DEE

P SPACE COMMUNICATION

List of Figures
Fig.2. Spacecraft 6
Fig.3.2 Deep Space Network around the world 9
Fig.3.3 Antennas used in Deep Space Network 11
Fig.4.1 Telemetry 13
Fig.5.6 Data Relaying 19
Fig.6 Unmanned Spacecraft 21
Fig.7 Manned Spacecraft 24
Fig.7.1 Apollo Mission 25
Fig.8.1 Chandrayaan-1 29

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 1

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

ABSTRACT
Deep space exploration and utilization are all along the dreams of human beings.
Besides the technologies of launching and controlling of the probe, deep space
communications has played an important role in deep space exploration. Deep Space
Communication transmits the information obtained by the probe to the ground and
processes and analyzes it. Deep space communications is referred to as communication
between the earth and other planets (including the Moon, the Mars, the Jupiter
etc.).Comparison with Normal Communication Compared with common terra and
satellite communications, deep-space communications presents more challenging
environment for data communications.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 2

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
The exploration and utilization of the deep space are all along the dreams of
human beings. Since the Soviet Union began to explore the moon by using moon-1 in
January 1959, there has existed drastic competition in the area of deep space exploration
and utilization among the countries all over the world, especially among the United State,
Russia and some countries in Europe.

Deep space usually refers to the outer space more than 2 million kilometers away
from the earth. Now spacecrafts are send to the farthest planet Pluto called Newhorizons
which will enter into Pluto’s orbit in 2015. Among them, the explorations to the Mars and
moon are more frequent. In recent forty years, Russia, United State and several Europe
countries have made explorations to the Mars more than thirty times and sent probes to
the Moon. European Space Agency (ESA), Japan, China and India also have their own
Moon exploration probes right now.

The radio frequency channel predominantly used for communication typically

operates under the following constraints.

Long Distance: A lot of planets in deep space are several hundred million
kilometers away from the earth. Such long distance results in very low signal to noise
ratio (SNR).
High Signal Propagation Delays: This is due to the enormous distances involved between
the communicating entities and the relativistic constraint restricting signal transmissions
to the speed of light. For example, one-way signal propagation delays for the Cassini
mission to Saturn are in the range of 1 hour and 8 minutes to 1 hour and 24 minutes.
High Data Corruption Rates: Extremely long distances cause the signals to be received at
extremely low strengths at the receiver, and thereby increase the probability of bit-errors
in the channel due to random thermal noise errors, burst errors due to solar flares, etc.
Disruption Events: Since communicating entities in deep-space tend to be in motion
relative to one another, the communication channel between them is prone to disruption.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 3

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

A planetary probe on the surface of Saturn’s moon Titan, for example, could experience
disruption due to the rotation of Titan on its own axis (when it goes to the night side of
Titan), when Titan passes under Saturn’s shadow during its revolution around the planet,
and when other moons/ planets/or the Sun itself block the line of sight to the destination.
Moreover, communicating with an entity in deep-space requires expensive specialized
equipment.

Complex Geography Environment: In the moon and other planets, conditions

such as the temperature radiation and liberation etc are more complex than those in the
earth. For example, the variation of the temperature in the moon is very high, from
-183°C to 127°C. The lowest temperature is -132°C in Mars and -140°C in Jupiter. So the
electronics in the spacecraft must be designed to support these extreme temperature
variations.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 4

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 2

SPACECRAFT
Spacecraft is the destination system of the deep space communication. spacecrafts
are launched for scientific study, the launch cost is higher as the spacecraft become
bigger so we use light weight systems and equipments so we cannot incorporate large
antennas or powerful communication systems. The spacecraft's small, light
communications equipment consequently transmits at very low power, typically limited
to 20 watts, about the same as a refrigerator light bulb. Signal power arriving at the
antenna can be as weak as one 100-millionth of one 100-billionth of a watt - 20 billion
times less than the power required for a digital wristwatch. To "hear" the whisper of a
signal from a spacecraft at planetary distances, receiving antennas on Earth must be very
large and be equipped with highly sensitive receivers. The two main antennas in a
spacecrafts are high gain antenna and a low gain antenna.

2.1 Low Gain Antenna

Low-gain antenna that sends a very simple signal that small receivers can pick
them up on Earth. The "low-gain" antenna is constantly broadcasting one of four possible
signal by a simple code.
• Everything is OK
• Track me when you can
• Track before a certain time
• Help! Red alert!

2.2 High Gain Antenna

Other, more important and complicated data is sent with the high-gain antenna
only when NASA can be relatively sure that DSN will pick up the signal. On
scheduled times, the large DSN (Deep Space Network) receivers are used to receive
this "high-gain" signal with its more complete information. This signal is used to send
most of the scientific data DS1 will collect.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 5

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Fig.2. Spacecraft

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 6

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 3

DEEP SPACE NETWORK

The NASA Deep Space Network - or DSN - is an international network of huge

antennas that allows people on the ground to communicate with satellites and other
spacecraft missions, as well as providing radio and radar astronomy observations for the
exploration of the solar system and the universe. It is best known for its large radio
antennas. The network also supports selected Earth-orbiting missions. DSN is part of the
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).

