Freshmen Math Team Topics

Freshmen Math Topics
Written by Kevin Hu, Naperville Central High School Class of 2011

Contents
1 Introduction 3
2 Number Theory and Divisibility 4

2.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 LCM and GCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 LCM and GCD of multiple numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.2 The Euclidean algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Divisibility Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Trailing Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6 Points of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Counting Basics and Simple Probability 10

3.1 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Permutations and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Miscellaneous Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Number Bases 14
4.1 b to 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2 10 to b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1
CONTENTS 2
5 Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 16

5.1 Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2 The abs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 1
Introduction
The paper you are now reading should cover much of what you need to succeed in the
2010-2011 math team season as a freshman. The chapters are based on topics from the
North Suburban Math League contest, and will likely correspond to subjects in this sea-
son’s ICTM (Illinois Council of Teachers of Mathematics) contests. The “Points of Inter-
est” sections are not necessary for competition, but if you find a topic interesting, it may
be enriching to read the sections. The problems marked “(Open)” are open problems,
meaning that they have not yet been solved by mathematicians.
If you have any questions or comments, please let me know.
Kevin Hu
10thsymphony@gmail.com
This work was produced with LATEX 2ε , an open source typesetting system for scientific
and mathematical documents of high typographic quality.
You are free to use any part of this work, but please attribute it appropriately.
3
Chapter 2
Number Theory and Divisibility
Number theory deals with properties of integers. It has been studied since the time of
ancient Greece. Legendre and Gauss fathered modern number theory at the turn of the
nineteenth century, and ever since, mathematicians have explored ideas like prime num-
bers, Fermat’s Last Theorem, cryptography (codes), and programming. But before we get
to advanced topics, let’s start basic.
2.1 Basics
We start with one of the most important facts in number theory.
Theorem 1. [Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic]. Any integer greater than 1 can be written
uniquely, up to the ordering of the factors, as the product of prime numbers.
Basically, this means that any integer greater than 1 has exactly one prime factorization.
For example, the number 5 can be written as 51 ; the number 12 can be written as 22 × 3;
the number 28 can be written as 22 × 7. This is basic, but crucial. Remember that every
integer greater than 1 has a unique factorization. It cannot be written as the product of
primes in any other way.
Now let’s introduce two terms: the least common multiple and the greatest common
divisor. The least common multiple of a and b, abbreviated as lcm(a, b) or sometimes
written in shorthand as [a, b], is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a
and b. You can calculate it as follows: Write the prime factorizations of a and b. Find
every distinct prime that divides either a or b. For each prime, look at what power of it
divides a and what power of it divides b. Take the larger of the two and write that power
down. Repeat.
In mathematical form, we can say that if a = pe11 pe22 pe33 . . . and b = pf11 pf22 pf33 . . . where the
exponents can be equal to zero and the pi are all of the prime numbers, then:
4
CHAPTER 2. NUMBER THEORY AND DIVISIBILITY 5
max(e1 ,f1 ) max(e2 ,f2 ) max(e3 ,f3 )

[a, b] = p1 p2 p3 ...
Similarly, the greatest common divisor or greatest common factor of a and b, abbreviated
as gcd(a, b) or sometimes written in shorthand as (a, b), is the largest positive integer that
divides both a and b.
min(e1 ,f1 ) min(e2 ,f2 ) min(e3 ,f3 )

(a, b) = p1 p2 p3 ...
2.2 LCM and GCD
Recall the following: if a = pe11 pe22 p3e3 . . . and b = pf11 pf22 pf33 . . . where the exponents can be
equal to zero and the pi are all of the prime numbers, then:
max(e1 ,f1 ) max(e2 ,f2 ) max(e3 ,f3 )

[a, b] = p1 p2 p3 ...
min(e1 ,f1 ) min(e2 ,f2 ) min(e3 ,f3 )

