Experienced-Based Rules of Chemical Engineering

Your about to read an award winning article. This article won the 2000 Beychok-M
ontemayor Award here at The Chemical Engineers' Resource Page!
Updated Fall of 2002 (New Additions in Blue)

Experience is typically what turns a good engineer into a great engineer. An eng
ineer that can look at a pipe and a flowmeter and guess the pressure drop within
5%. Someone who can at least estimate the size of a vessel without doing any ca
lculations. When I think of such rules, two authors come to my mind, Walas and B
ranan. Dr. Walas' book, Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design has bee
n widely used in the process industry and in chemical engineering education for
years. Mr. Branan has either helped write or edit numerous books concerning this
topic. Perhaps his most popular is Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers. Here,
I'll share some of these rules with you along with some of my own. Now, be awar
e that these rules are for estimation and are not necessary meant to replace rig
orous calculations when such calculations should be performed. But at many stage
s of analysis and design, these rules can save you hours and hours. As always, i
f you have some shortcuts that you'd like to add to the list, email them to me a
nd I'll add them on. You can also download this page as an Excel 97 file here (u
pdated).
Physical Properties

Property Units Water Organic Liquids Steam Air Organic Vapors

Heat Capacity KJ/kg 0C 4.2 1.0-2.5 2.0 1.0 2.0-4.0
Btu/lb 0F 1.0 0.239-0.598 0.479 0.239 0.479-0.958
Density kg/m3 1000 700-1500 1.29@STP
lb/ft3 62.29 43.6-94.4 0.08@STP
Latent Heat KJ/kg 1200-2100 200-1000
Btu/lb 516-903 86-430
Thermal Cond. W/m 0C 0.55-0.70 0.10-0.20 0.025-0.070 0.025-0.
05 0.02-0.06
Btu/h ft 0F 0.32-0.40 0.057-0.116 0.0144-0.040 0.014-0.
029 0.116-0.35
Viscosity cP 1.8 @ 0 0C **See Below 0.01-0.03 0.02-0.0
5 0.01-0.03
0.57 @ 50 0C
0.28 @ 100 0C
0.14 @ 200 0C
Prandtl Number 1-15 10-1000 1.0 0.7 0.7-0.8

** Viscosities of organic liquids vary widely with temperature

Liquid density varies with temperature by:

Gas density can be calculated by:

Boiling Point of Water as a Function of Pressure:

Tbp (°C) = (Pressure (MPa) x (1x109))0.25
Materials of Construction

Material Advantage Disadvantage

Carbon Steel Low cost, easy to fabricate, abundant, most common material. Res
ists most alkaline environments well. Very poor resistance to acids and strong
er alkaline streams. More brittle than other materials, especially at low temper
atures.
Stainless Steel Relatively low cost, still easy to fabricate. Resist a wider var
iety of environments than carbon steel. Available is many different types.
No resistance to chlorides, and resistance decreases significantly at higher tem
peratures.
254 SMO (Avesta) Moderate cost, still easy to fabricate. Resistance is be
tter over a wider range of concentrations and temperatures compared to stainless
steel. Little resistance to chlorides, and resistance at higher temperatures co
uld be improved.
Titanium Very good resistance to chlorides (widely used in seawater appli
cations). Strength allows it to be fabricated at smaller thicknesses. While th
e material is moderately expensive, fabrication is difficult. Much of cost will
be in welding labor.
Pd stabilized Titanium Superior resistance to chlorides, even at higher tempera
tures. Is often used on sea water application where Titanium's resistance may no
t be acceptable. Very expensive material and fabrication is again difficu
lt and expensive.
Nickel Very good resistance to high temperature caustic streams. Moderate
to high expense. Difficult to weld.
Hastelloy Alloy Very wide range to choose from. Some have been specifically deve
loped for acid services where other materials have failed. Fairly expensive
alloys. Their use must be justified. Most are easy to weld.
Graphite One of the few materials capable of withstanding weak HCl stream
s. Brittle, very expensive, and very difficult to fabricate. Some stream co
mponents have been know to diffusion through some types of graphites.
Tantalum Superior resistance to very harsh services where no other materi
al is acceptable. Extremely expensive, must be absolutely necessary.