3.1 History of Deep Space Network

The forerunner of the DSN was established in January, 1958, when JPL, then
under contract to the U.S. Army, deployed portable radio tracking stations in Nigeria,
Singapore, and California to receive telemetry and plot the orbit of the Army-launched
Explorer 1, the first successful U.S. satellite. NASA was officially established on October
1, 1958, to consolidate the separately developing space-exploration programs of the
Army, Navy, and Air Force into one civilian organization.

On 3 December 1958, the JPL was transferred from the Army to NASA and given
responsibility for the design and execution of lunar and planetary exploration programs
using remotely-controlled spacecraft. Shortly after the transfer of the JPL to NASA,
NASA established the concept of the Deep Space Network as a separately managed and
operated communications system that would accommodate all deep space missions,
thereby avoiding the need for each flight project to acquire and operate its own
specialized space communications network. The DSN was given responsibility for its
own research, development, and operation in support of all of its users. Under this
concept, it has become a world leader in the development of low-noise receivers; large
parabolic-dish antennas; tracking, telemetry, and command systems; digital signal
processing; and deep space navigation.

The largest antennas of the DSN are often called on during spacecraft
emergencies. Almost all spacecraft are designed so normal operation can be conducted on

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 7

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

the smaller (and more economical) antennas of the DSN, but during an emergency the
use of the largest antennas is crucial. This is because a troubled spacecraft may be forced
to use less than its normal transmitter power, attitude control problems may preclude the
use of high-gain antennas, and recovering every bit of telemetry is critical to assessing
the health of the spacecraft and planning the recovery. The most famous example is the
Apollo 13 mission, where limited battery power and inability to use the spacecraft's high
gain antennas reduced signal levels below the capability of the Manned Space Flight
Network, and the use of the biggest DSN antennas (and the Australian Parkes
Observatory radio telescope) was critical to saving the lives of the astronauts. Although
in this case Apollo was also a USA/NASA mission, DSN also provides this same
emergency service to other space agencies as well, in a spirit of inter-agency and
international cooperation. For example, the recovery of the Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory (SOHO) mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) would not have been
possible without the use of the largest DSN facilities.

3.2 Present Condition

DSN currently consists of three deep-space communications facilities placed

approximately 120 degrees apart around the world. They are:
• The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex outside of Barstow, California,
United States;
• The Madrid Deep Space Communication Complex, 60 kilometers (37 miles) west of
Madrid, Spain; and
• The Canberra Deep Space Communications Complex (CDSCC) in the Australian
Capital Territory, 40 kilometers (25 miles) southwest of Canberra, Australia near the
Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve.

Each facility is situated in semi-mountainous, bowl-shaped terrain to shield

against radio frequency interference. This strategic placement permits constant
observation of spacecraft as the earth rotates, and helps to make the DSN the largest and
most sensitive scientific telecommunications system in the world.
NASA's scientific investigation of the Solar System is being accomplished mainly
through the use of unmanned spacecraft. The DSN provides the vital two-way

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 8

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

communications link that guides and controls these machines, and brings back the images
and new scientific information they collect. All DSN steerable, high-gain, antennas are
parabolic.

Fig.3.2 Deep Space Network around the world

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 9

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

The antennas and data delivery systems make it possible to:

• Acquire telemetry data from spacecraft.

• Transmit commands to spacecraft.
• Track spacecraft position and velocity.
• Perform Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations.
• Measure variations in radio waves for radio science experiments.
• Gather science data.
• Monitor and control the performance of the network.

The network is a facility of the JPL and is managed and operated for NASA by
the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The Interplanetary Network Directorate
(IND) manages the program within JPL.

3.3 Antennas in DSN

Each complex consists of at least four deep space terminals equipped with ultra-
sensitive receiving systems and large parabolic-dish antennas.
There are:
• One 34-meter (111-ft) diameter High Efficiency antenna.
• One or more 34-meter Beam Waveguide antennas (three at the Goldstone Complex, two
at the Robledo de Chavela complex (near Madrid), and one at the Canberra Complex).
• One 26-meter (85 ft) antenna.
• One 70-meter (230 ft) antenna.

Five of the 34-meter beam waveguide antennas were added to the system in the
late 1990s. Three were located at Goldstone, and one each at Canberra and Madrid. A
second 34-meter beam waveguide antenna (the network's sixth) was completed at the
Madrid complex in 2004.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 10

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Fig.3.3 Antennas used in Deep Space Network

3.4 Arraying

Antenna arraying combines the signals received by multiple antennas at different

locations to synthesize a single large antenna. It is commonly used to improve reception
of weak signals. Arraying is beneficial in deep space communications where the signal
transmitted by a spacecraft becomes very weak as it travels across vast interplanetary
distances. When the signal arrives at Earth, it is spread over a large area, and the ground
antenna is able to receive just a small part of the signal. Arraying allows the capture of
these very weak signals and enables a higher data rate.

The ability to array several antennas was incorporated to improve the data
returned from the Voyager 2 Neptune encounter, and extensively used for the Galileo
spacecraft, when the high gain antenna did not deploy correctly[4]. The array
electronically links the 70-meter dish antenna at the Deep Space Network complex in

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 11

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Goldstone, California, with an identical antenna located in Australia, in addition to two

34-meter (111 ft) antennas at the Canberra complex. The California and Australia sites
were used concurrently to pick up communications with Galileo.

Arraying of antennas within the three DSN locations is also used. For example,the
vital missions, like Voyager 2, the Canberra 70-meter dish can be arrayed with the Parkes
Radio Telescope in Australia; and the Goldstone 70-meter dish can be arrayed with the
Very Large Array of antennas in New Mexico. Also, two or more 34-meter dishes at one
DSN location are commonly arrayed together.