(a, b) = p1 p2 p3 ...
Notice that max(ei , fi )+min(ei , fi ) = ei +fi . Why? Because either ei < fi and max(ei , fi ) =
fi , min(ei , fi ) = ei , or ei = fi and max(ei , fi ) = min(ei , fi ) = ei = fi , or ei > fi and
max(ei , fi ) = ei , min(ei , fi ) = fi . This leads to an interesting fact.
Theorem 2. [a, b] × (a, b) = a × b
2.2.1 LCM and GCD of multiple numbers
What about least common multiples and greatest common divisors of multiple numbers?
The LCM and GCD have the following property:
Theorem 3. (a, b, c) = ((a, b), c) and [a, b, c] = [[a, b], c].
Now, notice that Theorem 2 can be written as [a, b] = a × b ÷ (a, b). This is suspiciously
similar to a formula you may know from set theory and Venn diagrams:
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|
where A, B are sets, A ∩ B is their intersection, A ∪ B is their union, and |S| is the number
of elements in S.
This principle in set theory is known as the Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion, or the
PIE. It can be extended to include more than just 2 sets. For three sets,
|X ∪ Y ∪ Z| = (|A| + |B| + |C|) − (|A ∩ B| + |B ∩ C| + |C ∩ A|) + |A ∩ B ∩ C|
Interestingly, we can say a similar fact for the LCM and GCD of three integers.
Theorem 4. [a, b, c] = a × b × c ÷ ((a, b) × (b, c) × (c, a)) × (a, b, c)
The relationship between set theory and LCM/GCD extends to any number of sets and
the corresponding number of integers.
2.2.2 The Euclidean algorithm
There is an alternate method for calculating a GCD by hand without prime factorization.
This is useful if you’re trying to find the GCD of two very large numbers that don’t have
obvious factors.
Theorem 5. (a, b) = (a − kb, b)
where k is an integer.
This is known as the Euclidean algorithm. It makes the numbers you are trying to find the
GCD of smaller; but, as it is an algorithm, it can require multiple steps. You are finished
when you find that one of the numbers is a factor of the other; then this number is the
GCD. Let’s do a simple example. What is the GCD of 140 and 300?
(140, 300) = (140, 300 − 2(140)) = (140, 300 − 280) = (140, 20) = 20
As you can see, we stopped at (140, 20) because 20 is a factor of 140.
2.3 Divisibility Rules
The section title should not be interpreted as a complete sentence.

Divisibility rules are often taught as a list to memorize. While this is efficient, you should
know why the rules work.
Divisibility by 1: not worth explaining.
Divisibility by 2: the units digit is divisible by 2. This is because any positive integer can
be written as 10x + y where y is a positive integer and x is a nonnegative integer. 10x is
divisible by 2, so as long as y is divisible by 2, 10x + y is as well.
Divisibility by 3: the sum of the digits is divisible by 3. This is because any positive
integer can be written as 10x + y where y is a positive integer and x is a nonnegative
integer. 10x + y = 9x + x + y, so as long as x + y is divisible by 3, so is 10x + y. If you

continue this process, you find that if the sum of digits is divisible by 3, so is the number.
Divisibility by 4: the last two digits concatenated form a number divisible by 4. This is
because 100 is divisible by 4.
Divisibility by 5: the last digit is 0 or 5.
Divisibility by 6: the number is divisible by 2 and by 3.
Divisibility by 7: the divisibility tests are a pain. If you really want one, write the digits
in reverse order, and multiply each digit in the new order by 1, 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1, 3, 2, 6, 4, 5,
etc. Add these products together. If this is divisible by 7, so is the old number. (But hey, if
the sum is still huge, you have to do it again. This is why dividing by 7 sucks.)
Divisibility by 8: the last three digits concatenated form a number divisible by 8. This is
because 1000 is divisible by 8.
Divisibility by 9: the sum of digits is divisible by 9. This is because you can write the
number in expanded notation, and every power of 10 is one more than a multiple of 9.
Divisibility by 10: the last digit is a 0.
Divisibility by 11: Remove the rightmost digit. Subtract it from the remaining number.
Do this over and over again; if you get to a multiple of 11, the original is a multiple of 11.
The rest: Not worth memorizing.
2.4 Trailing Zeros
A math contest favorite: How many trailing zeros are there in x! Note that the “!” symbol is
the factorial (product of all positive integers less than or equal to x) sign, not the sign of
excitement.
Well, for small numbers, you can do factorials out pretty easily. You can do 7! = 5040,
8! = 40320, 9! = 362880, and 10! = 3628800, but then things get annoying, slow, and
mistake-prone. So when a math contest asks you for the number of trailing zeros in 1000!,
you better not try to multiply it out.
For each trailing zero, there must be a factor of 10. “So,” you think, “let’s just find how
many multiples of 10 there are from 1 to 1000.” But, alas, that would be inadequate,
because 2 × 5 = 10, but 2 and 5 are not multiples of ten. Now what? Notice that we can
count the number of multiples of 5, because for each multiple of 5 there is inevitably a
multiple of 2. Is that it?
No. Each multiple of 5 contributes 1 trailing zero, but each multiple of 25 contributes 2
trailing zeros because 25 × 4 = 100. Each multiple of 125 contributes 3 trailing zeros, and
so on. Then, we find that the number of trailing zeros in x! is equal to:
jxk jxk jxk

