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INTRODUCTION
Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point.
The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random
such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road. Vibration is occasionally
"desirable". For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind
instrument or harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration,
necessary for the correct functioning of the various devices. More often,
vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound –
noise. For example, the vibration motions of engines, electric motors, or any
mechanical device in operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can
be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the meshing of
gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations. The
study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, or "pressure waves”
by brating structures (e.g. vocal cords); these pressure waves can also induce
the vibration of structures (e.g. ear drum). Hence, when trying to reduce noise
it is often a problem in trying to reduce vibration.
Types of vibration
Fig.1.1
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A single degree of freedom system is the simplest mechanical system
possible. It can move by translation along one direction only, or can rotate
about one axis. The motion of a single degree of freedom system is a
sinusoid, having only a single frequency. Mechanical structures are always
more complex than the single degree of freedom system, but they can be
though of a being built up of a collection of single degree of freedom
systems. This is somewhat analogous to a complex waveform being
considered as a collection of sinusoidal components. The disciplines of modal
analysis and finite element modeling treat mechanical systems in this way,
and the number of degrees of freedom they possess determines their
complexity.
Where x(t) is the position of the mass, m is the mass, c is the damping
Rate, k is the stiffness, and f(t) is the external dynamic load. The initial
Displacement is doing, and the initial velocity is VO.
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This equation of motion is a second order, homogeneous, ordinary
differential equation (ODE). If all parameters (mass, spring stiffness and
viscous damping) are constants, the ODE becomes,
Fig 1.2
A multi degree of freedom system is a system that can move along two
directions, whether translation or can rotate about its axis. The motion of a
multi degree of freedom system is a combination of both the values having
dual frequency. Mechanical structures are always more complex like multi
degree of freedom system, but they can be thought of a being built up of a
collection of single degree of freedom systems. This is somewhat analogous
to a complex waveform being considered as a collection of sinusoidal
components. The disciplines of modal analysis and finite element modeling
treat mechanical systems in this way, and the number of degrees of freedom
they possess determines their complexity.
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M2 (x1¨(t)-x2¨(t)) + c2(x1˙(t)- x2˙(t)) + k2(x1(t)- x2(t)) = 0
Where x(t) is the position of the mass, m is the mass, c is the damping
Rate, k is the stiffness, and f (t) is the external dynamic load. The initial
Displacement is doing, and the initial velocity is VO.
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1.3.1 Abstract harmonic analysis
For compact groups, the Peter-Weyl theorem explains how one may
get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each
equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some
of the useful properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying
convolutions to pointwise products, or otherwise showing a certain
understanding of the underlying group structure. See also: Non-commutative
harmonic analysis. If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general
satisfactory theory is currently known. By "satisfactory" one would mean at
least the equivalent of Plancherel theorem. However, many specific cases
have been analyzed, for example SLn. In this case, it turns out that
representations in infinite dimension play a crucial role.
1.4Frequency
Frequency is the reciprocal of time. If an event is periodic in time, i.e.
if it repeats at a fixed time interval, then its frequency is one divided by the
time interval. If a vibrating element takes one tenth of a second to complete
one cycle and return to its starting point, then its frequency is defined to be
10 cycles per second, or 10 hertz (Hz). Although the SI standard unit of
frequency is the Hz, when analyzing machinery vibration we often find it
more convenient to express frequency in cycles per minute, which
corresponds to rpm. Frequency in rpm is simply frequency in Hz times 60.
Another common frequency representation used in machinery monitoring is
multiples of turning speed, or "orders".
Frequency in orders is frequency in rpm divided by the turning speed
of the machine. The second order is then the second harmonic of turning
speed, etc. This is especially convenient if the machine is varying in speed,
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for the frequency representation on a spectrum will be the same regardless of
speed. Two machine spectra can therefore more easily be compared if they
are both expressed in orders. Conversion of the frequency axis of a spectrum
to orders is called "order normalization", and is done by the monitoring
software.
Fig 1.3
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by an inferior food-safe lubricant to avoid food contamination; in other
situations a bearing may be run without lubricant because continuous
lubrication is not feasible, and lubricants attract dirt that damages the
bearings.
Bearing vibrates while in operation. Signals may be digital (also called logic
signals sometimes) or analog depending on the transducer used.
1.5.3 Time Domain
Fig 1.4
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A given function or signal can be converted between the time and
frequency domains with a pair of mathematical operators called a transform.
An example is the Fourier transform, which decomposes a function into the
sum of a (potentially infinite) number of sine wave frequency components.
The 'spectrum' of frequency components is the frequency domain
representation of the signal. The inverse Fourier transform converts the
frequency domain function back to a time function.
More generally, one can speak of the transform domain with respect to any
transform. The above transforms can be interpreted as capturing some form
of frequency, and hence the transform domain is referred to as a frequency
domain.
Fig.1.5
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1.5.6 Signal analysis
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improvement is roughly proportional to N/log (N). This huge improvement
made many DFT-based algorithms practical; FFTs are of great importance to
a wide variety of applications, from digital signal processing and solving
partial differential equations to algorithms for quick multiplication of large
integers.
The most well known FFT algorithms depend upon the factorization of
N, but (contrary to popular misconception) there are FFTs with O(N log N)
complexity for all N, even for prime N. Many FFT algorithms only depend
on the fact that is an Nth primitive root of unity, and thus can be applied to
analogous transforms over any finite field, such as number-theoretic
transforms. Since the inverse DFT is the same as the DFT, but with the
opposite sign in the exponent and a 1/N factor, any FFT algorithm can easily
be adapted.
