Professional Documents
Culture Documents
John Frame from John Frame Consulting for compilation of financial inputs
Barry Coetzee from the City of Cape Town for information on policy and other
legislative issues
Shirene Rosenberg from the City of Cape Town for information, and report review
Wouter Roggen from the City of Cape Town for information, and report review
Craig Haskins from the City of Cape Town for information, and report review
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 3
4.1 WATER SUPPLY ...................................................................................................................................40
4.1.1 Surface Water Resources ............................................................................................ 40
4.1.2 Groundwater Resources .............................................................................................. 43
4.1.3 Water Supply Infrastructure ......................................................................................... 44
4.1.4 Alternative Sources of Water ....................................................................................... 46
4.1.5 Water Demand ............................................................................................................. 47
4.1.6 End Use ....................................................................................................................... 49
4.1.7 Water losses and un-accounted for water ................................................................... 51
4.2 BASIC SANITATION AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT ..........................................................................54
4.2.1 Basic Sanitation ........................................................................................................... 55
4.2.2 Wastewater Treatment and Infrastructure ................................................................... 55
4.2.3 State of Infrastructure .................................................................................................. 58
4.2.4 Wastewater Effluent and Environmental Impact .......................................................... 59
4.2.5. Sewage Sludge ........................................................................................................... 60
4.2.6 Wastewater re-use ....................................................................................................... 61
4.2.7 Grey water ................................................................................................................... 63
4.3 SERVICE LEVELS ..................................................................................................................................64
4.4 URBAN WATER CYCLE ........................................................................................................................66
4.5 ASSET MANAGEMENT..........................................................................................................................66
4.6 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER AND SANITATION ........................................67
4.6.1 Biogas .......................................................................................................................... 70
4.7 SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ...........................................................................................70
5. TECHNOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS .............................................................................................73
5.1 EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES AND ENERGY ..............................................................................................73
5.2 ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS ................................................................................................74
5.2.1 Alternative sources of water ........................................................................................ 74
5.2.2 Technologies to reduce water consumption ................................................................ 75
5.2.3 Wastewater treatment technologies ............................................................................ 76
5.2.4 Catchment Planning and Integrated Urban Water Resource Management (IUWM)... 79
5.2.5 Centralised vs. decentralized wastewater treatment technologies .............................. 80
6. FINANCIAL ASPECTS..........................................................................................................................83
6.1 WATER DEMAND AND WASTEWATER DISPOSAL ...................................................................................84
6.1.1 Tariffs, Income and Expenditure .................................................................................. 85
6.2 SEWERAGE TREATMENT ......................................................................................................................89
6.2.1 Alternative Sanitation Technologies ............................................................................ 89
6.3 BILLING SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................90
6.4 HOW THE WWTPS BUDGETS ARE DETERMINED...................................................................................90
6.5 HOW NEEDS ARE DETERMINED.............................................................................................................92
6.6 HOW PRIORITIES SET ............................................................................................................................93
6.7 HOW FINAL DECISIONS MADE...............................................................................................................93
6.8 CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS ........................................................................................................94
7. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS..........................95
7.1 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES ........................................................................................................................95
7.2 FINANCIAL ISSUES ...............................................................................................................................96
7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH ISSUES ...............................................................................................97
7.4 TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATION ISSUES............................................................................................97
7.5 FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................................................................................................98
8. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................99
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 4 4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background
In spite of the significant economic growth, the City of Cape Town faces huge socio-
economic and development challenges. In the water and sanitation sector years of
inadequate investment in infrastructure has lead to a crises situation in the
wastewater sector. An estimated R 1, 5 billion is required to upgrade wastewater
treatment facilities to meet legal discharge requirements. Development has been
curtailed in areas with inadequate supply infrastructure and/or overloaded
wastewater treatment plants, at a huge social, economical and environmental cost.
Amidst the constraints and limitations of restructuring, budgets cuts and staff losses,
this sector has however managed to ensure that the majority of formally housed
citizens in Cape Town have reliable access to clean water and proper functioning
sanitation services.
Great strides have been made with by-laws and the development of a service
delivery plan, which aligns with the growth and development objectives of the City.
More recently, the Council committed to a R759 million strategy, which aims to guide
water conservation and demand management over the next 10 years and reduce
demand by 323 Ml/day.
