focus

Church Teaching, Conscience and the

PIC: PHOTOGENIC, NORWOOD

Stifling of Discussion
by Peter Hunter question the answer might be simply
“Accept the teaching as true, and,
ONE where certain behaviour is prescribed,
obey to the best of one’s ability.”

W
HEN a moral problem is But it’s not that simple.
discussed in the Catholic There are essentially two levels of
press, it is to be expected Church teaching.
that writers cite “the teaching of the The first consists of statements of
Church.” But what is interesting is Catholic belief so basic that anyone no
that many contributors suggest or longer accepting them would logically
imply that, as cease to be Cath-
regards the olic. Examples
problem in “There are essentially of these beliefs
question, such are the divinity
Church teaching two levels of Church of Christ, the
must automati- teaching... and there is Incarnation and
cally be decisive the Resurrection. Peter Hunter, professor emeritus, University
in the beliefs, another important factor: These are central of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
decisions and conscience” matters of faith. the operation of the Church’s teaching
behaviour of In relation to authority is known as the Ordinary
each Catholic these fundamental Magisterium.
concerned. As that view was phrased, matters of doctrine the operation of Regarding this second kind of
Roma locuta; causa finita (“Rome has the Magisterium is known as the Church teaching (and assuming of
spoken; the matter is closed”). Extraordinary Magisterium, and the course one’s intention to remain a
Recent discussions on certain moral teachings are seen as infallible. Catholic), are assent and obedience to
issues suggest a need to pursue two
T HE second kind concerns mainly Church interpretations and rulings a
relevant questions not often directly logical necessity as in the case of the
confronted in Catholic newspapers, morals and church order, and is a
very mixed bag. first kind?
whether in articles or correspondence Certainly many Catholics speak and
columns. There are teachings about prayer
and matters concerning the spiritual act as if they were, and in respect of a
1. The first concerns the common life. Also, statements of principle on number of these teachings, the faithful
phrase “the teaching of the Church.” moral matters, and on the morality or are encouraged in this response by
The Church is of course all of us who otherwise of specific actions such as official statements that the beliefs and
are Catholic. But in this context “the sexual intercourse outside marriage, prescriptions concerned must be
Church” refers to its teaching author- and birth control. There are teachings “definitively held.”
ity, the Magisterium. So what does on social policy, on communism, Some Catholics believe that all
that phrase about its teaching really capitalism, trade unions and poverty. these Church statements and com-
mean? Another cluster of items is made up mands are matters of eternal truth and
2. The second question is: What of the Church’s internal policies e.g. morality: they have never changed and
should be the response of the Catholic on the non-eligibility of women and never will.
to that teaching? married men for the priesthood, and The Church’s many centuries of
Pursuing these two questions will on vernacular translations of the development have given us a magnifi-
take us into the realm of conscience, liturgy. There are the Church’s exter- cent legacy of wisdom, knowledge,
and then, in the third part of my nal policies, on, for example, inter- holiness, heroism, guidance for our
article, into the Church’s attitude to communion among Christians, and on spiritual lives and principles for our
open discussion on controversial relations with other faith communities. Christian ministry in the world. A vast
matters. A further category comprises the amount of its teaching is not only
To many the answers to the Church’s rules on such matters as valid but also inspiring.
questions may seem simple. “no applause during the liturgy” and With the very substantial widening
To the first question one might say the now abandoned requirement that of public knowledge of the world, of
(perhaps with some irritation that it is women inside a church wear a head- the cosmos, of human behaviour, of
asked at all) that “the teaching of the covering. This list is obviously far modern biblical scholarship and the
Church” is made up of all that the from complete. problems of social justice, many lead-
Church has taught us in the fields of In relation to these non-infallible ers of the Church have incorporated
faith and morals. To the second matters of morality and church order, Continued on p.21
TREFOIL – No 269 7
TREFOIL – No 269
 church teaching, conscience and the stifling of discussion
The Stifling of Discussion
Contd from p.7
these fruits into their own insights and
teaching. (But concerning the factors in
human development and married life,
for example, some Church leaders
resist the contributions of relevant
research and professional experience,
and of feminist theology.)
However, many items of current
Church teaching were not always
accepted in the past. Some were
disputed during the early centuries of
the Church and had to be settled by
ecumenical councils. Often blood was
spilt over these matters.
While the Church developed from a
divine origin, it is a human institution.
So it’s not surprising that it has nega-
tive as well as well as positive features,
and that it is capable of making serious
mistakes.