Cooling Towers
A. With industrial cooling towers, cooling to 90% of the ambient air satura
tion level is possible.
B. Relative tower size is dependent on the water temperature approach to th
e wet bulb temperature:
Twater-Twb
Relative Size
5 2.4
15 1.0
25 0.55
C. Water circulation rates are generally 2-4 GPM/sq. ft (81-162 L/min m2) a
nd air velocities are usually 5-7 ft/s (1.5-2.0 m/s)
D. Countercurrent induced draft towers are the most common. These towers ar
e capable of cooling to within 2 °F (1.1 °C) of the wet bulb temperature. A 5-10 °F (2
.8-5.5 °C) approach is more common.
E. Evaporation losses are about 1% by mass of the circulation rate for ever
y 10 °F (5.5 °C) of cooling. Drift losses are around 0.25% of the circulation rate.
A blowdown of about 3% of the circulation rate is needed to prevent salt and che
mical treatment buildup.
Conveyors
A. Pneumatic conveyors are best suited for high capacity applications over
distances of up to about 400 ft. Pneumatic conveying is also appropriate for mul
tiple sources and destinations. Vacuum or low pressure (6-12 psig or 0.4 to 0.8
bar) is used for generate air velocities from 35 to 120 ft/s (10.7-36.6 m/s). Ai
r requirements are usually in the range of 1 to 7 cubic feet of air per cubic fo
ot of solids (0.03 to 0.5 cubic meters of air per cubic meter of solids).
B. Drag-type conveyors (Redler) are completed enclosed and suited to short
distances. Sizes range from 3 to 19 inches square (75 to 480 mm). Travel velocit
ies can be from 30 to 250 ft/min (10 to 75 meters/min). The power requirements f
or these conveyors is higher than other types.
C. Bucket elevators are generally used for the vertical transport of sticky
or abrasive materials. With a bucket measuring 20 in x 20 in (500 mm x 500 mm),
capacities of 1000 cubic feet/hr (28 cubic meters/hr) can be reached at speeds
of 100 ft/min (30 m/min). Speeds up to 300 ft/min (90 m/min) are possible.
D. Belt conveyors can be used for high capacity and long distance transport
s. Inclines up to 30° are possible. A 24 in (635 mm) belt can transport 3000 cu. f
t./h (85 cu m/h) at speeds of 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min). Speeds can be as high as
600 ft/min (183 m/min). Power consumption is relatively low.
E. Screw conveyors can be used for sticky or abrasive solids for transports
up to 150 ft (46 m). Inclines can be up to about 20°. A 12 in (305 mm) diameter s
crew conveyor can transport 1000-3000 cu. ft./h (28-85 cu. m/h) at around 40-60
rpm.
Crystallization
A. During most crystallizations, C/Csat (concentration/saturated concentrat
ion) is kept near 1.02 to 1.05
B. Crystal growth rates and crystal sizes are controlled by limiting the de
gree of supersaturation.
C. During crystallization by cooling, the temperature of the solution is ke
pt 1-2 °F (0.5-1.2 °C) below the saturation point at the given concentration.
D. A generally acceptable crystal growth rate is 0.10 - 0.80 mm/h
Drivers and Power Recovery
A. Efficiencies: 85-95% for motors, 40-75% for steam turbines, 28-38% for g
as engines and turbines.
B. Electric motors are nearly always used for under 100 HP (75 kW). They ar
e available up to 20,000 HP (14,915 kW).
C. Induction motors are most popular. Synchronous motors have speeds as low
as 150 rpm at ratings above 50 HP (37.3 kW) only. Synchronous motors are good f
or low speed reciprocating compressors.
D. Steam turbines are seldom used below 100 HP (75 kW). Their speeds can be
controlled and they make good spares for motors in case of a power failure.
E. Gas expanders may be justified for recovering several hundred horsepower
. At lower recoveries, pressure let down will most likely be through a throttlin
g valve.
Drying of Solids
A. Spray dryer have drying times of a few seconds. Rotary dryers have dryin
g times ranging from a few minutes to up to an hour.
B. Continuous tray and belt dryers have drying times of 10-200 minutes for
granular materials or 3-15 mm pellets.
C. Drum dryers used for highly viscous fluids use contact times of 3-12 sec
onds and produce flakes 1-3 mm thick. Diameters are generally 1.5-5 ft (0.5 - 1.
5 m). Rotation speeds are 2-10 rpm and the maximum evaporation capacity is aroun
d 3000 lb/h (1363 kg/h).
D. Rotary cylindrical dryers operate with air velocities of 5-10 ft/s (1.5-
3 m/s), up to 35 ft/s (10.5 m/s). Residence times range from 5-90 min. For initi
al design purposes, an 85% free cross sectional area is used. Countercurrent des
ign should yield an exit gas temperature that is 18-35 °F (10-20 °C) above the solid
s temperature. Parallel flow should yield an exiting solids temperature of 212 °F
(100 °C). Rotation speeds of 4-5 rpm are common. The product of rpm and diameter (
in feet) should be 15-25.
E. Pneumatic conveying dryers are appropriate for particles 1-3 mm in diame
ter and in some cases up to 10 mm. Air velocities are usually 33-100 ft/s (10-30
m/s). Single pass residence time is typically near one minute. Size range from
0.6-1.0 ft (0.2-0.3 m) in diameter by 3.3-125 ft (1-38 m) in length.
F. Fluidized bed dryers work well with particles up to 4.0 mm in diameter.
Designing for a gas velocity that is 1.7-2 times the minimum fluidization veloci
ty is good practice. Normally, drying times of 1-2 minutes are sufficient in con
tinuous operation.
Drum Type Vessels
A. Liquid drums are usually horizontal. Gas/Liquid separators are usually v
ertical
B. Optimum Length/Diameter ratio is usually 3, range is 2.5 to 5
C. Holdup time is 5 minutes for half full reflux drums and gas/liquid separ
ators. Design for a 5-10 minute holdup for drums feeding another column
D. For drums feeding a furnace, a holdup of 30 minutes is a good estimate
E. Knockout drum in front of compressors should be designed for a holdup of
10 times the liquid volume passing per minute.
F. Liquid/Liquid separators should be designed for settling velocities of 2
-3 inches/min
G. Gas velocities in gas/liquid separators, velocity = k (liquid density/(v
apor density-1))^0.5, where k is 0.35 with horizontal mesh deentrainers and 0.16
7 with vertical mesh deentrainers. k is 0.1 without mesh deentrainers and veloci
ty is in ft/s
H. A six inch mesh pad thickness is very popular for such vessels
I. For positive pressure separations, disengagement spaces of 6-18 inches b
efore the mesh pad and 12 inches after the pad are generally suitable.
Electric Motors and Turbines
A. Efficiencies range from 85-95% for electric motors, 42-78% for steam tur
bines, 28-38% for gas engines and turbines
B. For services under 75 kW (100 hp), electric motors are almost always use
d.
C. Turbines can be justified in services where they will yield several hund
red horsepowers. Otherwise, throttle valves are used to release pressure.
D. A quick estimate of the energy available to a turbine is given by:

where: Delta H = Actual available energy, Btu/lb

Cp = Heat Capacity at constant pressure, Btu/lb 0F
T1 = Inlet temperature, 0R
P1 = Inlet pressure, psia
P2 = Outlet pressure, psia
K = Cp/Cv
Evaporation
A. Most popular types are long tube vertical with natural or forced circula
tion. Tubes range from 3/4" to 2.5" (19-63 mm) in diameter and 12-30 ft (3.6-9.1
m) in length.
B. Forced circulation tube velocities are generally in the 15-20 ft/s (4.5-
6 m/s) range.
C. Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) as a result of having dissolved solids mus
t be accounted for in the differences between the solution temperature and the t
emperature of the saturated vapor.
D. BPE's greater than 7 °F (3.9 °C) usually result in 4-6 effects in series (fe
ed-forward) as an economical solution. With smaller BPE's, more effects in serie
s are typically more economical, depending on the cost of steam.
E. Reverse feed results in the more concentrated solution being heated with
 the hottest steam to minimize surface area. However, the solution must be pumpe
d from one stage to the next.
F. Interstage steam pressures can be increased with ejectors (20-30% effici
ent) or mechanical compressors (70-75% efficient).
Filtration
A. Initially, processes are classified according to their cake buildup in a
laboratory vacuum leaf filter0.10 - 10.0 cm/s (rapid), 0.10-10.0 cm/min (medium
), 0.10-10.0 cm/h (slow)
B. Continuous filtration methods should not be used if 0.35 sm of cake cann
ot be formed in less than 5 minutes.
C. Belts, top feed drums, and pusher-type centrifuges are best for rapid fi
ltering.
D. Vacuum drums and disk or peeler-type centrifuges are best for medium fil
tering.
E. Pressure filters or sedimenting centrifuges are best for slow filtering.
F. Cartridges, precoat drums, and sand filters can be used for clarificatio
n duties with negligible buildup.
G. Finely ground mineral ores can utilize rotary drum rates of 1500 lb/dat
ft2 (7335 kg/day m2) at 20 rev/h and 18-25 in Hg (457-635 mm Hg) vacuum.
H. Course solids and crystals can be filtered at rates of 6000 lb/day ft2 (
29,340 kg/day m2) at 20 rev/h and 2-6 in Hg (51-152 mm Hg) vacuum.
Mixing and Agitation
A. Mild agitation results from superficial fluid velocities of 0.10-0.20 ft
/s (0.03-0.06 m/s). Intense agitation results from velocities of 0.70-1.0 ft/s (
0.21-0.30 m/s).
B. For baffled tanks, agitation intensity is measured by power input and im
peller tip speeds:

Power Requirements Tip Speeds

HP/1000 gal kW/m3 ft/s m/s
Blending 0.2-0.5 0.033-0.082 ----- ----
Homogeneous Reaction 0.5-1.5 0.082-0.247 7.5-10.0 2.29-3.05
Reaction w/ Heat Transfer 1.5-5.0 0.247-0.824 10.0-15.0 3.05-4.5
7
Liquid-Liquid Mixtures 5.0 0.824 15.0-20.0 4.57-6.09
Liquid-Gas Mixtures 5.0-10.0 0.824-1.647 15.0-20.0 4.57-6.0
9
Slurries 10.0 1.647 ----- ----
C. Various geometries of an agitated tank relative to diameter (D) of the v
essel include:
Liquid Level = D
Turbine Impeller Diameter = D/3
Impeller Level Above Bottom = D/3
Impeller Blade Width = D/15
Four Vertical Baffle Width = D/10
D. For settling velocities around 0.03 ft/s, solids suspension can be accom
plished with turbine or propeller impellers. For settling velocities above 0.15
ft/s, intense propeller agitation is needed.
E. Power to mix a fluid of gas and liquid can be 25-50% less than the power
to mix the liquid alone.
Pressure and Storage Vessels
Pressure Vessels
A. Design Temperatures between -30 and 345 °C (-22 to 653 °F) is typically abou
t 25 °C (77 °F) above maximum operating temperature, margins increase above this ran
ge
B. Design pressure is 10% or 0.69 to 1.7 bar (10 to 25 psi) above the maxim
um operating pressure, whichever is greater. The maximum operating pressure is t
aken as 1.7 bar (25 psi) above the normal operation pressure.
C. For vacuum operations, design pressures are 1 barg (15 psig) to full vac
uum
D. Minimum thicknesses for maintaining tank structure are:
6.4 mm (0.25 in) for 1.07 m (42 in) diameter and under
8.1 mm (0.32 in) for 1.07-1.52 m (42-60 in) diameter
9.7 mm (0.38 in) for diameters over 1.52 m (60 in)
E. Allowable working stresses are taken as 1/4 of the ultimate strength of
the material
F. Maximum allowable working stresses:
Temperature -20 to 650 °F 750 °F 850 °F 1000 °F
-30 to 345 °C 400 °C 455 °C 540 °C
CS SA203 18759 psi 15650 psi 9950 psi 2500 psi
1290 bar 1070 bar 686 bar 273 bar
302 SS 18750 psi 18750 psi 15950 psi 6250 psi
1290 bar 1290 bar 1100 bar 431 bar
G. Thickness based on pressure and radius is given by:

where pressure is in psig, radius in inches, stress in psi, corrosion allowance

in inches.
**Weld Efficiency can usually be taken as 0.85 for initial design work
H. Guidelines for corrosion allowances are as follows: 0.35 in (9 mm) for k
nown corrosive fluids, 0.15 in (4 mm) for non-corrosive fluids, and 0.06 in (1.5
mm) for steam drums and air receivers.
Storage Vessels
I. For less than 3.8 m3 (1000 gallons) use vertical tanks on legs
J. Between 3.8 m3 and 38 m3 (1000 to 10,000 gallons) use horizontal tanks o
n concrete supports
K. Beyond 38 m3 (10,000 gallons) use vertical tanks on concrete pads
L. Liquids with low vapor pressures, use tanks with floating roofs.
M. Raw material feed tanks are often specified for 30 days feed supplies, F
or example, 28.4 m3 (7500 gallon) tanker truck, 130 m3 (34,500 gallon) rail cars
Piping
A. Liquid lines should be sized for a velocity of (5+D/3) ft/s and a pressu
re drop of 2.0 psi/100 ft of pipe at pump discharges At the pump suction, size f
or (1.3+D/6) ft/s and a pressure drop of 0.4 psi/100 ft of pipe
**D is pipe diameter in inches
B. Steam or gas lines can be sized for 20D ft/s and pressure drops of 0.5 p
si/100 ft of pipe
C. Limits on superheated, dry steam or gas line should be 61 m/s (200 ft/s)
and a pressure drop of 0.1 bar/100 m or 0.5 psi/100 ft of pipe. Saturated steam
lines should be limited to 37 m/s (120 ft/s) to avoid erosion
D. For turbulent flow in commercial steel pipes, use the following:

E. For two phase flow, an estimate often used is Lockhart and Martinelli:
F. Control valves require at least 0.69 bar (10 psi) pressure drop for suff
icient control
G. Flange ratings include 10, 20, 40, 103, and 175 bar (150, 300, 600, 1500
, and 2500 psig)
H. Globe valves are most commonly used for gases and when tight shutoff is
required. Gate valves are common for most other services.
I. Screwed fitting are generally used for line sizes 2 inches and smaller.
Larger connections should utilize flanges or welding to eliminate leakage.
J. Pipe Schedule Number = 1000P/S (approximate) where P is the internal pre
ssure rating in psig and S is the allowable working stress of the material is ps
i. Schedule 40 is the most common.
Pumps
A. Power estimates for pumping liquids:

kW=(1.67)[Flow (m3/min)][Pressure drop (bar)]/Efficiency

hp=[Flow (gpm)][Pressure drop (psi)]/1714 (Efficiency)
**Efficiency expressed as a fraction in these relations
B. NPSH=(pressure at impeller eye-vapor pressure)/(density*gravitational co
nstant)
C. An equation developed for efficiency based on the GPSA Engineering Data
Book is:
Eff. = 80-0.2855F+.000378FG-.000000238FG^2+.000539F^2-.000000639(F^2)G+.00000000
04(F^2)(G^2)
where Efficiency is in fraction form, F is developed head in feet, G is flow in
GPM Error documented at 3.5%
D. Centrifugal pumps: Single stage for 0.057-18.9 m3/min (15-5000 GPM), 152
m (500 ft)
maximum head; For flow of 0.076-41.6 m3/min (20-11,000 GPM) use multistage, 16
75 m (5500 ft)
maximum head; Efficiencies of 45% at 0.378 m3/min (100 GPM), 70% at 1.89 m3/min
(500 GPM), 80% at 37.8 m3/min (10,000 GPM).
E. Axial pumps can be used for flows of 0.076-378 m3/min (20-100,000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 12 m (40 ft) and efficiencies of about 65-85%
F. Rotary pumps can be used for flows of 0.00378-18.9 m3/min (1-5000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 15,200 m (50,000 ft) and efficiencies of about 50-80%
G. Reciporating pumps can be used for 0.0378-37.8 m3/min (10-100,000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 300,000 m (1,000,000 ft).
Efficiencies: 70% at 7.46 kW (10 hp), 85% at 37.3 kW (50 hp), and 90% at 373 kW
(500 hp)
Compressors and Vacuum Equipment
A. The following chart is used to determine what type of compressor is to b
e used:

B. Fans should be used to raise pressure about 3% (12 in water), blowers to

raise to less than 2.75 barg (40 psig), and compressors to higher pressures.
C. The theoretical reversible adiabatic power is estimated by:
Power = m z1 R T1 [({P2 / P1}a - 1)] / a
where:
T1 is the inlet temperature, R is the gas constant, z1 is the compressibility, m
is the molar flow rate,
a = (k-1)/k , and k = Cp/Cv
D. The outlet for the adiabatic reversible flow, T2 = T1 (P2 / P1)a
E. Exit temperatures should not exceed 204 0C (400 0F).
F. For diatomic gases (Cp/Cv = 1.4) this corresponds to a compression ratio
of about 4
G. Compression ratios should be about the same in each stage for a multista
ge unit, the ratio = (Pn / P1) 1/n, with n stages.
H. Efficiencies for reciprocating compressors are as follows:
65% at compression ratios of 1.5
75% at compression ratios of 2.0
80-85% at compression ratios between 3 and 6
I. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors handling 2.8 to 47 m3/s (6
000-100,000 acfm) at suction is about 76-78%
J. Reciprocating piston vacuum pumps are generally capable of vacuum to 1 t
orr absolute, rotary piston types can achieve vacuums of 0.001 torr.
K. Single stage jet ejectors are capable of vacuums to 100 torr absolute, t
wo stage to 10 torr, three stage to 1 torr, and five stage to 0.05 torr.
L. A three stage ejector requires about 100 lb steam/lb air to maintain a p
ressure of 1 torr.
M. Air leakage into vacuum equipment can be approximated as follows:
Leakage = k V(2/3)
where k =0.20 for P >90 torr, 0.08 for 3 < P < 20 torr, and 0.025 for P < 1 torr
V = equipment volume in cubic feet
Leakage = air leakage into equipment in lb/h
Heat Exchangers
A. For the heat exchanger equation, Q = UAF (LMTD), use F = 0.9 when charts
for the LMTD correction factor are not available.
B. Most commonly used tubes are 3/4 in. (1.9 cm) in outer diameter on a 1 i
n triangular spacing at 16 ft (4.9 m) long.
C. A 1 ft (30 cm) shell will contains about 100 ft2 (9.3 m2)
A 2 ft (60 cm) shell will contain about 400 ft2 (37.2 m2)
A 3 ft (90 cm) shell will contain about 1100 ft2 (102 m2)
D. Typical velocities in the tubes should be 3-10 ft/s (1-3 m/s) for liquid
s and30-100 ft/s (9-30 m/s) for gases
E. Flows that are corrosive, fouling, scaling, or under high pressure are u
sually placed in the tubes
F. Viscous and condensing fluids are typically placed on the shell side.
G. Pressure drops are about 1.5 psi (0.1 bar) for vaporization and 3-10 psi
(0.2-0.68 bar) for other services
H. The minimum approach temperature for shell and tube exchangers is about
20 °F (10 °C) for fluids and 10 °F (5 °C) for refrigerants.
I. Cooling tower water is typically available at a maximum temperature of 9
0 °F (30 °C) and should be returned to the tower no higher than 115 °F (45 °C)
J. Double pipe heat exchangers may be a good choice for areas from 100 to 2
00 ft2 (9.3-18.6 m2)
K. Spiral heat exchangers are often used to slurry interchangers and other
services containing solids
L. Plate heat exchanger with gaskets can be used up to 320 °F (160 °C) and are
often used for interchanging duties due to their high efficiencies and ability t
o "cross" temperatures.
Tray Towers
A. For ideal mixtures, relative volatility can be taken as the ratio of pur
e component vapor pressures
B. Tower operating pressure is most often determined by the cooling medium
in condenser or the maximum allowable reboiler temperature to avoid degradation
of the process fluid
C. For sequencing columns:
1. Perform the easiest separation first (least trays and lowest reflux)
2. If relative volatility nor feed composition vary widely, take products o
ff one at time
3. If the relative volatility of components do vary significantly, remove p
roducts in order of decreasing volatility
4. If the concentrations of the feed vary significantly but the relative vo
latility do not, remove products in order of decreasing concentration.
D. The most economic reflux ratio usually is between 1.2Rmin and 1.5Rmin
E. The most economic number of trays is usually about twice the minimum num
ber of trays.
The minimum number of trays is determined with the Fenske-Underwood Equation.
F. Typically, 10% more trays than are calculated are specified for a tower.
G. Tray spacings should be from 18 to 24 inches, with accessibility in mind
H. H. Peak tray efficiencies usually occur at linear vapor velocities of 2
ft/s (0.6 m/s) at moderate pressures, or 6 ft/s (1.8 m/s) under vacuum condition
s.
I. A typical pressure drop per tray is 0.1 psi (0.007 bar)
J. Tray efficiencies for aqueous solutions are usually in the range of 60-9
0% while gas absorption and stripping typically have efficiencies closer to 10-2
0%
K. The three most common types of trays are valve, sieve, and bubble cap. B
ubble cap trays are typically used when low-turn down is expected or a lower pre
ssure drop than the valve or sieve trays can provide is necessary.
L. Seive tray holes are 0.25 to 0.50 in. diameter with the total hole area
being about 10% of the total
active tray area.
M. Valve trays typically have 1.5 in. diameter holes each with a lifting ca