All the stations are remotely operated from a centralized Signal Processing Center
at each complex with electronic subsystems that point and control the antennas, receive
and process the telemetry data, transmit commands, and generate the spacecraft
navigation data.Once the data is processed at the complexes, it is transmitted to JPL.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 12

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 4

FUNCTIONS OF DEEP SPACE NETWORK

Some of the functions of DSN are shown below:

4.1 Telemetry

The purpose of the Telemetry System is to provide the capability to acquire,

process, decode and distribute deep space probe and Earth orbiter telemetry data.
Telemetry data consists of science and engineering information modulated on radio
signals transmitted from the spacecraft. The Telemetry System performs three main
functions: Telemetry data acquisition, telemetry data conditioning and transmission to
projects and telemetry system validation.two types of telemetry, science data and
engineering data. science data is the important data because the mission success depends
on this data. engineering data contains the health and positional information of the
spacecraft.

Fig.4.1 Telemetry

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 13

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

4.2 Spacecraft Command

The purpose of the Command System is to provide the means by which a Project
controls the activities of its spacecraft. Control information (Command Data), provided
by the Project, is modulated on the RF carrier and transmitted to a spacecraft by a DSN
station. The Command System functions as a transfer medium between the Project
Control Center and its spacecraft.

4.3 Radiometric Tracking

The purpose of the Tracking System is to provide two-way communication
between Earth based equipment and spacecraft, to make measurements that will allow the
state vector (position and velocity) of spacecraft to be determined.

4.4 Very Long Baseline Interferometry

The purpose of the Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) System is to
provide the means of directly measuring plane-of-the-sky angular positions of radio
sources (natural or spacecraft), DSN station locations, interstation time and frequency
offsets, and Earth orientation parameters.

4.5 Radio Science

The field of Radio Science improves our knowledge of the solar system and the
theory of general relativity through radio frequency experiments performed between
spacecraft and the Deep Space Network's (DSN) Radio Science System. In the past,
Radio Science has performed experiments which have allowed scientists to characterize
planetary atmospheres and ionospheres, characterize planetary surfaces, characterize the
planetary rings, characterize the Solar corona, confirm general relativity, characterize
interplanetary plasma, search for gravitational waves, characterize planetary gravity , and
determine the mass of the planets, moons, and asteroids.

4.6 Monitor and Control

The purpose of the Monitor and Control System is two-fold: to provide real time
monitor data to projects which reflect the status of project support by DSN systems, and
to provide monitor and control capabilities to operators of DSN systems' components.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 14

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 5

WORKING OF DEEP SPACE NETWORK

This section includes the working and challenges of deep space communications.

5.1 The theory and challenges of deep space communications

Distance is the main problem in space communications, since the intensity of

electromagnetic radiation decreases according to 1/r2, that is why signals from deep
space probes are usually very weak when they reach the Earth. In order to receive the
faint signal back on Earth large parabolic disc antennas are used. To collect as much as
possible of the faint signal the antenna dish must be big. Since the electromagnetic
radiation cannot move faster than the speed of light there are considerable time lag
introduced in the communications making real time communications impossible.
It takes over 5 hours for a signal from earth to reach the orbit of Pluto in the outer part of
the solar system. In order to communicate with the Earth the spacecraft must have a free
line of sight to the Earth, since radio waves cannot pass through large solid objects such
as planets and moons. A space probe orbiting a planet will therefore lose contact with
earth every time it gets on the far side of the planet. This means that the spacecraft will
not be able to communicate with the Earth at all times. Even if the probe has a free line of
sight to the Earth the receiving antenna could be on the wrong side of the Earth, however
by using several antennas in different places around the planet that could be solved.
The gain of an antenna is a measure of how good the antenna is at focusing the radiated
energy. A low gain antenna radiates in a wide angle, while a high gain antenna radiates in
a narrow beam. On spacecraft high gain antennas are used to send scientific
measurements at high data rates back to earth as well as receiving steering commands
from earth; these antennas are highly directional and require very accurate aiming.
Spacecraft are always equipped with at least one low gain antenna often two. These low
gain antennas are very important since they can intercept signals from almost any
direction, this is useful if the spacecraft gets disoriented and the main high gain antenna
doesn’t point towards Earth. If the spacecraft only had a high gain antenna it would then

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 15

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

not be able to receive any more instructions from Earth. The low gain antennas are used
in these kinds of situations as a backup to receive the appropriate commands that will
turn the spacecraft so that the main antenna gets properly aligned to earth again.
However, the low gain antenna can only handle a fraction of the data rate compared to
the high gain antenna.

5.2 Frequency used by DSN

Since the signal has to pass through the Earth’s atmosphere some limitations are
placedon which frequencies that could be used.
S-Band 1.55 – 5.2 GHz (2.3 GHz)
X-Band 5.2 – 10.9 GHz (8.4 GHz)
Ku-Band 12 – 8 GHz
Ka-Band 20 – 40 GHz (32 GHz)

The ionosphere is almost opaque to some of the lower frequency bands so space
communication mainly uses high frequency bands between 2GHz and 40GHz which are
less affected by atmospheric disturbances. However at these frequencies one start to get
interference from molecular excitations, there are several frequency bands that could not
be used because of this e.g. water has a strong resonance frequency at 22GHz. Water is a
severe problem at frequencies above 2GHz, dense clouds, rain and snow can distort and
absorb large parts of a transmission. Despite that, frequencies above 2GHz are in
common use for space communication, that is because higher frequencies allows for
higher data rates, short wavelength radiation can carry much higher data rates than long
wave radiation.

