Overview

What is cement?
Cement is a fine powder, which when mixed with water undergoes chemical change
and thereafter allowed to set and harden is capable of uniting fragments or masses of
solid matter together to produce a mechanically strong material. Cement can be used
as binding material with water, for bonding solid particles of different sizes like bricks,
stones or aggregate to form a monolith. Cements used in construction of buildings and
civil engineering works contain compounds of lime, silica and alumina as their
principal constituents and can be called as complex compounds.
Importance of cement in construction
Today, cement is a very important building material used in the construction industry.
It was in 1824 that cement, as we know it today was developed. Joseph Aspdin of
England first patented the manufacture of a very improvised type of cementitious
material for building construction in 1824. The hardened cement paste resembled the
natural stone occurring at Portland in England. Hence it was named as Portland
cement.

Cement has replaced all other binding materials, for example, clay and lime, which
ruled high for hundreds of years, in construction from last century. The reason being
that, cement is the strongest binding material amongst clay, lime and cement.

Cement is now used in many construction trade items like Plain Concrete, Reinforced
Concrete, Mortar, Plaster, Grouts, Paints and in Pre-cast Elements. In an ordinary
building construction the cement accounts to about 15-17% of the cost of construction.
In some other major constructions like concrete roads and bridges, it is very much
more.

Some of the reasons for its popularity and universal acceptance are listed
below:
a. Cement can be produced in large volumes in controlled condition, packed and
transported
b. Cement is several times stronger binding material than lime and clay
c. It can be mixed and used at will with locally available materials at site
d. When stored properly in ordinary atmosphere does not deteriorate for reasonably
longer time
e. When mixed with water, starts setting and acquires sufficient strength in a day or
two, where as other binding materials require much longer time
f. When water is added to quick lime, lot of heat is generated, but in case of cement,
heat generated is unnoticeable and comparatively much lesser
g.It can withstand compressive stresses well. Where tension and shear stresses
occur it gives good bond to steel reinforcement and transfers excess stresses to
steel
h. It is produced from the materials like limestone, hematite, bauxite, clay, etc which
are abundantly available in the upper crust of the earth
Types of cement
There are many types of cement in the market to suit every need. Some of them which are included in the revised
IS : 456-2000 are as follows:

•Ordinary Portland Cement 33, 43, 53 grade (OPC), 53-S (Sleeper Cement)
•Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), both Fly Ash and Calcined Clay based
• Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
• Portland Slag Cement (PSC)
• Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRC)
• Low Heat Portland Cement
• Hydrophobic Cement

Even though only Ordinary Portland Cement is graded according to strength, the other cements too have to gain a
particular strength. 33, 43 and 53 grade in OPC indicates the compressive strength of cement after 28 days when
tested as per IS: 4031-1988, eg, 33 Grade means that 28 days of compressive strength is not less than 33 N/mm2
(MPa) . Similarly for 43 grade and 53 grade the 28 days compressive strength should not be less than 43 and 53
MPa respectively. 43 and 53 grade are also being introduced in PPC and PSC shortly by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS)
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
PPC is manufactured by inter grinding OPC clinker with 15-35% of pozzolanic material. Pozzolanas are essentially
siliceous or aluminous material, which in itself possesses no cementitious properties, which will be in finely divided
form and in the presence of moisture react with calcium hydroxide, liberated in the hydration process, at ordinary
temperature, to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. The pozzolanic materials generally used are
fly ash or calcined clay. PPC produces less heat of hydration and offers greater resistance to attack of aggressive
environment, gives long-term strength and enhances the durability of structures.
Portland Slag Cement (PSC)
PSC is obtained by mixing blast furnace slag, cement clinker and gypsum and grinding them together to get
intimately mixed cement. The quantity of slag varies from 30-70%. The gain of strength of PSC is somewhat slower
than OPC. Both PPC and PSC will give more strength than that of OPC at the end of 12 months. PPC and PSC
can be used in all situations where OPC is used, but are preferred in mass construction where lower heat of
hydration is advantageous or in marine situations and structures near seacoast or in general for any structure
where extra durability is desired.