Most citizens however, who tolerate the risk related realities of their un-serviced and
overcrowded dwellings, polluted rivers, oceans and skylines and the consequences
of inappropriate development would question the extent to which „paper
commitments‟ are being met.
This report provides a baseline of useful information in the Water and Sanitation
service, with specific reference to the City of Cape Town and does not attempt to
represent the entire scope of information available. This baseline report is one of
three drafted for a broader project “Integrated Resource Management for Urban
Development”, aimed at identifying more sustainability practices in the water, energy
and waste sectors . Two independent consultants were involved: Sonja Pithey and
John Frame, who was responsible for the financial chapter.
Institutional Challenges
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Integrated Planning and Operations: The latest Waster Services
Development Plan is the first to align with the Integrated Development Plan
(IDP). External integration with National and Provincial processes , and internal
integration amongst within line functions as far as planning and operations are
concerned, remains on ongoing concern.
IUWM: The changing institutional landscape offers an ideal opportunity for the
adoption of Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) philosophy and
practice. Research support exists in this rapidly emerging field which offers the
City an opportunity to spearhead international best practice in resource
management.
Operational Challenges
Water: The DWAF driven Reconciliation Study, currently underway will prioritise
water supply options future demand. Most of the 81 million m3 water from the
new Bergwater Dam will be allocated to the City, who effectively reduced their
demand well below the (2003) crises predicted in 1999. Groundwater use is
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 6 6
under development and only 7% of treated effluent is currently being re-used. A
local pilot desalination plant aims to test the financial viability of this option
Loss of Environmental Service: Most of the rivers receiving treated effluent
are severely degraded and many coastal bathing beaches are not safe to swim
in during summer months, due to contaminated stormwater and wastewater
discharges. Many urban waterbodies have lost their ability to clean up pollution
and are not fit for any recreational purposes.
Human health risks:. Toxic algal blooms and polluted runoff from poorly
services settlements (grey and black water) pose a serious health risk to
neighbouring communities. Clear links between pollution and human
health/quality of life could possibly increase the profile of these issues.
Energy and GHG: Local information linking the service to energy and
Greenhouse Gas issues is scarce. A pilot project at Athlone, which currently
vents the electrical production equivalent of R2, 8 million in biogas, could test
alternative technologies and approaches. Feasible energy saving technologies
have been identified in the water and wastewater sector and could be tested.
The potential contribution of sewage sludge to the energy sector is also under
exploited.
Findings of this study substantiate the strategic interventions for the water and
sanitation sector, proposed in the National Strategy for Sustainable Development.
These are:
Sustaining our ecosystems and using natural resources efficiently
Investing in sustainable infrastructure
Creating sustainable communities
Enhancing systems for integrated planning
Building capacity for sustainable development
Key recommendations
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 7 7
The future of water resource management in the City of Cape Town harbours many
untapped opportunities for innovation and transformation. The paperwork is done.
1. Introduction
The Sustainability Institute in Lynedoch, have secured UNF-funding for their
“Integrated Resource Management for Urban Development” project. This
report provides baseline information about the Water and Sanitation service,
with the emphasis on Cape Town. It is one of the three baseline studies
drafted during the first phase of the project. Baseline reports have also been
drafted for the energy and the waste sectors. These three baseline reports
represent the first phase of the broader process, which aims to assist Cape
Town with identification of more sustainability practices.
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Figure 1: Project Location
The City of Cape Town has a 371km long coastline and varying topography
which ranges from the low lying Cape Flats area to high mountains such as
Table Mountain, which towers more 1000m above sea level, and is fairly
close to the sea.
Cape Town‟s rivers are relatively small and are generally not used for
domestic water supply. Most rivers in the City have carried the brunt of urban
development, displaying poor water quality1 and high levels of alien
infestation and siltation. Some larger city rivers worth mentioning are the
Salt-, the Diep-, the Black-, the Eerste-, Kuils-, Moddergat- and Lourens
rivers. The rivers which are utilised as water sources lie mostly outside of the
City of Cape Town jurisdiction. These are the tributaries to the Berg River
namely the Wolwekloof and Banhoek tributaries, Sonderend-, Palmiet-, Klein
Berg- and Leeu rivers. Of these, the Berg River which flows in a northerly
and later westerly direction is by far the largest.