It was once deemed immoral for
someone lending money to charge
interest and so make a profit. This,
called usury, has long since ceased to
be considered a sin.
Then, only a few centuries ago the
Church approved of the torture of
heretics. Obviously, no longer. (But the
Papal States kept up torture as policy
until well into the 19th century.)
In the early 17th century Galileo’s
discovery that the earth moves around
the sun brought condemnation by the
Church. The Inquisition forced him to
retract his claims, and he lived under
house arrest. Much later the validity of
Galileo’s work was acknowledged by
the Church, and only in 1993 was his
personal innocence officially recog-
nised by the Pope.
After the French Revolution the
rulers of that country issued a “Univer-
sal Declaration of the Rights of Man”.
The Pope immediately condemned the
statement. From the 1840s until the end
of the 19th century the notions of
liberalism and democracy were also
condemned. They were put in the
“Syllabus of Errors” and Catholics who
participated in elections in France and
Italy were excommunicated. Today,
however, the concepts of human rights
form a central part of Church teaching
about social justice.
In 1930 Pius XI’s encyclical on
Christian education included a firm
rejection of schools shared by boys and
girls. But in later decades Catholic co-
educational schools became accepted
and increasingly common.
Pius XII identified the ‘Mystical
TREFOIL – No 269
Body of Christ’ with the visible Roman into a pit on the Sabbath, and whose
Catholic Church, but at the Second saving on such a day would certainly
Vatican Council this vision was be justified. “It is lawful to do good
replaced with a wider perspective and a on the Sabbath.” In modern parlance,
new respect for other faith communities. “Circumstances alter cases.”
Examples like these should make But is there nevertheless a case for a
one at least wonder whether to accept simple obedience to a Church-espoused
the notion that all our Church’s non- moral rule, whatever the consequences?
basic teaching is forever, and that it It might be argued that the mere fact
must be accepted of changes in the
uncritically. past does not justify
Fortunately the “Conscience is dissent from any
Church is capable fundamental to the item of current
of learning from its teaching. But it does
mistakes, of changing moral decisions of give rise to questions
its practices and of of the absoluteness
amending its tenets. a mature Christian” and unchangeability
But as has been of current teaching,
remarked by Sr Joan Chittister OSB and whether we should regard it as
(National Catholic Reporter, 13/7/ automatically binding on us.
2005), “The problem is that its tenets
often get changed long after it [the TWO
Church] has done eons of damage to
society, people and church alike.”
T HERE is another, important,
factor in the matter: conscience.
T HE question as to whether Church
law (whether in statements on
immoral acts or items of canon law)
In its Pastoral Constitution on the
Church in the Modern World
(Gaudium et Spes #17) the Second
calls for unquestioning assent reminds Vatican Council made this statement:
one of the stories, at the beginning of God has willed that man should “be
Matthew chapter 12, concerning matters left in the hand of his own counsel”
strictly against Jewish religious Law. (Si 15:14) so that he might of his own
In one of these stories, Jesus re- accord seek his creator and freely
sponded to the Pharisees’ criticism of attain his full and blessed perfection
his disciples for picking corn and thus by cleaving to him. Man’s dignity,
harvesting on the Sabbath, which was therefore, requires him to act out of
against the Jewish Law. But, said conscious and free choice, as moved
Jesus, they were hungry, and needed and drawn in a personal way from
food. Later, in the synagogue, Jesus within, and not by blind impulses in
was asked whether it was lawful to himself or by mere external constraint.
heal on the Sabbath. Jesus responded In Responsibility in a time of AIDS
by speaking of a sheep that had fallen (edited by Stuart Bate OMI, 2003, p.8),
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21
focus
Dr Charles Ryan SPS draws attention the Spirit of God… The work of deemed to be crucial. If one insists that
to that statement, and to this comment conscience is not about systematically in each and every moral situation, in-
upon it by R Duska and M Whelan (in applying preconceived divine laws to cluding those that involve the question
Moral development: a guide to Piaget situations. The integrity of human of birth control, one is obliged to form
and Kohlberg, 1975): freedom and responsibility involves one’s conscience and act accordingly,
Is not the post-conciliar Church, in more than an unreflective adherence to then one is regarded with suspicion.
effect, telling people that although it divine will. However, human freedom Yet, this is entirely in accordance with
can give moral guidance, it cannot and divine will do coincide when the traditional theologies of conscience.
make up person chooses (p.117)
people’s minds the good. [p.24] Thomas Aquinas, for example, stated
“ In general, the
S
for them? Does O if, in con- that conscience is binding: to act
it not insist that fronting a against conscience is always wrong.