The space industry is always looking for ways to increase the data rate between
Earth and interplanetary probes; low data rate has always been limiting factor during
interplanetary communications. On a common interplanetary space probe the low gain
antenna usually receives/transmits in the S-band while the high gain antenna
receive/transmit in the X band, however we are now in a transition phase and in the
future the high gain antennas will be used with the higher Ka-band.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 16

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

5.3 Coding used in DSN

Most missions employ error detecting – error correcting codes to substantially

improve telemetry link performance. DSN users are reminded that their encoders should
conform to the CCSDS Telemetry Channel Coding Blue Book (CCSDS 231.0-B-1,
September 2003.
Acceptable codes include:
1) Convolutional r = 1/2, k = 7 only.
2) Reed-Solomon 223/255 only.
3) concatenated Convolutional / Reed-Solomon
4) Turbo codes with rates: 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, or 1/6, block sizes: 1784, 3568, 7136, and 8920.

CCSDS File Delivery Protocol (DSN) to improve station utilization efficiency as

well as reduce mission risk and costs, all DSN users should employ the CCSDS File
Delivery Protocol (CFDP), to transfer data to and from a spacecraft. CFDP operates over
a CCSDS conventional packet telecommand, packet telemetry, or an Advanced Orbiting
System (AOS) Path service link. CFDP enables the automatic transfer of a complete set
of specified files and associated information from one storage location to another
replacing an expensive labor-intensive manual method. It can transfer a file from a source
point to a destination site using an Automatic Repeat Queuing (ARQ) protocol.
In an acknowledged mode, the receiver notifies the transmitter of any undelivered file
segments or ancillary data so that the missing elements can be retransmitted guaranteeing
delivery. An unacknowledged mode is also permitted.

5.4 Bandwidth Efficient Modulation (DSN)

Missions operating in the 2 and 8 GHz bands, should employ bandwidth efficient
modulation methods in conformance with SFCG (space frequency coordination group)
and CCSDS Recommendations.

5.5 Multiple Spacecraft Per Antenna (MSPA)

Where a multiplicity of spacecraft lie within the beam width of a single DSN
antenna, it may be possible to capture data from two or more spacecraft simultaneously

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 17

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

using the Multiple Spacecraft per Aperture (MSPA) system. MSPA decreases DSN
loading and will save the project’s money. There are a few constraints.
First, only a single uplink frequency can be transmitted. Generally, this means that only
one spacecraft at a time can operate in a two-way coherent mode, while the remainder
must be in a one-way (i.e., non-coherent) mode.

Second, multiple independent receivers are required at the Earth station. This sets
a practical limit of two spacecraft that can be served simultaneously.
Third, ranging and two-way coherent Doppler data can only be obtained from the single
spacecraft operating in a two-way coherent mode.

Approximately 30-minutes are required to transfer two-way coherent operations

from one spacecraft to another irrespective of whether or not the spacecraft, which will
be in the two-way coherent mode, is currently part of the MSPA cluster. When switching
the uplink from one spacecraft to the next, full Aperture Fee (AF) costs apply to the new
two-way coherent user at the onset of the switching operation. Transfers of two-way
coherent operations require:

1) Tuning the uplink of the spacecraft in a two-way coherent mode to its rest frequency,
2) Setting the station uplink frequency to the next spacecraft’s and acquiring the uplink,
3) Reconfiguring the command subsystem (if required) for the next spacecraft,
4) Reconfiguring ranging (if required) for the next spacecraft,
5) Reconfiguring the Monitor and Control subsystem,
6) Relocking the Earth station’s receiver and telemetry processor following the switch.

For a Project to avail itself of the MSPA savings, the following conditions must apply:

All spacecraft must lie within the beamwidth of the requested antenna. Projects
must accept reduced link performance from imperfect pointing. Spacecraft downlinks
must operate on different frequencies. Only one spacecraft at a time can operate with an
uplink in a coherent mode.
a. Commands can only be sent to the spacecraft receiving an uplink.
b. Ranging & coherent Doppler are available from the spacecraft in a 2-way mode.
c.Remaining spacecraft transmit 1-way downlinks with telemetry only.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 18

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

5.6 Data Relaying

Some missions may propose dropping probes, landers, or even rovers to explore the
surface of a planet/body. Others may insert orbiters around the same body. The result can
be a multiplicity of spacecraft on or around a planet/body. While Mars has been the
recent focus, it is foreseeable that other planets or objects in space could be of equal
interest in the future. Where several spacecraft are relatively close together and
positioned far from the Earth, it makes sense to send data to and from small vehicles via a
relay (Proximity Link). Typically, this has been an orbiting spacecraft carrying a special
transceiver operating at UHF frequencies.

Relaying data from surface objects can save money and reduce size and power
requirements of landed equipment. Proposals for landed objects in the vicinity of an
orbiting spacecraft should consider whether a data relay makes sense for their
application. Some Announcements of Opportunity (AOs) have required orbiting
spacecraft with certain characteristics to carry Proximity Link hardware.