+ + + ...
5 52 53
2.5 Exercises
1. List all primes less than 100. How many are there?
2. Determine the prime factorizations of 2010 and 2011. Memorize these.
3. Prove Theorem 3. Hint: use prime factorizations.
4. Prove Theorem 4. Hint: use prime factorizations.
5. Evaluate [168, 144] by hand.
6. Evaluate (168, 144) by hand.
7. How do you use your calculator to find the GCD and LCM of two numbers?
8. How do you use your calculator to find the GCD and LCM of more than two num-
bers?
9. Evaluate [720, 500] × (500, 720) by hand. Use prime factorizations.
10. Evaluate [720, 500] × (500, 720) by hand. Do not use prime factorizations.
11. Evaluate (144, 168, 180).
12. Evaluate [144, 168, 180].
13. Calculate (18084533, 20418113). The Euclidean Algorithm may be helpful.
14. How many trailing zeros are there in 1000!?
2.6 Points of Interest

1. How many right rectangular prisms are there with integral edge lengths, integral
face diagonal lengths, and integral space diagonal lengths? p In other
p words, how
many ordered 2 2 2 2
√ p triples (x, y, z) are there for which x, y, z, x + y , y + z ,
z 2 + x2 , x2 + y 2 + z 2 are all integers? (Open)
2. An infinite sum converges if it approaches a finite limit. Prove that the sum of the
reciprocals of primes converges.
3. Twin primes are prime numbers that differ by two. Are there an infinite number of
pairs of twin primes? (Open)
4. Is every even number greater than 2 the sum of two primes? (Open)
5. Is there a prime between n and 2n inclusive for each positive n?
6. Is there a prime between n2 and (n + 1)2 for each positive n? (Open)

Chapter 3
Counting Basics and Simple Probability
The branch of mathematics that counting and probability fall under is called “Combina-
torics.” It is the bane of contest mathematics students around the world. Students affec-
tionately abbreviate it as “combo,” although it is usually accompanied with expletives if
responsible adults are not around. What’s there to fear?
Combinatorics problems have a multitude of correct solution methods. Some are faster
than others. The problem is that many combo problems have a multitude of incorrect
solution methods as well, which may be tantalizingly logical. As a math team competitor,
your goal is to stay organized, stay logical, and stay alert.
3.1 Trees
You can use trees to organize outcomes in probability. For example, if a problem asks,
What is the probability that you flip exactly 3 heads when you flip 6 coins?, if you don’t know
how to proceed (ahem, see next section), you can use a tree. On every flip, you can get
a head or a tail, so the tree branches out. Then along each “branch” of the tree, since the
coin has a 1/2 chance of getting a head or a tail, you multiply by 1/2 on each branch. This
is only a very basic usage of trees.
In complex problems with multiple conditions, trees are more effective. Conditional prob-
ability problems are an example. V. C. can press either the “g” or the “l” key on his computer
keyboard. His first press is random. If he presses the “l” key first, the probability he presses the
“l” key again is 50%. If he presses the “g” key first, the probability he presses the “g” key again
is 95%. V. C. presses two keys, one at a time. If the second press is a “g,” what’s the probability
he pressed “g” the first time? Here we draw a tree. There are two first-level branches —
one for pressing “g” first, one for pressing “l” first. From each of these branches, there are
two second-level branches — one for pressing “g,” and one for pressing “l.” We know he
presed “g” second, so we can get rid of the second-level branches with “l” presses. The
probability he pressed “lg” is 50% × 50%, or 25%; we calculate this by multiplying across
10
CHAPTER 3. COUNTING BASICS AND SIMPLE PROBABILITY 11
the branch. The probability he pressed “gg” is 50% × 95%, or 47.5%. Then the probability
he pressed “g” first is 47.5 ÷ (25 + 47.5) ≈ 65.5%.
There are better ways to do that problem, but trees are a good way to organize your work.
Things get hairy when there are too many branches, or too many levels.
3.2 Permutations and Combinations
Let’s get the formulas over with first:

n!
Theorem 6. n Pk = Pkn = (n−k)!
n n!