The other types of cement listed above are for special purpose and their nomenclature indicates the purpose for
which they are preferred. The following table gives the codal requirements at a glance.
Some important requirements to be met by various types of cement
S no Type of IS Code Fineness Setting Time in Soundness Compressive Strength in MPa
cement m2/kg minutes
(min) Initial Final Le Auto 3 days 7 days 28 days
(min.) (max.) Chatelier Clave
(mm) (%)
1 OPC 33 269 : 225 30 600 10 0.8 16 22 33
1989
2 OPC 43 8112 : 225 30 600 10 0.8 23 33 43
1989
3 OPC 53 12269 : 225 30 600 10 0.8 27 37 53
1987
4 PPC (flyash 1489 : 300 30 600 10 0.8 16 22 33
based) 1991
(Part 1)
5 PSC (slag) 455 : 225 30 600 10 0.8 16 22 33
2002
6 SRC 12330 : 225 30 600 10 0.8 10 16 33
1988
7 White Cement 8042 : 225 30 600 10 0.8 19.8 29.7
 1989
8 RHC (Rapid 8041 : 325 30 600 10 0.8 27 16 @ 1 day
Hardening 1990
Cement)

Composition of Portland cement

The basic components of cement are:
SiO2 17-25 %
Al2O3 4-8%
Fe2O3 0.5-0.6 %
CaO 61-63 %
MgO 0.1-4.0 %
SO3 1.3-3.0 %
Na2 + K2O 0.4-1.3 %
Cl 0.01-0.1%
IR 0.6-1.75 %
There are four major compounds in cement and these are known as C2S, C3S, C3A & C4AF, and their
composition varies from cement to cement and plant to plant.

In addition to the above, there are other minor compounds such as MgO, TiO2, Mn2O3, K20 and N2O. They
are in small quantity. Of these K2O and Na2O are found to react with some aggregates and the reaction is
known as Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and causes disintegration in concrete at a later date.

The silicates C3S and C2S are the most important compounds and are mainly responsible for the strength
of the cement paste. They constitute the bulk of the composition. C3A and C4AF do not contribute much to
the strength., but in the manufacturing process they facilitate combination of lime and silica, and act as a
flux. In a typical Portland cement, the composition of mineralogical compounds could be
Table 1 : The extent of chemical compounds in cement
S no Compound Composition as %
1 C3S 48-52 %
2 C2S 22-26 %
3 C3A 6-10 %
4 C4AF 13-16 %
5 Freelime 1-2 %

Role of compounds on properties of cement

Characteristic C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Setting Quick Slow Rapid -
Hydration Rapid Slow Rapid -
Heat Liberation
Higher Lower Higher Higher
(Cal/gm) 7 days
High up to 14 Not much
Early Strength Low up to 14 days Insignificant
days beyond 1 day
Moderate at High at later stage
Later Strength - -
later stage after 14 days

Heat of Hydration
Most of the reactions occurring during the hydration of cement are exothermic in nature (heat is
generated). This heat is called heat of hydration. It is desirable to know the heat producing capacity of
cement in order to choose the most suitable cement for a given purpose.

For Ordinary Portland Cement, half of the total heat is liberated between 1-3 days, about ¾th in 7 days
and nearly 90% in 28 days. The rate at which the heat is produced is important for practical purposes. It
may lead to cracks if not properly dissipated. The sum total heat produced, if spread over a longer period
can be dissipated to a greater degree with fewer problems. The hydration of C3S produces higher heat
as compared to the hydration of C2S. Fineness of cement also affects the rate of heat development. The
heat of hydration generated is generally as follows at 28 days.
Comparative table of heat of hydration produced at the end of 90 days
S no Compound Heat of hydration (calories per gram)
1 C3S 100-110
2 C2S 50-60
3 C3A 300-315
4 C4AF 95-105
It may be seen that the heat produced by C3S is twice that of C2S and that by C3A is still higher. It follows
that, reducing the proportions of C3S and C3A, the heat of hydration and its rate can be reduced.