p. 12-14 caps/square foot
of tray is a good benchmark. Valve trays usually cost less than seive trays.
N. The most common weir heights are 2 and 3 in and the weir length is typic
ally 75% of the tray diameter
O. Reflux pumps should be at least 25% overdesigned
P. The optimum Kremser absorption factor is usually in the range of 1.25 to
2.00
Q. Reflux drums are almost always horizontally mounted and designed for a 5
min holdup at half of the drum's capacity.
R. For towers that are at least 3 ft (0.9 m) is diameter, 4 ft (1.2 m) shou
ld be added to the top for vapor release and 6 ft (1.8 m) should be added to the
bottom to account for the liquid level and reboiler return
S. Limit tower heights to 175 ft (53 m) due to wind load and foundation con
siderations.
T. The Length/Diameter ratio of a tower should be no more than 30 and prefe
rrably below 20
U. A rough estimate of reboiler duty as a function of tower diameter is giv
en by:
Q = 0.5 D2 for pressure distillation
Q = 0.3 D2 for atmospheric distillation
Q = 0.15 D2 for vacuum distillation
where Q is in Million Btu/hr and D is tower diameter in feet
Packed Towers
A. Packed towers almost always have lower pressure drop than comparable tra
y towers.
B. Packing is often retrofitted into existing tray towers to increase capac
ity or separation.
C. For gas flowrates of 500 ft3/min (14.2 m3/min) use 1 in (2.5 cm) packing
, for gas flows of 2000 ft3/min (56.6 m3/min) or more, use 2 in (5 cm) packing
D. Ratio of tower diameter to packing diameter should usually be at least 1
5
E. Due to the possibility of deformation, plastic packing should be limited
to an unsupported depth of 10-15 ft (3-4 m) while metallatic packing can withst
and 20-25 ft (6-7.6 m)
F. Liquid distributor should be placed every 5-10 tower diameters (along th
e length) for pall rings and every 20 ft (6.5 m) for other types of random packi
ngs
G. For redistribution, there should be 8-12 streams per sq. foot of tower a
rea for tower larger than
three feet in diameter. They should be even more numerous in smaller towers.
H. Packed columns should operate near 70% flooding.
I. Height Equivalent to Theoretical Stage (HETS) for vapor-liquid contactin
g is 1.3-1.8 ft (0.4-0.56 m) for 1 in pall rings and 2.5-3.0 ft (0.76-0.90 m) fo
r 2 in pall rings
J. Design pressure drops should be as follows:
Service Pressure drop (in water/ft packing)
Absorbers and Regenerators
Non-Foaming Systems 0.25 - 0.40
Moderate Foaming Systems 0.15 - 0.25
Fume Scrubbers
Water Absorbent 0.40 - 0.60
Chemical Absorbent 0.25 - 0.40
Atmospheric or Pressure Distillation 0.40 - 0.80
Vacuum Distillation 0.15 - 0.40
Maximum for Any System 1.0
Reactors
A. The rate of reaction must be established in the laboratory and the resid
ence time or space velocity will eventually have to be determined in a pilot pla
nt.
B. Catalyst particle sizes: 0.10 mm for fluidized beds, 1 mm in slurry beds
, and 2-5 mm in fixed beds.
C. For homogeneous stirred tank reactions, the agitor power input should be
about 0.5-1.5 hp/1000 gal (0.1-0.3 kW/m3), however, if heat is to be transferre
d, the agitation should be about three times these amounts.
D. Ideal CSTR behavior is usually reached when the mean residence time is 5
-10 times the length needed to achieve homogeneity. Homogeneity is typically rea
ched with 500-2000 revolutions of a properly designed stirrer.
E. Relatively slow reactions between liquids or slurries are usually conduc
ted most economically in a battery of 3-5 CSTR's in series.
F. Tubular flow reactors are typically used for high productions rates and
when the residence times are short. Tubular reactors are also a good choice when
significant heat transfer to or from the reactor is necessary.
G. For conversion under 95% of equilibrium, the reaction performance of a 5
stages CSTR approaches that of a plug flow reactor.
H. Typically the chemical reaction rate will double for a 18 °F (10 °C) increas
e in temperature.
I. The reaction rate in a heterogeneous reaction is often controlled more b
y the rate of heat or mass transfer than by chemical kinetics.
J. Sometimes, catalysts usefulness is in improving selectivity rather than
increasing the rate of the reaction.
Refrigeration and Utilities
A. A ton of refrigeration equals the removal of 12,000 Btu/h (12,700 kJ/h)
of heat
B. For various refrigeration temperatures, the following are common refrige
rants:
Temp (°F) Temp (°C) Refrigerant
0 to 50 -18 to -10 Chilled brine or glycol
-50 to -40 -45 to -10 Ammonia, freon, butane
-150 to -50 -100 to -45 Ethane, propane
C. Cooling tower water is received from the tower between 80-90 °F (27-32 °C) a
nd should be returned between 115-125 °F (45-52 °C) depending on the size of the tow
er. Seawater should be return no higher than 110 °F (43 °C)
D. Heat transfer fluids used: petroleum oils below 600 °F (315 °C), Dowtherms o
r other synthetics below 750 °F (400 °C), molten salts below 1100 °F (600 °C)
E. Common compressed air pressures are: 45, 150, 300, and 450 psig
F. Instrument air is generally delivered around 45 psig with a dewpoint 30 °F
below the coldest expected ambient temperature.

Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients

Refining Applications
________________________________________
Alkylation
Amine Treating
Catalytic Cracking
Crude Distillation
Hydrodesulfurization
Light Ends Processing
Lube & Wax Processing
Naphtha Hydrotreating & Reforming
Thermal Cracking
________________________________________
Alkylation
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Debutanizer Condenser 75 90
Debutanizer Reboiler (STM) 85 100
Deisobutanizer Feed Preheater (STM) 75 100
Deisobutanizer Condenser 80 90
Deisobutanizer Reboiler (STM) 90 100
Depropanizer Feed Preheater (STM) 90 100
Depropanizer Condenser 90 100
Depropanizer Reboiler (STM) 75 95
Depropanizer Feed/Btms Exchanger 60 80
Olefin Feed Chiller 70 80
Refrigeration Condenser 90 100
Rerun Tower Preheater (STM) 60 80
Rerun Tower Condenser 65 80
Rerun Tower Reboiler (STM) 80 100
Rerun Tower Bottoms Cooler 50 70

________________________________________
Amine Treating
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Rich/Lean Amine Exchanger 75 90
Regenerator Condenser 70 90
Regenerator Reboiler (STM) 100 120
Lean Amine Cooler 80 90

Catalytic Cracking
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Naphtha Cooler 55 65
Feed / DFO 35 45
DFO Cooler 45 55
DFO Cooler (300-400 °F) 80 100
Gas Oil / DFO 40 50
Gas Oil / Quench 35 50
Gas Oil / Tar 30 40
Quench or STB / Feed 35 45
Quench / BFW 60 80
Quench or STB Cooler 30 50
Quench and/or STB Cooler (300-400 °F) 50 70
Quench Steam Gen. 70 90
Reduced Crude / Quench 35 45
Reduced Crude / Tar Sep. Btms. 30 40
SYN Tower Condenser 30 40

Crude Distillation
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Crude / Heavy Gas Oil 40 50
Crude / Kerosene 35 45
Crude / Light Gas Oil 40 50
Crude / Naphtha 40 50
Crude / Reduced Crude 25 35
Crude / Vac. Tar 25 30
Heavy Gas Oil Cooler 50 50
Heavy Gas Oil Steam Gen. 100 120
Kerosene Cooler 55 65
Light Gas Oil Cooler 45 55
Lube Dist. / Crude 40 50
Naphtha Cooler 60 70
Reduced Crude / Gas Oil 35 45
Reduced Crude / Naphtha 40 50
Reduced Crude Cooler 20 30
Tower Overhead / Crude 30 40
Tower Condenser 45 55
Vac. Tar / Steam Gen. 45 55
Vac. Tar Cooler (box) 10 20

Hydrodesulfurization
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Charge / Reactor Effluent 60 70
Charge / Gas Oil Product 55 65
Charge / HTS Off Gas 50 60
HTS Off Gas / Water Condenser 75 85
Stripper Feed / Gas Oil Product 55 65
Stripper Bottoms Cooler 65 75
Stripper Condenser 55 65
Total Gas / Gas Oil Product 55 65

Light Ends Processing

Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Absorber Intercooler 60 70
Compressor Contactor Cooler 75 90
Deethanizer Condenser 80 100
Deethanizer Reboiler 80 100
Debutanizer Feed / Btms 60 70
Debutanizer Feed Preheater (STM) 80 100
Debutanizer Condenser 75 90
Debutanizer Condenser Aftercooler 40 50
Debutanizer Reboiler (STM) 80 100
Depropanizer Feed / Btms 70 90
Depropanizer Condenser 90 100
Depropanizer Reboiler (Hot Oil) 55 65
Depropanizer Reboiler (STM) 80 100
Fractionating Abs. Reboiler 75 90
Gasoline Cooler 70 80
Lean Oil / Rich Oil Exchanger 45 55
Lean Oil Cooler 60 70
Propane and/or Butane Cooler 75 85
Stabilizer Btms. / Feed 65 75
Stabilizer Condenser 70 90
Stabilizer Reboiler 75 100

Lube & Wax Processing

Extraction Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Solvent Vapor / Extract Mix (75% Solvent) 225
Treating Tower Intercooler 60 100
Solvent / Charge Oil 20 40
Solvent Water Cooler 90
Raffinate Oil / Raffinate Oil Mix 20 60
Raffinate Oil / Water Cooler 25 60
Solvent / Raffinate Oil Mix 30
Raffinate Oil Mix / Steam 35
Raffinate Oil Mix / Steam Evaporator (80% Solvent) 90
Raffinate Oil Mix / Steam Evaporator (45% Solvent) 70
Raffinate Oil Mix / Steam Evaporator (13% Solvent) 40
Atmospheric Solvent Vapors / Extract Mix 60
Extract / Water Cooler (Submerged Coil) 10 15
Dry Solvent Vapor (Vacuum) / Water Condenser (+Subcooling) 60
CBM / Water Condenser (Subcooling to 150°F) 120
Vacuum Pump Aftercooler 10
Steam / Steam Superheater 15
Extract Mix / Steam Evaporator (80% Solvent) 90
Extract Mix / Steam Evaporator (45% Solvent) 70
Extract Mix / Steam Evaporator (13% Solv ent) 40
Extract Mix / Solvent Vapor (80% Solvent) 90 115
Extract Mix / Solvent Vapor (45% Solvent) 55
Extract Mix / Solvent Vapor (13% Solvent) 35
Wet Solvent Vapor (Vacuum) / Water Condenser (+Subcooling) 105
Extract Mix (10% Solvent) / Extract Mix (80% Solvent) 15
Dewaxing
Cold Pressed Oil Mix / Solvent 30
Cold Slack Wax Mix / Steam 45
Flue Gas / Ammonia Chiller 6 10
Flue Gas / Water Cooler 10 20
Hot Solvent / Wax Oil 65
Pressed Oil / Pressed Oil Mix 30 40
Pressed Oil / Water Cooler (to 150°F) 25
Slack Wax / Slack Wax Mix 30
Solvent / Ammonia Chiller 60
Solvent / Cold Slack Wax Mix 10
Solvent / Water Cooler (5# delta P) 90
Solvent / Water Cooler (1# delta P) 70
Solvent Vapor / Pressed Oil Mix 45 100
Solvent Vapor / Slack Wax Mix 65
Solvent Vapor / Pressed Oil 80
Solvent Vapor / Pressed Oil 90
Solvent Vapor / Slack Wax Mix (3:1 Solvent Ratio) 80
Solvent Vapor / Slack Wax Mix (4:1 Solvent Ratio) 90
Solvent Vapor / Water Condenser (No Subcooling) 100
Steam / Steam Superheater 15
Steam / Pressed Oil (2:1 Solvent Ratio) 15 70
Steam / Pressed Oil (3:1 Solvent Ratio) 35 100
Steam / Pressed Oil (4:1 Solvent Ratio) 125
Steam / Slack Wax Mix (1:2 Solvent Ratio) 15 70
Steam / Slack Wax Mix (2:1 Solvent Ratio) 60
Steam / Slack Wax Mix (3:1 Solvent Ratio) 70
Steam / Slack Wax Mix (4:1 Solvent Ratio) 125
Warm Wash Heater 100
Wax Oil Mix / Ammonia DP Chiller (with Scrapers) 30
Wax Oil Mix / Ammonia DP Chiller (without Scrapers) 20
Wax Oil Mix / Pressed Oil Mix DP Exchanger 15 20
Wax Oil Mix / Water Cooler 30
Wet Solvent Vapor Condenser (with Subcooling) 75