Fig.5.6 Data Relaying

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 19

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

5.7 Critical Event Communications

Some times spacecraft needed emergency telemetry support during Critical

Events. Critical Events are defined as: “spacecraft events that could result in the loss of
mission if anomalies occur.” These events include launch, early orbit operations, and
those listed as follows:
Spacecraft separation
Powered flight
Critical Maneuvers (e.g., DSMs)
Orbit insertion
Entry/Descent/Landing
Flybys

An Earth station is normally required during launch, early orbit and separation. It
could be one of the DSN or NEN Earth stations if the launch trajectory permits; however,
in cases where there are gaps, another Agency’s Earth station or a small portable station
may be required. The costs for Critical Event support must be included in the proposal.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 20

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 6

UNMANNED SPACECRAFT TRACKING

One of the prime objective of DSN is telemetry and tracking of unmanned space
missions.there are about 3 dozens of spacecrafts right now functioning,some of them are
in the edge of our solarsystem.Let me explain the tracking and telemetry of mars
exploration rovers.

Fig.6. Unmanned Spacecraft

6.1 Mars Exploration Rovers

NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of

exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of two rovers Spirit and Opportunity
to explore the Martian surface and geology.
Primary among the mission's scientific goals is to search for and characterize a wide
range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission is part
of NASA's Mars Exploration Program which includes three previous successful landers:
the two Viking landers in 1976 and Pathfinder in 1997.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 21

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Two Mars rover missions will be launched by NASA in May and June of 2003,
during the 2003 Mars launch opportunity. They are the Mars Exploration Rovers, MERA
and MERB. The spacecrafts will enter the Mars atmosphere directly, without first going
into Mars orbit. The rovers will land on the Mars surface in January and February of
2004, in a similar manner to the successful Mars Pathfinder landing in 1996.
6.2 EDL sequence

During the Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) phases, it is important to maintain
communications from the spacecraft to the Earth. Although this communication cannot
affect the landing because the long round-trip-light time precludes real time feedback
from Earth to the spacecraft, the communication could be critical to the success of future
missions. This is especially true in case of a mission failure, when the diagnostic data
would be very important.

As the EDL scenario begins, the lander is enclosed in a heat shield and a
backshell, all attached to the main spacecraft. The entry turn begins approximately 70-
min before entry, properly orienting the heat shield. When this is completed,
approximately 15-min prior to entry, the cruise stage separation occurs, leaving the lander
protected by the heat shield. Entry, defined as reaching a predefined altitude above the
Mars surface, occurs approximately 365-s before landing.
6.3 Communications Links

The rover has a low-gain and a high-gain antenna. The low-gain antenna is
omnidirectional, and transmits data at a low rate to Deep Space Network (DSN) antennas
on Earth. The high-gain antenna is directional and steerable, and can transmit data to
Earth at a higher rate.

The rovers also use the low-gain antennas to communicate with spacecraft
orbiting Mars, the Mars Odyssey and (before its failure) the Mars Global Surveyor. The
orbiters relay data from and to Earth; most data to Earth is relayed through Odyssey. The
benefits of using the orbiters are that they are closer to the rovers than the antennas on
Earth, and have view of Earth for much longer than the rovers. The orbiters communicate
with the rovers using UHF antennas, which have shorter range than the low and high-gain

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 22

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

antennas. One UHF antenna is on the rover and one is on a petal of the lander to aid in
gaining information during the critical landing event.

From cruise stage separation until the lander is separated from the backshell,
communication is by a direct-to-Earth (DTE) X-band (8.4-GHz) link, using the backshell
low-gain antenna (BLGA). After the lander separates from the backshell, the BLGA can
no longer be used. From this point until landing, two methods of communication will be
used: a DTE link using the rover low-gain antenna (RLGA), and a UHF relay link. The
UHF link transmits the data to either the Mars Odyssey or the Mars Global Surveyor
spacecraft, which then relays the data to the Earth using a standard phase-coherent X-
band link. The reason that the UHF relay link is used is that sufficiently reliable
communication is not possible with the DTE link, as explained later. The UHF link is the
prime communication link, but it is not as reliable as desired, so the DTE link will also be
used, as a backup. Although the UHF link is prime during this period, it is not discussed
further in this paper, because the subject of this paper is the DTE link. After landing, the
UHF link will no longer be used, and the DTE link is again the only link.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 23

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 7

MANNED SPACE FLIGHT NETWORK

Tracking vehicles in low Earth orbits is quite different from tracking deep space
missions. Deep space missions are visible for long periods of time from a large portion of
the Earth's surface, and so require few stations (the DSN uses only three). These few
stations, however, need huge antennas and ultra-sensitive receivers to cope with the very
weak signals. Low earth orbit missions, however, are only visible from a small fraction of
the Earth' surface at a time, and the satellites move overhead very quickly. Therefore a
large number of tracking stations are required, spread all over the world. The antennas do
not need to be so big, but they must be able to track quickly.

These differing requirements led NASA to build a number of independent

tracking networks, each optimized for its own mission. Prior to the mid 80's, when the
TDRSS satellites became operational, NASA used a several networks of ground based
antennas to track and communicate with earth orbiting spacecraft. For the Mercury,
Gemini, and Apollo missions, these were the primary means of communication, with the
DSN being assigned a supporting/backup role.