What is hydration of cement?

When water is added to cement, the paste is formed due to chemical reaction, which hardens into rock
like mass over a period of time. Compounds like C3S and C2S react in the presence of moisture and fully
hydrated reaction can be expressed as

2C3S +6H -> C3S2H3 +3Ca(OH)2

2C2S +4H -> C3S2H3 +Ca(OH)2

C3S2H3 (Calcium Silicate Hydrate) becomes a hard mass over a period of time and normally called as C-S-
H gel. While C3S contributes to most of the strength development during the first two weeks, C 2S
influences gain of strength after two weeks. However, in the long term (over a year) the contribution to
strength is same for equal individual weight.

Selection of cement
The type of cement selected should be appropriate for the intended use. Functional requirement of the
structure, design parameters, speed of construction, durability characteristics, environmental condition are
some of the major factors which affect selection of cement for appropriate application. The suggested
uses of various cements are given in the following table.

S
Type of cement End Use
no
1 OPC 33 Used for general civil construction works under normal/mild
environmental conditions. OPC 33 grade is normally not used where
high grade concrete is required due to limitations of its strength.
Nowadays this variety is not generally produced
2 OPC 43 Nowadays 43 grade is being used widely for general construction work.
However, 43 grade OPC is gradually being replaced by blended
cements.
3 OPC 53 Used in RCC and pre-stressed concrete of higher grades, cement
grouts, instant plugging mortars etc. where initial higher strength is the
criteria
4 Portland Slag PSC provides better protection against chloride and sulphate attack.
Cement (PSC) PSC is preferred over OPC for usage in constructions where the
structures are susceptible to sulphate and chloride attack. eg Marine
structure, structures near the sea, sewage disposal treatment works,
water treatment plants, etc
5 Portland PPC makes concrete more impermeable, denser as compared to OPC.
Pozzolana The long-term strength of PPC is higher compared to OPC. PPC
Cement (PPC) produces less heat of hydration and offers greater resistance to the
attack of aggressive waters than normal OPC. PPC can be used for all
types of construction.
6 Sulphate IIn SRC, amount of C3A is restricted to lower than 5% and 2C3A + C4AF
Resisting lower than 25%. SRC can be used for Foundation, Piles, Basements,
Portland Cement Underground structures, sewage and water treatment plants and
(SRC) coastal works, where Sulphate attack due to water or soil is anticipated
 7 Low Heat Low heat Portland cement is particularly suitable for making mass
Portland Cement concrete for dams and many other types of water retaining structures,
bridge abutments, massive retaining walls, piers and slabs, etc
8 Rapid Hardening The Rapid hardening cement is used for repair and rehabilitation works
Cement (RHC) and where speed of construction and early completion is required due to
limitations of time, space or other reasons
9 Hydrophobic It is manufactured under special requirement for high rainfall areas to
Portland Cement improve the shelf life of cement. The cement particles are given a
chemical coating during manufacturing, which provides water-repelling
property, and the cement is not affected due to high humidity and can
be stored for longer period. Due to abundant availability of cement in all
parts of the country, this cement is very rarely produced these days.
10 White Cement White Portland Cement is made from raw materials containing very little
iron oxide and manganese oxide. Burning in the kiln is done with
furnace oil or gas instead of coal. Limited quantities of certain
chemicals, which improve whiteness of cement, are added during
manufacturing. This type of cement is generally meant for non-structural
works. It is used for architectural purposes such as mosaic tiles, wall
paintings, GRC and special effects.