Fig 1.6
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1.6.1 Data Acquisition Systems
DAQ hardware is what usually interfaces between the signal and a PC.
It could be in the form of modules that can be connected to the computer's
ports (parallel, serial, USB, etc.) or cards connected to slots (S-100 bus,
Apple Bus, ISA, MCA, PCI, PCI-E, etc.) in the mother board. Usually the
space on the back of a PCI card is too small for all the connections needed, so
an external breakout box is required. The cable between this box and the PC
can be expensive due to the many wires, and the required shielding.DAQ
cards often contain multiple component. These are accessible via a bus by a
microcontroller, which can run small programs.
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A controller is more flexible than a hard wired logic, yet cheaper than a
CPU so that it is alright to block it with simple polling loops. For example:
Waiting for a trigger, starting the ADC, looking up the time, waiting for the
ADC to finish, move value to RAM, switch multiplexer, get TTL input, let
DAC proceed with voltage ramp. Many times reconfigurable logic is used to
achieve high speed for specific tasks and Digital signal processors are used
after the data has been acquired to obtain some results. The fixed connection
with the PC allows for comfortable compilation and debugging. Using an
external housing a modular design with slots in a bus can grow with the
needs of the user.
DAQ software is needed in order for the DAQ hardware to work with a
PC. The device driver performs low-level register writes and reads on the
hardware, while exposing a standard API for developing user applications. A
standard API such as COMEDI allows the same user applications to run on
different operating systems, e.g. a user application that runs on Windows will
also run on Linux and BSD. Not all DAQ hardware has to run permanently
connected to a PC, for example intelligent stand-alone loggers and
oscilloscopes, which can be operated from a PC, yet they can operate
completely independent of the PC.
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• Spectrum analysis. (for example in magnetic resonance imaging,
tomography reconstruction and OFDM modulation)
• Digitization, reconstruction and compression. (for example, image
compression, sound coding and other source coding)
• Storage. (in digital delay lines and reverb)
• Feature extraction. (for example speech-to-text conversion)
• Modulation. (in modems)
• Wavetable synthesis. (in modems and music synthesizers)
• Prediction.
• System identification and classification.
• A variety of other operations.
Analog signal processing is for signals that have not been digitized, as
in classical radio, telephone, radar, and television systems. This involves
linear electronic circuits such as passive filters, active filters, additive mixers,
integrators and delay lines. It also involves non-linear circuits such as
companders, multiplicators (frequency mixers and voltage-controlled
amplifiers), voltage-controlled filters, voltage-controlled oscillators and
phase-locked loops.
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1.7.1.3 Digital signal processing
Signal conditioning may be necessary if the signal from the transducer is not
suitable for the DAQ hardware being used. The signal may need to be
amplified, filtered or demodulated. Various other examples of signal
conditioning might be bridge completion, providing current or voltage
excitation to the sensor, isolation, and linearization. For transmission
purposes, single ended analog signals, which are more susceptible to
noise can be converted to differential signals.
Fig 1.7
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misalignment). By examining these frequencies and their harmonics, the
analyst can often identify the location and type of problem, and sometimes
the root cause as well. For example, high vibration at the frequency
corresponding to the speed of rotation is most often due to residual imbalance
and is corrected by balancing the machine.
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Handheld data collectors and analyzers are now commonplace on non-critical
or balance of plant machines on which permanent on-line vibration
instrumentation cannot be economically justified. The technician can collect
data samples from a number of machines, and then download the data into a
computer where the analyst (and sometimes artificial intelligence) can
examine the data for changes indicative of malfunctions and impending
failures. For larger, more critical machines where safety implications,
production interruptions (so-called "downtime"), replacement parts, and other
costs of failure can be appreciable (determined by the criticality index), a
permanent monitoring system is typically employed rather than relying on
periodic handheld data collection.
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• Ultrasound can be used for high-speed and slow-speed mechanical
applications and for high-pressure fluid situations. Digital ultrasonic
meters measure high frequency signals from bearings and display the
result as a dBuV (decibels per microvolt) value. This value is trended over
time and used to predict increases in friction, rubbing, impacting, and
other bearing defects. The dBuV value is also used to predict proper
intervals for re-lubrication. Ultrasound monitoring, if done properly,
proves out to be a great companion technology for vibration analysis.
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1.9 Labview
This section discusses obtaining data and some key issues when
acquiring
or simulating dynamic signals to ensure valid measurement results. The
three techniques that allow you to obtain data are as follows:
• Acquire data with a data acquisition (DAQ) device system
• Read data from a file
• Simulate data with a generation VI or other source
Fig 1.7
The block shows the description of continuous signal acquisition programme
for vibration signal data acquisition. With this further data analysis can be
easily performed.
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In this particular case, you cannot distinguish one tone from the other.
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samples. Instead, the acquisition time is the time required to accumulate the
required set of decimated samples.
1.9.6.3 Windowing
Periodicity is one of the basic assumptions made in FFT-based
frequency analysis. The FFT algorithm implicitly assumes that every
block of acquired data indefinitely repeats in both positive and
negative time. Windowing is one method of ensuring periodicity.
Windowing multiplies the time-domain data by a window function
before the FFT is performed. Window functions typically have a value
of zero at the start and end of the measurement period. Figure below
shows how a signal that is not the same at the start and end of the
measurement period.
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METHODOLOGY
EXPERMENTAL SET-UP
DATA AQCUTATION
TIME DOMAIN
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
FEATURE EXTRACTION
PATTERN RECOGNITION
DATA BASE
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