Fig.7. Manned spacecraft

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 24

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

7.1 The Apollo Missions

The MSFN during the Apollo era was also called the Apollo Network. Large dish
antennas with high gains, such as the 26-m paraboloids employed in the DSN, would
have to be added to the MSFN to track and communicate at lunar distances. Extant
MSFN stations could not properly monitor the very critical mission phases when the
spacecraft was inserted into its lunar trajectory and when it plunged into the narrow
reentry corridor on the return trip. The result was that the MSFN had to be extended with
ships, aircraft, and additional land sites. Small paraboloidal antennas would have to be
added at some MSFN sites to communicate with the Apollo spacecraft while it was still
below the horizon for the 26-m dishes (below about 16,000 km) but beyond the range of
the Gemini telemetry antennas. The communication traffic during the Apollo missions
would be several times that planned for Gemini. NASCOM lines would have to be
augmented. To meet these requirements, the MSFN used a combination of resources. A
JPL system called "Unified S Band" or USB, was selected for Apollo communications. It
allowed tracking, ranging, telemetry, and voice to all use the same S band transmitter.
Near-earth tracking was provided by upgrading the same networks used for Mercury and
Gemini. New large antennas for the lunar phase were constructed explicitly for the
MSFN, with DSN large antennas used for backup and critical mission phases.

Fig.7.1 Apollo Mission

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 25

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

7.2 DSN Support during Apollo

Although normally tasked with tracking unmanned spacecraft, the Deep Space
Network (DSN) also contributed to the communication and tracking of Apollo missions
to the Moon, although primary responsibility remained with the MSFN. The DSN
designed the MSFN stations for lunar communication and provided a second antenna at
each MSFN site (the MSFN sites were near the DSN sites for just this reason). Two
antennas at each site were needed since the beam widths of the large antennas needed
were too small to encompass both the lunar orbiter and the lander at the same time. DSN
also supplied some larger antennas as needed, in particular for television broadcasts from
the Moon, and emergency communications such as Apollo 13.

Another critical step in the evolution of the Apollo Network came in 1965 with
the advent of the DSN Wing concept. Originally, the participation of DSN 26-m antennas
during an Apollo Mission was to be limited to a backup role. This was one reason why
the MSFN 26-m sites were collocated with the DSN sites at Goldstone, Madrid, and
Canberra. However, the presence of two, well-separated spacecraft during lunar
operations stimulated the rethinking of the tracking and communication problem. One
thought was to add a dual S-band RF system to each of the three 26-m MSGN antennas,
leaving the nearby DSN 26-m antennas still in a backup role. Calculations showed,
though, that a 26-m antenna pattern centered on the landed Lunar Module would suffer a
9-to-12 db loss at the lunar horizon, making tracking and data acquisition of the orbiting
Command Service Module difficult, perhaps impossible. It made sense to use both the
MSFN and DSN antennas simultaneously during the all-important lunar operations. JPL
was naturally reluctant to compromise the objectives of its many unmanned spacecraft by
turning three of its DSN stations over to the MSFN for long periods. How the goals of
both Apollo and deep space exploration could be achieved without building a third 26-m
antenna at each of the three sites or undercutting planetary science missions
The solution came in early 1965 at a meeting at NASA Headquarters, when Eberhardt
Rechtin suggested what is now known as the "wing concept". The wing approach
involves constructing a new section or "wing" to the main building at each of the three

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 26

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

involved DSN sites. The wing would include a MSFN control room and the necessary
interface equipment to accomplish the following:

1. Permit tracking and two-way data transfer with either spacecraft during lunar operation
2. Permit tracking and two-way data transfer with the combined spacecraft at moon flight

3. Provide backup for the collocated MSFN site passive track of the Apollo spacecraft
during trans-lunar and trans-earth phases.

With this arrangement, the DSN station could be quickly switched from a deep-
space mission to Apollo and back again. GSFC personnel would operate the MSFN
equipment completely independently of DSN personnel. Deep space missions would not
be compromised nearly as much as if the entire station's equipment and personnel were
turned over to Apollo for several weeks.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 27

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 8

INDIAN DEEP SPACE NETWORK

The Indian Deep Space Network consists of a 18-m and a 32-m antennae that are
established at the IDSN campus, Byalalu, Bangalore. The Network is augmented with a
couple of stations in the western hemisphere in addition to the 64-m antenna in
Bearslake, Russia to improve the visibility duration and to provide support from the
antipodal point.

The existing ISTRAC (ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network) S-

Band Network stations will be used to support the mission during Launch and Early Orbit
Phase (LEOP) that includes Earth Transfer Orbit (ETO) up to a range of about 1,00,000
km. Although the 18-m antenna is tailored for Chandrayaan-1 mission, the 32-m antenna
can also support other planetary missions. The established IDSN is a state-of-the-art
system, with its base band system adhering to CCSDS (Consultative Committee for
Space Data Systems) Standards, thus facilitating cross-support among other TTC
agencies. The supporting network stations will ensure the adequacy of the link margin for
telemetry/dwell, tracking, telecommand payload data reception. The IDSN station has the
responsibility of receiving the spacecraft health data as well as the payload data in real
time. Later, conditioning of the data takes place, before onward transmission of the same
to Mission Operations Complex at Bangalore. The tracking data comprising Range,
Doppler and Angle data will be transferred to the control center for the purpose of orbit
determination. The payload data will be transmitted to the Indian Space Science Data
Center (ISSDC) as and when received by the payload data acquisition system, located at
the station.