________________________________________
Naphtha Hydrotreating & Reforming
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Pretreater Reactor Effluent / Charge (Cold End) 65 75
Pretreater Reactor Effluent / Charge (Hot End) 70 80
Pretreater Reactor Effluent Condenser 80 90
Naphtha Splitter Feed / Botomms 65 80
Naphtha Splitter Condenser 65 75
Reactor Effluent Condenser 80 100
Reactor Effluent / Feed (Cold End) 70 85
Reactor Effluent / Feed (Hot End) 80 90
Splitter or Stripper Feed / Pretreater Effluent 75 85
Stabilizer Reboiler (Hot Oil) 75 95

Thermal Cracking
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Coker Combination TWR Condenser 40 50
Gas Oil / Gas Oil 30 40
G.O. Cracker O'hd Condenser 45 65
Gas Oil Reflux Steam Gen. 80 90
Gasoline / Naphtha Charge 60 80
Thermal Tar Cooler (box) 10 20
Thermal Tar Steam Gen. 40 50
Top Reflux / BFW 60 80
Top Reflux / Naphtha 60 80
Top Reflux / Naphtha Charge 50 60
Top Reflux Cooler 55 65

Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Heat Exchangers

Type Application and Conditions U
W/(m2 K)1) U
Btu/(ft2 °F h)1)
Tubular, heating or cooling Gases at atmospheric pressure inside and outside
tubes 5 - 35 1 - 6
Gases at high pressure inside and outside tubes 150 - 500
25 - 90
Liquid outside (inside) and gas at atmospheric pressure inside (outside)
tubes 15 - 70 3 - 15
Gas at high pressure inside and liquid outside tubes 200 - 400
35 - 70
Liquids inside and outside tubes 150 - 1200 25 - 200
Steam outside and liquid inside tubes 300 - 1200 50 - 200
Tubular, condensation Steam outside and cooling water inside tubes 1500 - 4
000 250 - 700
Organic vapors or ammonia outside and cooling water inside tubes
300 - 1200 50 - 200
Tubular, evaporation steam outside and high-viscous liquid inside tubes, natu
ral circulation 300 - 900 50 - 150
steam outside and low-viscous liquid inside tubes, natural circulation
600 - 1700 100 - 300
 steam outside and liquid inside tubes, forced circulation 900 - 30
00 150 - 500
Air-cooled heat exchangers2) Cooling of water 600 - 750 100 - 13
0
Cooling of liquid light hydrocarbons 400 - 550 70 - 95
Cooling of tar 30 - 60 5 - 10
Cooling of air or flue gas 60 - 180 10 - 30
Cooling of hydrocarbon gas 200 - 450 35 - 80
Condensation of low pressure steam 700 - 850 125 - 150
Condensation of organic vapors 350 - 500 65 - 90
Plate heat exchanger liquid to liquid 1000 - 4000 150 - 700
Spiral heat exchanger liquid to liquid 700 - 2500 125 - 500
condensing vapor to liquid 900 - 3500 150 - 700
Notes:
1) 1 Btu/(ft2 °F h) = 5.6785 W/(m2 K)
2) Coefficients are based on outside bare tube surface
Sources
1. Schlünder, E. U. (Ed.): VDI Heat Atlas, Woodhead Publishing, Limited, 1993
, Chapter Cc.
2. Perry, R. H., Green, D. W. (Eds.): Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook,
7th edition, McGraw-Hill, 1997 , Section 11.
3. Kern, D. Q.: Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1950.
4. Ludwig, E. E.: Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Pla
nts, Vol. 3, 3rd edition, Gulf Publishing Company, 1998.
5. Branan, C. R.: Process Engineer's Pocket Handbook, Vol. 1, Gulf Publishi
ng Company, 1976.