋅ LS VM ⋅ LM
=
νS νM
and from there it is possible to calculate the model velocity:
LS ν S
VM = VS ⋅
LM ν M
Neglecting the difference between the kinematic viscosity coefficients for sea water and fresh
water, and bearing in mind that LS LM = λ (model scale), we have:
V M = λ ⋅V M
With a model scale equal to 24 as in Iława centre, the model speed should be equal to 24xVS,
and it means that for the 10 knots ship speed, the model speed should be 24x10knots=240
knots. This obviously is impossible.
From the Froude’s law we have:
VS VM
=
g ⋅ LS g ⋅ LM

and from this equation it is possible to calculate the model velocity:

Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 8

g ⋅ LM LM V
VM = VS ⋅ = VS = S
g ⋅ LS LS λ
For example with the model scale equal to 24, we have:
VS
VM = ≅ 0.2 ⋅VS
24
i.e. for 10 knots ship speed, the model velocity should be approximately 2 knots.
It is obvious that the only possibility is to run models according to the Froude’s law. Reynold’s
law cannot be satisfied simultanously. This introduces, however, some inaccuracy called a
“scale effect”, which arises from neglecting the Reynolds law of similitude, or, in other words,
it results in not reproducing properly the viscous (frictional) resistance.
Viscous resistance is proportional to the friction coefficient C f , to velocity squared and to the
wetted hull surface. If the friction coefficient would be the same for the ship and the model,
then there would be no scale effect. However, the friction coefficient is a function of the
Reynolds number. This relation is shown in fig.1-7. From the figure it is seen that the friction
coefficient for the large model is about 30 to 40 % higher than for the ship, so if the viscous
resistance is about 30 % of the total resistance, then the scaled total resistance of the large
model is about 10 to 15 % larger than the scaled ship resistance (both are scaled down
proportionally to the model scale3). This is compensated by a slightly higher number of
propeller revolutions on the model. The resulting inaccuracy in the modelled manoeuvring
qualities of the ship is very small.
When the model used is small, say 2 to 3 m long, then the error is much larger, in particular in
cases where the laminar flow around a hull or appendages may be present.

0.007
0.006
Turbulent flow
0.005
CF 0.004
Laminar
0.003 flow

0.002
Small ship
model
model
0.001
5 6 7 8 9 10

Log Re
Fig. 1-7.
When the Froude’s law of similitude is used, then the ratio of forces , including resistance, for
the ship and the model is as follows:

RS C R S ⋅ 12 ρ SVS2 SW S
=
RM C R M ⋅ 12 ρ M VM2 SW M
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 9

If Froude’s law is applied, then CRS = CRM, and knowing that VS/VM = λ ; SWS/SWM = λ2, and
neglecting the difference of densities of sea water and fresh water (lake), that is rather small,
we get:
RS VS2 SWS
= 2 ⋅ = λ ⋅ λ2 = λ3
RM VM SWM
This applies also to the inertia forces. The ratio of the inertia forces for the ship and the model
is:
RiS m ⋅a
= S S
RiM mM ⋅ a M
Knowing that the ratio of the mass of the ship to the mass of the model is: mS/m = λ3, and the
ratio of accelerations is: aS/aM = 1, we get:
RiS
= λ3
RiM
This ratio applies to all forces acting on the manoeuvring ship.
Scale coefficients applicable to other physical quantities are shown in the table 1-1.

Table 1-1: relationship between geometric and kinematic parameters for Froude identity

Item Value of ship / model ratio

Length, Beam, Draft, Turning,

Diameter, Stopping, Distance, and Scale
other linear dimensions

Windage, Rudder area, etc scale2

Volume, Displacement, Force scale3

Speed scale1/2

Angle 1

Rate of Turn 1/scale1/2

Time scale1/2

Acceleration 1

From the table it is seen that applying the Froude’s law of similitude the time scale is equal to
the square root of the model scale. This is important conclusion meaning that in the model
work the time is running faster than in reality. With the model scale equal to 24, the time scale
is approximately equal to 5. This means that all manoeuvres are performed faster than in
reality. For example, if some manoeuvre in the full scale requires one hour, then the same
manoeuvre in the model scale takes about 12 minutes.
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 10

Models work in the model time, not in the real time!

This must be remembered when manoeuvring the model. It results from this that “feeling for a
ship” based on correct timing can be affected by the above time scale, however trainees raise
this problem very rare.
This important conclusion means that all actions that depend on time must be appropriately
scaled down. On the model the times to reverse the engine, times to put the rudder from zero
position to full rudder or times to operate tugs are properly adjusted – see figs. 1-8 to 1-9.

Fig. 1-8 History of rudder deflection for a ship and a model

Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 11

Fig. 1-9 Reversing of engine for a ship and a corresponding model

In figure 1-10 a simple comparison of kinematic and geometric parameters of a turning trial
executed with the same rudder deflection for a ship and its model is shown. One can say that
dimensionless turning diameter DT expressed in ship lengths is the same for a ship and a model
(assuming that the above mentioned scale effect can be neglected). The same happens when
considering stopping distances.

Fig. 1-10 Comparison of a turning manoeuvre for a ship and a reproducing model