mature Christi-
ecclesiastical authorities
moral dilemma, He said that it is better to be excommu-
anity demands do not encourage the open a person decides nicated – and more exemplary for the
that people take
what to do simply Christian community – than to go
responsibility
for their own
discussion necessary ” on the basis of against a decision made in conscience.
moral deci- individual To quote Hogan again,
sions? How then can the striving for inclination, that would not qualify as a In the contemporary context we can
autonomy be unorthodox? (p.91) decision of conscience. For it would see that although the basic principles
In his book Lay people in the not be an informed conscience. To of Aquinas’s position on conscience
Church (1965), Fr Yves Congar, very apply one’s conscience in a situation of are accepted, they are frequently
influential in the Second Vatican uncertainty, it is necessary for serious compromised and fudged in many
Council, and later a cardinal, wrote and prayerful consideration to be given important respects. (p.85)
to the alternative responses. In doing so The Second Vatican Council’s
The job of priests with respect to lay
one would need, as far as one is able, Gaudium et Spes emphasised personal
people is not to make them the longa
manus of the clergy, telling them what to draw upon all relevant knowledge responsibility rather than obedience.
they’ve got to do; but to make them and wisdom, including sacred texts,
It stated that “the moral aspect of any
believing men and women, adult Christian tradition and, where it exists,
procedure…must be determined by
Christians, leaving them to meet and the formal teaching of the Church. That
objective standards which are based
fulfil the concrete demands of their teaching must of course be seriously
on the nature of the person and the
Christianity on their own responsibility and honestly considered, but not
necessarily followed, for, as we have person’s acts.(#51)”
and in accordance with their own
consciences. (p.441) seen, it can err. The reference to The same Council’s Declaration on
choosing the good (at the end of the Religious Freedom stated that no one
In her book Confronting the truth:
above quotation) does not mean can “be forced to act in a manner
conscience in the Catholic tradition
necessarily choosing the Church’s contrary to one’s conscience. Nor…is
(2001) the theologian Linda Hogan
teaching on the subject, though of the one to be restrained from acting in
refers to conscience in these terms:
course the two often do coincide. accordance with conscience, especially
As the culmination of personal reason- in matters religious. (#3)”
ing, reflection and discernment it is Obviously, not all Catholics are at
ease with the idea of the autonomy of The Catechism of the Catholic
indeed the individual’s subjective
assessment of the rightness or wrong- the conscience. Taking the example of Church says that “Man has the right to
ness of a particular decision…For the birth control issue, Hogan writes: act in conscience and in freedom so as
Christians conscience has a double In an increasingly divided Church personally to make moral decisions…
orientation. It is the human reali- one’s view of the role of conscience especially in religious matters.” (#1782)
sation of value, under the guidance of in decisions about contraception is It is clear from the above examples
that in moral judgments and decision-
making the importance of the
(informed) conscience is reflected not
only in the Catholic tradition but in
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22 TREFOIL – No 269
 church teaching, conscience and the stifling of discussion
A T the beginning of Part Two of
this article, reference was made
to a Vatican II statement (Gaudium et
Spes, #17) on the need for people to
act out of conscious and free choice,
“moved and drawn from within” rather
than by blind impulse or mere external
constraint. That statement has never
been repudiated by the Church leader-
ship, but, apparently, at least neglected.
Certainly that leadership has steered
clear of the appropriate role of con-
science in decisions of moral action.
Often those who are thinking seri-
ously about their faith and its implica-
tions for moral behaviour elicit from
clerics questioned no more response
than one implying simply “we must
obey the Church.”
The Church leadership makes use
of ‘official’ statements, which have a
hierarchy of levels of authority, under-
stood by specialists but usually un-
known to non-specialists. There are,
for example, constitutions, decrees,
declarations, pastoral constitutions
from an ecumenical council, ex cath-
edra teaching, encyclical letters,
instructions of a pope, canon law, a
‘directory’ (policy instruction) from
one of the Roman congregations,
catechisms, pastoral letters, statements
of an individual bishop or bishops’
conference and the homily of a parish
priest or bishop.
These obviously don’t carry the
same weight. For example, it would be
a mistake to accord the same authority
to the papal encyclical Humanae Vitae
(about contraception) as to the biblical
commandments. (The former is not part
of the defined doctrine of the Church
but at least one priest has been sus-
pended for saying so from the pulpit.)
THREE
I T IS proper for the Church to give
moral guidance. But it may not
compel its members to accept that
guidance. That sentence is consistent
with the Church’s recognition of
conscience, but is often treated as
undermining Catholic moral teaching.