Theorem 7. n Ck = Ckn = C(n, k) = k
= k!(n−k)!
A permutation is an arrangement of objects or values into a particular order. Thus, order

matters. A combination is a grouping of objects or values. Thus, order does not matter.
For example, the set {1, 2, 3} has permutations (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2),
and (3, 2, 1). (Check that this is the correct number of permutations). On the other hand,
the combinations of 2 numbers from that set are {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}. Notice the difference
in punctuation — a permutation has parentheses to denote that order matters (just like
coordinates have parentheses), while combinations have curly braces to denote that order
does not matter.
People often get confused about the meaning of “order matters” and “order does not
matter.” Clear up all this confusion: “order matters” means that the order is important; a
different order just isn’t the same.
Make sure you use the correct formula. Always.
3.3 Miscellaneous Probability
To find the expected value, add together Event Value × Event Probability for each event.
For example, suppose a lottery system is run so that 100 tickets are sold for 1 dollar each.
There is 1 forty-dollar prize, 2 twenty-five-dollar prizes, and 3 three-dollar prizes. What
is the expected value of profit if you enter the lottery? Well, in the event you do not win,
you profit $ − 1; there is a 0.94 probability of this occurring. In the event that you win a
three-dollar prize, you profit $2; there is a 0.03 probability of this occurring. In the event
that you win a twenty-five-dollar prize, you profit $24; there is a 0.02 probability of this
occurring. In the event that you win a forty-dollar prize, you profit $39; there is a 0.01
probability of this occurring. Then your expected profit is:
(−1)(0.94) + (2)(0.03) + (24)(0.02) + (39)(0.01) = −.01
You expect to lose 1 penny for each ticket you buy.

3.4 Exercises
1. How many ways are there to arrange the letters “ABCDE”?
2. How many ways are there to misspell the word “MISSPELL” using all of the same
letters (e.g. MISPSELL, LLEPSMIS)? (Hint: Treat each S as a different letter, and
treat each L as a different letter. Then think about how much you’ve overcounted
by.)
3. Did you make the error of counting “MISSPELL” as a misspelling? Watch out for
tricks.
4. How many subsets are there in a set with 3 elements, including the empty set? In a
set with 4 elements? n elements? Why?
5. Shuhao is playing basketball. His first shot has a 1/2 probability of scoring. If he
makes a shot, the probability he scores the next time is 3/4. If he misses a shot, the
probability he scores the next time is 1/10. What’s the expected value of his score
after 5 shots?
6. J. Z. is playing basketball. His first shot has a 1/10 probability of scoring. If he

makes a shot, the probability he scores the next time is 3/4. If he misses a shot, the
probability he scores the next time is 1/10. What’s the expected value of his score
after 5 shots?
7. In the game of Math Roulette, there are six index cards. Five of the cards have math
problems on them. Two people play. One person starts by flipping over one of the
index cards. The next person flips another. They take turns until somebody gets the
card without a math problem on it. Of course, this person is the loser. Should you
start or should you go second to maximize your chances of winning?
8. What if there are 8 index cards with 7 problems? 10 cards with 9? 2n cards with
2n − 1?

1. A casino has a 50.0028% chance of winning a hand of Blackjack (Dealer stands on
soft 17; player may double on any two cards, player may double after splitting,
player may resplit aces, player gets late surrender).
2. Look up the rules of Craps and find the house edge.

n n
n 0 n−1 1
3. Prove the 0Binomial Theorem without expanding: (x + y)n = 0
x y + 1
x y +
n
· · · + n x yn.
4. Stare at Pascal’s Triangle in awe.

5. Prove Pascal’s Identity using formulas: nk = n−1 + n−1

k−1 k
. Then prove it concep-
tually.
6. Prove the Hockey Stick Identity: rr + r+1 n n+1