Cape Town has 64% of the Western Cape‟s population (Census 2001) and it
generates 76% of the regions Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The City is
blessed with unique geophysical features and natural resources, which form
the backbone of the highly lucrative tourism industry. Its mountains, coastline
and rich biodiversity are part of an extremely valuable natural heritage has
become increasingly threatened by the pressures of urban development.
1
See Water Quality indicators in the Sustainability Report, COCT, 2005
2
COCT, 2007 :Executive Summary :Water Services Development Plan (WSDP)
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1.2 Project Scope and Outcomes
This document aims to summarise key issues and publications and further
investigation into highlighted documents or issues is enabled via the reference
systems and Water Resource References spreadsheet and accompanying CD.
This reference tool is a first attempt to collate key polices, documents and
research papers in the water and sanitation sector, in a user friendly table.
Where available, hyperlinks have been established to the actual documents,
which are saved on the same CD as the spreadsheet. In order to remain
effective, this spreadsheet should be updated on a regular basis to reflect the
rapidly changing legal and research environment in the water and sanitation
sector.
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2. Policy and Knowledge context
South Africa is a water poor country and yet prior to 1994, not much had been
done to address this reality. Water allocation and sanitation provision was
driven by racial bias and the previous National Water Act 54 of 1956, placed
industrial and agricultural water needs above any social and/or environmental
water concerns. Although a mismatched distribution of water between
various user groups is still evident today, national water policy in South Africa
is at the frontier of international thinking and the soundly underpinned by the
principles of equity, sustainability and efficiency. The gap between policy and
practice however remains one of the key challenges to water managers in all
tiers of government.
The following item briefly outlines key policy documents and their implications
for the water sector, post 1994.
The right to a healthy environment, which is protected for present and future
generations, is assigned in Section 24 of this Act. Recent legislation such as
the Promotion of Administrative Justice Act serves to support the
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11
constitutional rights of citizens and facilitate effective enforcement of those
rights.
3
Figure 2: Water Policy Process: Major phases and activities
In the WRC review, from which the above table was extracted, other macro
policy development which followed the promulgation of the Constitution, such
as the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), are expanded
3
From : An Assessment of the Water Policy Process in South Africa (1994-2003), WRC Report
No TT232/04, June 2004
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upon. These broader processes and the principles contained therein had a
direct influence on the water policy development process.
The following section will briefly summarise the intent of some of the key acts,
policies and strategies, that are ultimately rooted in Constitution and which
have a bearing on the water and sanitation sector.
2.1.2 Water Supply and Sanitation Policy, 1994 and 1997 White Paper.
These documents saw a fundamental shift in national government
involvement in the delivery of basic water and sanitation services to
previously disadvantaged people, many whom were in rural areas. The
concept of domestic water for basic human needs and realistic pricing also
accompanied this process.
2.1.3 The Water Services Act 108 of 1997
This Act primarily legislates the municipal function for providing water supply
and sanitation services. Its mandate stems from the Constitutional right to
sufficient water and the Act gives local authorities the ability to manage their
own water supply. As part of the Integrated Development Plan (IDP)4, the Act
stipulates that every water service authority must prepare a Water Services
Development Plan (WSDP)5. The Act includes measures to promote water
conservation and demand management.
2.1.4 National Water Act 1998 No 36 of 1998
The National Water Act is acknowledged as one of the most progressive
water acts in the world and has been translated into many languages,
including Chinese6. The act represents the outcome of a consultative water
law review process, which started in 1994 under the then Minister of Water
Affairs and Forestry, Kader Asmal. A key shift in emphasis had occurred and
the principles of equity, efficiency and sustainability have become common
drivers of many new strategies and policies emerging from this act.
This act legislates the protection, use, development, conservation, control and
management of the water resource both groundwater and surface water. Its
mandate stems from the Bill of Rights in the Constitution, Section 24, that
states that „everyone has the right to an environment that his not harmful to
their health and well-being‟. This Act represents a progressive departure from
water management attempts in the early 1900, which merely controlled
irrigation. Water law development and management has seen the emergence
of increased legal protection of the sources and all users of water. The
current act is in line with international water management protocol, because
all of aspects of the hydrological cycle must be accounted for and managed.