When moral guidance is given in the
form of (say) a pastoral letter, the limits
of the guidance’s authority should be
made evident, otherwise the letter is
misleading. It needs to be clear that on
a moral issue, for instance, conscien-
tious viewpoints and action differing
from those of the Church leadership do
not in themselves imply disloyalty to
the Church. But at present one has the
impression of the teaching on con-
TREFOIL – No 269
science being a well-kept secret. Does
our leadership believe that public
recognition of the importance of
conscience might open a Pandora’s
Box of independent decision-making
on moral matters?
This has left a very large number of
Catholics with the belief that automatic
obedience to Church teaching is an
imperative, even if their consciences
tell them that the Church’s judgment on
a particular matter is illogical, ill-
informed or otherwise
faulty, and has serious
adverse potential conse- “Are these
quences for themselves or
others. Contraception and factors un-
condom use are obvious
changeable?” in the previous paragraph
areas of tension.
Because of the present
climate of silence on conscience, it is
understandable that those who think or
act at variance with Church teaching in
such matters do not publicise this fact.
Many lie low; some leave the Church.
Particularly vulnerable as regards
open discussion are ‘dissenting’ people
in positions of ecclesiastical authority,
from priests and religious to bishops.
The (even recent) history of the Church
has many examples of such people
being blocked from appointment to
more senior roles, being prohibited from
teaching or publishing, and/or being
dismissed from Catholic universities.
This is also a problem for people
running charities dependent upon
finance from Catholic organisations
which require, from recipients of its
grants, obedience to Rome’s interpret-
ation of morality.
It is understandable that people in
such situations are deterred from open
discussion by the sanctions available to
those who hold the centralised power
in the Church, or the purse-strings.
Those who accept the basic doc-
trines of the Church, but in conscience
differ from the Magisterium’s prescrip-
tions on matters beyond those essen-
tials, should be able to hold their heads
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PO BOX 9036
EDENGLEN
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Tony Bishop FCIS, FCIBM
high, and to contribute to public debate.
It is a serious injustice where their
dissent endangers their status as
Catholics in good standing. Conscien-
tiously independent charities should
not forfeit their fair share of Catholic
resources. And positions as actual or
potential holders of high ecclesiastical
office such as a bishopric should not
be endangered.
The current state of affairs is
inconsistent with the Church’s official
position on personal
autonomy, as set out in
the two extracts (above)
from Gaudium et Spes. If
the imperatives suggested
are seen to add up simply
to a wish-list on the
present dispensation of authority and
power in the Church, then at least the
laity should be aware of the situation
and how serious it is. It entails injustice
to large segments of the Church’s loyal
membership.
M
based
ANY individuals do in fact
make private moral decisions
upon informed consciences but
contrary to Church rulings. But the
Church’s effective marginalisation of
conscience and the inhibition of open
discussion are extremely unhealthy for
the Church’s mission and its develop-
ment. It is by open discussion that we
learn and grow and develop, both as
individual Catholics and as Church.
The climate of inhibition may be
illustrated by the following develop-
ments, which are in the sphere of
church order rather than morals. Both
concern the ordination of women.
In the 1990s Pope John Paul II
stated that, in the light of the practice
in biblical times, and in following
Catholic tradition in this matter, the
present-day
to ordain
Church
women to
has no authority
the priesthood.
Furthermore, the matter must no longer
be discussed.
plus
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2 ELOFF STREET
CLARENS PARK
EDENVALE
1610
23
focus: the stifling of discussion
A The Tablet editorial commented:
The guardians of the tradition in Rome
believe that the Church is not permit-
ted to change its practice of restricting
the priesthood to men, but so far it has
been possible for Catholic doubters,
looking to the long term, to consider
the matter as ultimately open. Among
them have been a significant number
of theologians, against whom the new
measures are specifically aimed. Now
they and any Catholic who keeps an
open mind are declared to be not in
full communion with the Church.
The new measures may merely close a
loophole in canon law, but they
introduce a chill in the atmosphere.
Undoubtedly Catholic teachers every-
where will rein in debate. In Catholic
universities and seminaries there will
be no debate at all. From pulpits there
will be still more exposition, still less
encouragement to probe and enquire.
(The Tablet, 11/7/1998).