r
+ · · · + r
= r+1
.
Chapter 4
Number Bases
We count in base 10 because we have ten fingers. What if we had a different number?
What if we have to do math with strange things that only have 2 fingers? Oh wait, we
already do. They’re called computers.
In bases greater than 10, we use letters to represent digits. For example, the digits avail-
able in base 16 (hexadecimal) are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. In math
contest problems, make sure that your answer makes sense. Don’t answer “3” if a prob-
lem asks you about what base a number is in when the number has the digit 9.
4.1 b to 10
Theorem 8. dn dn−1 . . . d3 d2 d1 d0 (the line above the d’s means that they should be read as digits,
not factors) in base b is equal to d0 × b0 + d1 × b1 + d2 × b2 + · · · + dn × bn in base 10.
There, that wasn’t so difficult, was it?
4.2 10 to b
Theorem 9. dn dn−1 . . . d3 d2 d1 d0 in base 10 is equal to . . .
Right. It’s a lot more complicated now. To convert n from base 10 to base b, do the
following algorithm:
Divide n by the highest possible power of b that’s less than n. Write down the quotient
(not including the remainder). Take the remainder, and divide that by the next highest
power of b. Write down the quotient (not including the remainder). Repeat on and on.
There, that was pretty terrible, wasn’t it?
14
CHAPTER 4. NUMBER BASES 15
When you have to convert from base c to base d, where c, d 6= 10, unless you notice
something special, convert from base c to base 10, and then from base 10 to base d.
Wait. Unless you notice something special. Like, for example, 16 is a power of 2, so could
there be something special relating base 2 digits with base 16 digits?
4.3 Exercises
1. Convert 30 from base 8 to base 10.
7. Notice that 23 a + 22 b + 2c + d, where a, b, c, d are each either 0 or 1, is a binary
expression. It’s also an integer between 0 and 15, inclusive. Moreover, each ordered
quadruple (a, b, c, d) uniquely defines an integer between 0 and 15, inclusive. So, is
there something special relating base 2 digits with base 16 digits?
8. Convert 1.5 from base 10 to base 7.
9. How many bases b less than 6 are there for which 36 in base b is a perfect square?
10. Did you realize that in the above problem 36 is not a valid representation in a base
less than 6? Watch out for tricks.
11. Mr. Young is from Planet Q, which counts in base... oh, darn, I don’t remember!
What I do know is that I gave Mr. Young 100 Qoins for a pencil that costs 11 Qoins,
and he correctly gave me 10 Qoins in change. The reason I don’t remember what
base Planet Q uses is that it might not be an integer... but of course, it’s still a valid
base. Well, tell me, what base do they use?

1. The base is also known as the radix. Some mathematicians have explored having
a complex numbers as a radix. The radix 2i allows every number to be expressed
without any positive/negative symbols.
’08 MOP The function f is a polynomial with coefficients in the set {0, 1, 2, 3}. Find, in terms
of n the number of such polynomials f such that f (2) = n.
Chapter 5
Systems of Linear Equations and

Inequalities
In this chapter we get to the heart of algebra: systems. Normally, systems can be quite
easy to solve, and some problems on contests will be a cinch. But there are a few wrenches
thrown in here and there.
5.1 Vocabulary
Definition 1. A consistent system of equations has at least one solution. It could have many
solutions, but it definitely has at least one.
Definition 2. An inconsistent system does not have any solutions at all.
Definition 3. A dependent system means that one of the equations gives no extra information. If
two lines are the same, then the system is dependent.
Definition 4. An independent system means that every equation is distinct, so that every line is
different.
5.2 The abs
The absolute value function should always be a warning that you should be alert. It
returns the distance from a number to 0. The graph looks like a V, going through the
origin and symmetric about the y-axis.
It’s always a good idea to plug your answer into the problem to see if it makes sense.
Check to make sure you don’t somehow have an absolute value of an expression equal to
a negative number.
16
CHAPTER 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 17
When dealing with absolute values, break everything down into cases. If you have |x|,
break it down into x < 0 and x ≥ 0. If you have |x + 3|, break it down into x < −3 and
x ≥ −3. If you have |x/y|, life gets tougher. Just break down the problem into cases where
expressions inside absolute values are either less than zero or greater than/equal to zero.
You might need a lot of cases — don’t be discouraged.
A few things to keep in mind:
Theorem 10. |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|
Theorem 11. |xy| = |x| × |y|
Theorem 10 might seem boring, but extend it to multiple dimensions, and you have the
Triangle Inequality. If you treat x, y as vectors, imagine point A to be the origin and B to
be A + ~x and C to be A + ~y , then you get BC ≤ AB + AC.
5.3 Inequalities
Inequalities are also tricky. They’re essentially solved with the same methods as equa-
tions, but beware of pesky sign changes. Multiplying or dividing by negative factors
always flips the sign. Make sure you check your work on these. One way to quickly
check your work is to plug in the boundary or boundaries from your solution set into the
problem. If you get the boundary of a condition described in the problem, that’s a good
sign. Then, plug in things inside your solution set into the problem; they should satisfy
the conditions. Plug in things outside your solution set into the problem; they should not
satisfy the conditions. Choose easy numbers like 0.
5.4 Exercises
1. Draw a graph of a consistent system.
2. Draw a graph of an inconsistent system.
3. Draw a graph of a dependent system.
4. Draw a graph of an independent system.
5. Solve for x: |x| = −x. Try both graphing and casework.
6. How do you use the absolute value function on your calculator?
7. How do you graph inequalities on your calculator?
8. Solve for x: |x| = −x2 .