Test on cement
The usual tests carried out for cement are for chemical and physical requirements. They are given in
relevant Indian Standards. IS 4031 (different parts) and IS 4032. The chemical standards gives
permissible limits for insoluble residue, loss of ignition and other compounds and impurities like
Magnesium Oxide, Sulphate, etc. The physical requirements are for fineness, soundness, setting time and
compressive strength. These are mostly conducted at a laboratory. A field engineer is advised to
purchase a reputed brand of cement from an authorized dealer, and ask for the test certificate. He can
conduct a few field tests at the site itself for ascertaining the quality of cement.

• Check at random that the packing bags are fresh and that the bags are machine stitched
• Check that the bag displays Indian Standards mark and number to which it conforms.
• Check the manufacturing week and the year on the bag
• Open the bag and take a good look at cement, there should be no lumps
• Check that the colour of cement is uniform
• Check for setting. Take some quantity of cement, make it to a paste, place it on a plate and give it a
square shape. Immerse the same slowly in to a bucket of water. Check that it has not lost shape and
that it hardens after 24hrs

Manufacture of Cement
Portland cements are made by grinding a mixture of limestone, clay and other corrective materials, viz.
Laterite, Bauxite,etc. Essential constituents mainly are Lime, Silica, Alumina and Iron Oxide. The process
of manufacturing consists of grinding of raw materials into fine powder, mixing them intimately and burning
in a kiln at about 1400 deg. C. The resultant product is called Clinker. Clinker is cooled, ground to fine
powder with gypsum. The end product is cement.
Storage of cement
The binding property and strength of cement depends upon its capacity for chemical reaction, which can
take place in the presence of water. Cement tends to absorb moisture, and react with it chemically.

Basic requirement is that cement should not come in contact with water or moisture till it is put to use. If it
comes in contact, it will react and form lumps. Then it loses its reactivity and this in turn will result in less
strength. The site engineer should bear in mind that even the atmospheric moisture is sufficient for
deterioration of cement. Hence cement should be stored in such a manner that no moisture or dampness
is allowed to reach cement either from the ground or from the environment.

Cement loses strength as it ages.

Approximate reduction in strength with age (in standard water tight storage condition)
S
Age in months Loss of strength in %
no
1 3 5 to 10
 2 6 20-30
3 12 30-40

Note: BIS prescribes that cement should be used within 90 days of its production. In
case it is used at a later date then it should be tested before use.

Good axioms of proper inventory management are:

• Buy only the quantity required for the week or for the fortnight
• Please see that cement bag is not torn
• No windows/ventilators should be allowed in godown, if unavoidable, it should be kept closed all the
time
• Do not allow workers to use hooks or sharp tools to lift the bags
• Do not allow workers to use hooks or sharp tools to lift the bags
• The cement should be stored in a godown built with minimum 300mm plinth height
• Check whether the roof of the shed leaks, if so, repair it
• Always store cement away from the wall
• Do not store cement directly on the floor. Use wooden planks/pallets or polythene sheets
• Place cement bags one layer lengthwise and one layer widthwise (header and stretcher style) for
better stability of the pile
• Always adopt first in first out approach (FIFO system).
• Sometimes, when the cement bag is brought down, it may appear hard (pack lumps) because of the
load of the bags above it. Roll the bag two to three times before opening it.

Smart Usage
• Wastage of Cement at Construction Sites
• Damp Proof Course (DPC)

• Water Proofing Roofs

WASTAGE OF CEMENT AT CONSTRUCTION SITES

Economy in use of cement enhances productivity and savings in the

cost of construction. The cost of cement on most of the civil engineering
works varies between 14 to 20 % of the overall cost of the project.

NICMAR has studied 8 housing projects in Mumbai-Pune belt to find out

wastage of building materials at construction sites. Wastage of cement
is given in the following Table.