The 18-m dish antenna is configured for Chandryaan-1 mission operations and
payload data collection. The antenna is established at the IDSN Campus, Byalalu,
situated at the outskirts of Bangalore with built in support facilities. A fibre optic/satellite
link will provide the necessary
communication link between the IDSN Station and Mission Operations Complex
(MOX) / Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC). This antenna is capable of S-Band

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 28

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

uplink (2 kW) and both X-Band and S-Band downlink. This system has provision to
receive two downlink carriers in S-Band and one carrier in X-Band (RCP and LCP).

8.1 Chandrayaan-1

The Indian Deep Space Network has been built to track and support India's first
lunar mission Chandrayaan-1, an unmanned lunar exploration mission by the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India's national space agency. It was launched on
22 October 2008. The IDSN will be used for tracking, orbit control and housekeeping
operations of India's lunar mission for its entire duration of two years. IDSN began to
track Chandrayaan 17 minutes after its launch from the Satish Dhawan Space Launch
Centre at Sriharikota, when the satellite separated from the launch vehicle.

Fig.8.1. Chandryaan-1

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 29

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 9

ADVANTAGES

1) Deep space communication has played an important role in deep space

exploration.

2) Deep space communication helps in transmitting information obtained by the

probe to the ground and processes and analyses it.

3) Deep space communication provides communication between earth and other

planets like moon, mars, Jupiter.

4) This provide challenging environment for data communication.

5) Deep space communication used in the deep space network is a worldwide leader
in development of Low-noise receivers,Large parabolic-dish antennas, Tracking,
Telemetry command systems, Digital signal processing and Deep space
navigation.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 30

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 10

APPLICATIONS

1) Deep space communication is used in deep space exploration and utilization

among countries especially US, Russia and some countries in Europe.

2) Interplanetary internet is set up using deep space communication which helps

people on earth to communicate with people on other planets and collect
information about other planets for fulfilling future needs.

3) Deep space communication is used in NASA Deep space network providing radio
and RADAR astronomy observation for exploration of solar system and universe.

4) Deep space communication used in Deep space network accommodates all deep
space missions.

5) This provides emergency services to space agencies such as recovery of solar and
Heliospheric observatory (SOHO) mission of European Space Agency(ESA).

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 31

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 11

FUTURE OF DEEP SPACE COMMUNICATION

There's a good chance that humans will travel to Mars before we see the
beginning of a new century. How will we communicate with these distant travelers
Scientists, engineers and programmers are already working to develop an interplanetary
Internet that will connect us to probes and human space travelers, and allow more
information to be sent back to Earth.

11.1 Interplanetary Internet

You can talk to almost anyone, in any corner of the world, almost instantly
because of the Internet and other advances in electronic communication. Scientists and
space explorers now are looking for a way to communicate almost instantly beyond
Earth. The next phase of the Internet will take us to far reaches of our solar system, and
lay the groundwork for a communications system for a manned mission to Mars and
planets beyond. If we ever want to find out more about other planets, we will need a
better communication system for future space missions. Today, communication in space
moves at a snail's pace compared to communication on Earth. There are several reasons
for this:

• Distance -- On Earth, we are only a fraction of a light second apart, making Earth
communication nearly instantaneous over the Internet. As you move farther out into
space, however, there is a delay of minutes or hours because light has to travel millions of
miles, instead of thousands of miles, between transmitter and receiver.

• Line of sight obstruction -- Anything that blocks the space between the signal
transmitter and receiver can interrupt communication.

• Weight -- High-powered antennas that would improve communication with deep space
probes are often too heavy to send on a space mission, because the payload must be light
and efficiently used.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 32

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Take a look at the 1997 Mars Pathfinder rover mission and you will understand
space explorers need an interplanetary Internet for deep space communications. Data
from the Pathfinder trickled back at an average rate of about 300 bits per second during
its mission. Most likely, your computer can transfer data at least 200 times faster than
that. An Internet between Mars and Earth would likely yield a data transfer rate of 11,000
bits per second. That is still much slower than your computer's transfer rate, but it would
be enough to send back more detailed images of the Mars surface. Mars Network
researchers think that the transfer rate could eventually go to about 1 Megabyte
(8,288,608 bits) per second and allow anyone to take a virtual trip to Mars.
An interplanetary Internet is like the Earth's Internet on a grand scale and with some
improvements. Here are the three basic components of the proposed interplanetary
Internet:

• NASA's Deep Space Network (DSN).

• A six-satellite constellation around Mars.
• A new protocol for transferring data.

The DSN is the international network of antennas used by NASA to track data
and control navigation of interplanetary spacecraft. It is designed to allow for continuous
radio communication with the spacecraft. In an interplanetary Internet, the DSN will be
the Earth's gateway or portal to that Internet. In a paper published by the MITRE Corp., a
company that is financing the Interplanetary Internet Study, researchers suggest that the
DSN's antennas could be pointed at Mars to connect Earth and Mars for at least 12 hours
each day. Satellites orbiting Mars should provide a full-time connection between the two
planets. A Martian rover, probe or human colony will provide a Mars portal to the
interplanetary Internet. Under the Mars Network plan, the DSN will interact with a
constellation of six microsatellites and one large Marsat satellite placed in low Mars
orbit. These six microsats are relay satellites for spacecraft on or near the surface of the
planet, and they will allow more data to come back from Mars missions. The Marsat will
collect data from each of the smaller satellites and beam it to Earth. It will also keep
Earth and distant spacecraft connected continuously and allow for high-bandwidth data
and video of the planet, according to Mars Network officials. NASA could launch a

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 33

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

microsat as early as 2003, with the six-microsat constellation orbiting Mars by 2009. In
2007, the Marsat is scheduled to be placed in a slightly higher orbit than the constellation.
All of these dates are still very tentative.