CHAPTER 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 18
9. Solve for (x, y): 3x + 2y = 4 and 24x + 16y = 31.
10. The system 8a + b = 14 and −4b − 32a = M has a solution (a, b). Find M .

1. Look up Gaussian elimination with matrices. What is back substitution? How can
you tell if a multivariable system is dependent or independent?
2. How can you tell if a system has solutions?
3. What is a vector space? What is a vector space dimension?
4. What is a null space?
5. Learn collegiate Linear Algebra.

Freshmen Math Team Topics

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Freshmen Math Team Topics

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Freshmen Math Topics

Written by Kevin Hu, Naperville Central High School Class of 2011

2 Number Theory and Divisibility 4

3 Counting Basics and Simple Probability 10

5 Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 16

Number Theory and Divisibility

We start with one of the most important facts in number theory.

max(e1 ,f1 ) max(e2 ,f2 ) max(e3 ,f3 )

min(e1 ,f1 ) min(e2 ,f2 ) min(e3 ,f3 )

2.2 LCM and GCD

max(e1 ,f1 ) max(e2 ,f2 ) max(e3 ,f3 )

min(e1 ,f1 ) min(e2 ,f2 ) min(e3 ,f3 )

Theorem 2. [a, b] × (a, b) = a × b

2.2.1 LCM and GCD of multiple numbers

Theorem 3. (a, b, c) = ((a, b), c) and [a, b, c] = [[a, b], c].

|X ∪ Y ∪ Z| = (|A| + |B| + |C|) − (|A ∩ B| + |B ∩ C| + |C ∩ A|) + |A ∩ B ∩ C|

Theorem 4. [a, b, c] = a × b × c ÷ ((a, b) × (b, c) × (c, a)) × (a, b, c)

2.2.2 The Euclidean algorithm

Theorem 5. (a, b) = (a − kb, b)

As you can see, we stopped at (140, 20) because 20 is a factor of 140.

2.3 Divisibility Rules

The section title should not be interpreted as a complete sentence.

integer. 10x + y = 9x + x + y, so as long as x + y is divisible by 3, so is 10x + y. If you

2.4 Trailing Zeros

jxk jxk jxk

2. Determine the prime factorizations of 2010 and 2011. Memorize these.

3. Prove Theorem 3. Hint: use prime factorizations.

4. Prove Theorem 4. Hint: use prime factorizations.

5. Evaluate [168, 144] by hand.

6. Evaluate (168, 144) by hand.

9. Evaluate [720, 500] × (500, 720) by hand. Use prime factorizations.

11. Evaluate (144, 168, 180).

12. Evaluate [144, 168, 180].

13. Calculate (18084533, 20418113). The Euclidean Algorithm may be helpful.

14. How many trailing zeros are there in 1000!?

2.6 Points of Interest

5. Is there a prime between n and 2n inclusive for each positive n?

6. Is there a prime between n2 and (n + 1)2 for each positive n? (Open)

Counting Basics and Simple Probability

3.2 Permutations and Combinations

Let’s get the formulas over with first:

A permutation is an arrangement of objects or values into a particular order. Thus, order

3.3 Miscellaneous Probability

(−1)(0.94) + (2)(0.03) + (24)(0.02) + (39)(0.01) = −.01

You expect to lose 1 penny for each ticket you buy.

6. J. Z. is playing basketball. His first shot has a 1/10 probability of scoring. If he

3.5 Points of Interest

2. Look up the rules of Craps and find the house edge.

4. Stare at Pascal’s Triangle in awe.

5. Prove Pascal’s Identity using formulas: nk = n−1 + n−1

6. Prove the Hockey Stick Identity: rr + r+1 n n+1

There, that wasn’t so difficult, was it?

Theorem 9. dn dn−1 . . . d3 d2 d1 d0 in base 10 is equal to . . .

4.4 Points of Interest

Systems of Linear Equations and

Definition 2. An inconsistent system does not have any solutions at all.

5.2 The abs

Theorem 10. |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|

Theorem 11. |xy| = |x| × |y|

2. Draw a graph of an inconsistent system.

3. Draw a graph of a dependent system.

4. Draw a graph of an independent system.

5. Solve for x: |x| = −x. Try both graphing and casework.

6. How do you use the absolute value function on your calculator?