FINDINGS
Wastage of Cement
Project Total Cost Total Cost per Estimated Actual Variance Variance Consumption
no. (Rs.crores) BUA sqm (Rs) consump.(Bags) Consump (bags) % Per sqm BUA
 (sqm) (Bags)
Est. Actual
1 2.70 4300 6279 20200 22385 2185 10.82 4.69 5.25
2 2.50 4500 5556 25504 26357 853 3.34 4.88 5.66
3 8.00 5400 14814 22629 24213 1584 7.00 4.15 4.48
4 1.85 6800 2721 29232 32411 3179 10.88 4.30 4.77
5 7.00 8000 8750 43257 50024 6767 15.64 5.40 6.25
6 8.00 7500 4000 26937 28358 1421 5.28 3.58 3.78
7 1.90 4600 4130 22032 23377 1345 6.10 4.79 5.08
8 1.46 2100 6952 10161 11974 1813 17.84 4.84 5.70
(BUA= Built Up Areas)
It may be noticed that though the over all average of wastage was 10
%, the range of wastage was from 5 to 18% across 8 projects. The
smallest project had the highest wastage.

Causes of Wastage :
The study found mainly the following causes of wastage :

i. Lack of material management system at sites

ii. Poor storage conditions and house-keeping
iii. Inadequate quality control
iv. Excess mortar / concrete preparation than required
v. Lack of training to supervisory staff and labour
vi. Thefts and pilferages at sites
vii. Loss during transportation and handling of cement bags
viii. Use of dry cement for finishing of concrete surfaces to cover poor
concrete

Remedial Measure :

a. Design Specifications :
Present norms in the use of cement do not take into account
availability of high quality cements of superior grades. The
concrete mix designs should be re-examined for optimisation with
the use of modern high quality cements such as OPC 43/53
grades and premium composite cements.

b. Mechanization :
Mechanized construction produces least wastage. Use of Ready
Mixed Concrete (RMC) and precast building components reduces
wastage of cement at site and their use should be encouraged.

c. Additions, Alterations, Changes :

After finalization of execution drawings, additions, alterations and
changes should be minimized at construction sites. The cosmetic
 and non-essential features should be curtailed and building
design should be functional and cost effective.

d. Training of Man Power :

Supervisory staff and tradesman especially masons, concrete
mixer operator and concreting gang should be properly trained in
all aspects of masonry, plastering, flooring and concreting. The
cement consumption norms should be accurately fixed and
adhered at site.

e. Monthly Reconcilation
Submission of material re-conciliation statements with every
monthly bill for payment of contractor would be very helpful in
controlling wastage.

Conclusion :
In India in most of the civil engineering projects, (especially housing) the
materials comprise about 60 % and labour about 40 % of construction
cost. The cement wastage at about 10 % on construction sites is a big
loss, which can be minimized by following proper construction
management techniques and use of RMC and pre-cast building
components.

Reference :
Wastage control of building materials in construction of mass housing
projects by Prof. K.N. Vaidya and Abhijit Tanna a NICMAR publication.

DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)

Dampness
Dampness in buildings can occur due to various reasons. Rising of ground moisture containing salts in
masonry wall by capillary action is one of the reasons. DPC is provided to avoid penetration of such
moisture in buildings.

Symptoms

The symptoms of dampness due to rising moisture may be one or all of the following :

 Paint does not adhere to the wall

 Plaster flakes away, feels soft and spongy
 White powder, bubbles or crystals appear on the wall
 Wall paper lifts and stains appear on the wall
 Skirting and floor boards rot
DPC is not found in many old building. DPC may also become ineffective due to age, bridging with internal
concrete floor, external paths and ground levels.

Methods of providing DPC

• 40 mm thick cement sand mortar 1:3 with water proofing compound (about 2 % by weight of
cement) . After hardening and drying apply two coats of coaltar (or bitumen) on its entire top
surface.
• 40 mm thick 1:1:5:3 concrete with 10 mm chips and water proofing compound
• 50 mm thick non porous stone slab like “Shahabad” or “Kota” across the full width of the wall laid
over a bed of cement mortar.
• Two courses of Class 1 bricks (water absorption less than 5 %) laid in cement mortar of 1:4 with
two coats of bitumen on top.