A few weeks later, in the same
periodical, there appeared a letter from
Fr Michael Naughton OSB, director of
The Liturgical Press, a major Catholic
publisher based in Collegeville,
Minnesota. The Press had recently
removed from print a book by
Sr Lavinia Byrne entitled Women at the
Altar. This followed a letter to the local
bishop from the Congregation for the
Doctrine of the Faith, stating that the
book contained opinions “contrary to
the magisterium of the Church.” The
CDF placed on the bishop the responsi-
bility for a response to the situation,
but neither the CDF nor the bishop
directly requested that the book be
removed from the sales list.
Fr Naughton’s letter stated, “Since
we are a Catholic press and do not
want to publish works directly contrary
to the teaching authority, it was the
press’s decision to remove the book
from print.” (The Tablet, 5/9/1998)
In mid-2001 there took place at
University College, Dublin, a confer-
ence of Women’s Ordination World-
wide. It brought together most of the
world’s movements promoting the
ordination of women to the priesthood.
Among those scheduled to give papers
were two women, members of religious
congregations, from different parts of
24
the United States. An authority in
Rome brought pressure upon their
respective religious superiors to stop
these sisters’ participation in the con-
ference. One of these sisters, Joan
Chittister OSB, supported by her
superior, presented her paper neverthe-
less. The other sister did not, but was
near the conference for much of the
time, praying, before she decided to
arrive anyway. (According to the
National Catholic Reporter,13/7/2001,
delegate Aruna Gnanadason, from the
World Council of Churches (WCC),
withdrew from the conference because
Rome had threatened to cancel its par-
ticipation in various WCC commis-
sions.)
These items illustrate a phenomenon
that diminishes and impoverishes the
Church.
Underlying factors
T HIS ARTICLE does not suggest
on anyone’s part a lack of
intelligence or an evil intent. But it is
important to recognise that among
the underlying factors in the problems
under discussion are the following:
– Alongside the riches of its Chris-
tian legacy, the modern Church has in-
herited a tradition of authoritarianism.
– Vatican II’s promotion of episcopal
collegiality has not been implemented.
– Under Pope John Paul II, bishops
tended to be appointed from the ranks
of the conservatives.
– Clergy and religious, living under
obedience, are called to order in one
way or another if they publicly query
Rome’s interpretation of Catholic
belief and practice, even where no
matters of basic doctrine are involved.
(The frontier between the latter and the
non-basic has in some areas become
blurred, with certain of the non-basic
being interpreted as requiring to be
‘definitively held’ by all Catholics.)
– The laity, not living under a vow
of obedience, has not until recently
included a very substantial body of
well-educated Catholics able to enter
a debate on Church perspectives and
actions, and confident enough to make
public views contrary to those of the
Magisterium.
Conclusions
T HE following conclusions appear
justified.
1. The fact that the role of an informed
conscience is well grounded in the
Catholic tradition has commonly not
been made clear in current Church
statements on moral issues. It is not
publicly recognised that conscience is
fundamental to the moral decisions of
a mature Christian.
2. Where it occurs, this omission in
Church statements and parish-level
guidance entails misleading the
faithful who are struggling with official
teaching related to moral dilemmas.
To say the least, Rome appears to
lack confidence in Catholics’ ability
to make conscientious choices.
3. On the controversy over women in
the priesthood, the Church has forbid-
den open debate among Catholics, and
has taken steps to prevent the publica-
tion of views contrary to its position.
4. In general, the ecclesiastical authori-
ties do not encourage the type of open
discussion that is necessary for the
development of a faith community of
loyal, autonomous and mature believers.
Are these negative features of our
Church unchangeable?
Surely not. ✰
Professor Peter Hunter BA. M.Ed (Na-
tal, Pmb) Ed.D (California), a lifelong
Catholic, spent most of his professional
life lecturing in the faculties of education
of a number of universities in southern Af-
rica, including the University of Bot-
swana, Lesotho and Swaziland, where he
became professor and dean of education.
Subsequently he was an academic at
the University of Witwatersrand from 1976
until his retirement from the post of
Director of the inter-faculty Academic
Support Programme in 1993.
In 1995 Prof Hunter was invited to
chair the new South African government’s
committee on the restructuring of the
school system, and he participated in the
drafting of the legislation that followed.
As a university student in Pietermaritz-
burg, Peter was president of the National
Catholic Federation of Students (1950);
he still continues his involvement in Cath-
olic organisations. Currently he serves on
the Boards of the Catholic Institute of
Education and the Reginald Orsmond
Counselling Services, and on the Aca-
demic Board of our Catholic university,
St Augustine College.
Peter Hunter and his wife Lucienne are
blessed with four adult children and nine
grandchildren.
TREFOIL – No 269