Programmers are developing an Internet file transfer protocol to transmit the

messages and overcome delays and interruptions. This protocol will act as the backbone
of the entire system much as the Internet protocol (IP) and transmission control protocol
(TCP) operate on Earth. IP and TCP, co-developed in the 1970s by Dr. Vinton Cerf, are
the messenger service for our Earth-based Internet. These two protocols break up
transmitted messages into packets of small data units and route them to a specified
destination.

Cerf is part of the team of scientists who are developing a new protocol to enable
reliable file transfer over the long distances between planets and spacecraft. This new
space protocol must keep the Internet running even if some packets of data are lost during
transmission. It must also block out noise picked up while crossing millions of miles. One
idea for the space protocol is called the parcel transfer protocol (PTP), which will store
and forward data at the gateway of each planet. The protocol would process an
information request sent to a gateway and forward it to a final destination. The gateway
would then check, process and forward information back down the path it came.

11.2 Astronomical Challenges

An interplanetary Internet will make data move drastically faster between Earth and the
probes and other spacecraft that are millions of miles away. Engineers need to overcome
several challenges before we plan our virtual journey to Mars through cyberspace. These
challenges are:
• The speed-of-light delay.
• Satellite maintenance.
• The possibility of hacker break-ins.

On Earth, two computers connected to the Internet are only a few thousand miles
away at the most. Because light travels at 186,000 miles per second, it takes only a few
fractions of a second to send a packet of data from one computer to another. In contrast,

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 34

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

distances between a station on Earth and one on Mars can be between 38 million miles
(56 million km) and 248 million miles (400 million km). At these distances, it can take
several minutes or hours for a radio signal to reach a receiving station. An interplanetary
Internet will not be able to duplicate the real-time immediacy of the Internet that you use.
The store-and-forward method will allow information to be sent in bundles and overcome
the concern of data being lost due to delays.

The satellites of the Mars Network will be tens or hundreds of millions of miles
from Earth and that means that it will be hard to get up there to fix things when they go
wrong. The components of these satellites would have to be much more reliable than
those circling Earth.

Hackers pose the biggest threat to an interplanetary Internet. Break-ins and

corruption of navigation or communication systems could be disastrous for space
missions, and even cause deaths in manned-spacecraft missions. Developers are taking
every precaution to design a system that will be able to control access. The protocol
selected will have to be impenetrable to hackers, something that has not been possible on
Earth. Developers may look at the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol used for
financial transactions as a model for securing the interplanetary Internet.
The interplanetary Internet will possibly wire us to Mars within the decade and to other
planets in the decades to follow. It will no longer be necessary to go into space to
experience space travel. Instead, space will be brought right to your desktop. With
enhancements made to boost data rate transfers, you and I might soon be able to take a
virtual space trip to the mountains of Mars, the rings of Saturn or the giant spot on
Jupiter.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 35

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

CONCLUSION

Since all these spacecraft are controlled by the DSN. There are a number of limitations to
the current DSN, and a number of challenges going forward.

There is only one DSN site in the Southern Hemisphere, Canberra. There are no
DSN network dishes in South America or Southern Africa, so the DSN coverage of the
Southern Hemisphere is limited. The need to support "legacy" missions that have
remained operational beyond their original lifetimes but are still returning scientific data.
Programs such as Voyager have been operating long past their original mission
termination date. They also need some of the largest antennas.

The DSN's deferred maintenance of its 70m antennas. This causes problems
where they are out of service for months at a time. Furthermore, they are reaching the end
of their lives. At some point they will need to be replaced. The leading candidate is an
array of smaller dishes. By 2020, the DSN will be required to support twice the number
of missions it was supporting in 2005.

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 36

 DEE
P SPACE COMMUNICATION

Bibliography

[1] Xiao Song, Li Yunsong, Bai Baoming, ZhouYouxi, “The Key Technologies of Deep
Communications” ISN National Key Lab, Xidian University, China 2006.

[2] Forest Fisher, Russell Knight, Barbara Engelhardt, Steve Chien,Niko Alejandr
Monitor and Control of Deep Space Communications through AI Planning.” Jet
Propulsion Laboratory.

[3] How Spacecraft Will Communicate “on the Fly”, NASA CICT Program Office Ames
Research Center. http://www.cict.nasa.gov/infusion.

[4] William J. Hurd, Polly Estabrook, Caroline S. Racho, Edgar H. Satorius , “Critical
Spacecraft-to-Earth Communications for Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Entry, Descent
and Landing” Jet Propulsion Laboratory ,4800 Oak Grove Drive ,Pasadena, California.

[5] "NASA Tests First Deep-Space Internet." PHYSorg.com. 18 Nov 2008.

http://www.physorg.com/news146245446.html

[6] http://deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/

[7] http://www.space.com/searchforlife/

[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_spaceflight

DEPT of IT, GSSSIETW, Mysore Page 37