Precautions

• The finished floor and DPC should be at the same level. Difference in levels (higher or lower) can
lead to bridging of DPC
• DPC should be properly water cured to avoid any cracks and development of desired strength.
• DPC should not be damaged during construction due to impact of bricks or other construction
materials.
• To protect external face of the wall, there should be no pathway or filled up earth above the DPC
level.

Provisioning and Strengthening of DPC in existing buildings

Upto 1979, the only method was to saw out one mortar line and to install a new damp course in that mortar
line, followed by repacking of the mortar joint. This method is messy and expensive with the possibility of
structural settlement of walls. The other techniques such as chemical injection under pressure had not
resulted in wide spread success due to chemical injection not achieving complete horizontal coverage.

To overcome the above deficiencies Tech-Dry technique was developed. Main features of the technique are
:

• Remove plastering / skirting at the floor level.

• Expose the lowest layer of brick or block
• For each brick/ block two holes are drilled start at mortaring level at 100 mm spacing at an angle of
45 °. 10 mm drill bit with rotary hammer drill machine is preferable.
• Damp Coursing Fluid (DCF), a highly penetrating silane, silanole siloxane solution is poured into
the holes through drip tubes.
• DCF reacts with minerals present to form a durable polymer damp course, which permanently
stops rising damp.

Note: If mortar line is damaged or loose, repack mortar line and allow it to set and continue drilling.

WATER PROOFING ROOFS

ROOFS of residential buildings need to be protected from heat and rain. Such a protection is termed
as“WEATHERING COURSE” and essentially has two functional layers. One provides the insulation and
the other provides impermeability.

Several systems are available from which appropriate choice of the two layers can be made. All systems
may not be available in all places.
Figures 1 & 2 detail typical systems in practice.

Common Water Proofing Systems

Insulation Layer Impermeable Layer

Brick-bat Coba Tar-felt
Lightweight concrete Polymer – Cement Layers
Foam concrete (in-situ) Polymer coating
Foam concrete (blocks) Plastic sheeting
Foamed Plastics EPDM Rubber sheeting

Important IS Specifications :
(CP = Code of Practice)

IS: 3036 -1992 – Laying Lime concrete for a water proofed roof finish (CP)
IS: 3037 – 1965 – Specifications for Bitumen mastic for use in Water proofing of roofs
IS :4335-1967 – Application of Bitumen mastic for waterproofing roof (CP)
IS : 3046 – 1991 – Water proofing of roofs with bitumen felts (CP)
IS: 7290 – 1979 – Recommendations for use of polyethylene film for water proofing of roofs.

In addition to the above, based on many recent developments new products and systems are available.

The water proofing of a roof needs a “system concept” selection of barrier material is one step. Placement,
consolidation and curing of concrete are very important. Surface cleanliness, surface preparation,
application procedures of the water proofing layers, and inspection, all need care for satisfactory
performance.

Note :

1. The protection against water penetration is enhanced by efficient drainage of surface water. For
this, the slope of terrace, when finish is by tiling, shall not be less than 1 in 60; and when it is plain
concrete finish, it shall not be less than 1 in 50.

2. For every 40 m² of roof area, one 100 mm diameter rainwater pipe outlet shall be provided.

3. The Polyethylene film for waterproofing should not have water vapour transmission through the film
of more than 5.53 gm/24 hour/m².

4. Brick bats to be laid in mortar to a slope of at least 1 in 120. Between 2 bricks there should be 25
to 40 mm distance. Brick bats to be half embedded in mortar and half above. The mortar for
bedding shall be 1:6 and for finish 1:4 (cement : sand)

5. Terrace door should always open outside and not inside the building.