4
IDP: A strategic plan drawn up by the Municipality to guide all future development.
5
WSDP : A business plan setting out the ways in which the water service authority must plan and
deliver water services to business and individuals in the area of jurisdiction
6
Impumelelo Case Studies, 2004 : Water
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Various policies and strategies have stemmed from this act to address the
various components of the water cycle.
7
Impumelelo, 2004 Series of Best Practice, Water
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2.1.9 National Water Conservation and Water Demand Strategy and Water
Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the Water
Services Sector (2004)
The Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the
Water Services sector form one of three components of the National Water
Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (NWC/DM). The
other two components are the Agriculture sector strategy and the Industry,
Mining and Power Generation sector strategy. The NWC/DM is itself a
contribution to the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS), which is a
requirement of the National Water Act. The WC/DM Strategy document for
the Water Services sector outlines the objectives, constraints and
opportunities as well as institutional roles to those involved with WC/DM.
References to useful supporting guidelines and tools to implement the
strategy are also included8.
Of the national targets set, the most critical for Cape Town are9:
All people are to have access to functioning basic water supply by 2008
(achieved in CCT in 2005/06)
All people are to have access to functioning basic sanitation by 2010
(CCT are aiming for 2012 due to the extent of the requirement and its
unique constraints)
Investment in water services infrastructure should total > 0,75% of GDP
Institutional reform of regional water services providers to be completed
by 2013, with Water Services managed and accounted for separately
Annual reporting on key performance indicators to be started.
8
DWAF, 2004: Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the Water
Services Sector, Pg 23.
9
From COCT, 2007 WSDP
10
COCT, 2005 : Safety, Health and Environment Policy and procedure Manual
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2.1.12 National Disaster Management Act 2002
The National Disaster Management Act emphasises preparedness,
prevention and mitigation. The act calls for the drafting of disaster
management plans, which outline contingency plans and emergency
procedures. Of particularly significance to the water services is the
requirement to develop contingencies and emergency procedures to deal with
the floods, dam safety, drought and water pollution.
11
Impumelelo, 2004 : Series of best practice : Environment
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2.2 Provisional Spatial Growth and Development Strategy (Green paper),
2006 and Western Cape Provincial Spatial Development Framework, 2006
Legislation, Policies and Strategies Governing Water Management
These two provincial strategies form the overarching growth and development
frameworks for the Province. Key challenges and opportunities are
highlighted and targets are set. These documents provide the medium term
strategic framework, which should be fleshed out in the various Integrated
Development Plans for each Local Authority. Various Provincial Growth and
Development Strategies should in turn meet the National requirements.
2.3 Local Government (COCT) Legislation, Policies and Strategies and key
interventions Governing Water and Sanitation Management
The following sections outlines the key polices and strategies that have been
developed by the City of Cape Town to meet Provincial and National
requirements:
2.3.1 Integrated Development Plan (2007)
As mentioned above, the Municipal Systems Act, 32 of 2000, requires that
Municipalities draw up a strategic plan which should guide all future
developments. The Integrated Development Plan (IDP) identifies
Municipalities development priorities and is used by political, business and
community leadership to determine activities and operational plans and guide
the allocation of resources. It also seeks to alleviate poverty, boost local
economic development, eradicate unemployment and promote the process of
reconstruction and development12. The Municipal Systems Act (2000) and
the Municipal Financial Management Act (2003) require that the IDP be
reviewed annually.
2.3.2 City Development Strategy (Sakha Ikapa 2030)
The City is currently developing a long term Human Settlement Plan. This
strategy aims to result in substantial changes in settlement patterns, land use,
energy and water and waste issues.
12
COCT, 2005 Integrated Development Plan 2005/6
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integrated document such as the MSDF, a highly complicated and time
consuming task.
The Policy provides a vision for the environment of Cape Town in the year
2020, which includes the following13 :
13
COCT, 2001 Integrated Environmental Management Policy
14
COCT, 2007 Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (Final Draft)
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programmes15, and presents a very comprehensive, albeit optimistic, future
commitment for the water service. The strategy is discussed in more detail
in the next chapter.
2.3.7 By-Laws
The following table provides a summary of the City of Cape Town by-laws that
relate to the water services:
16
Table 1: By-laws affecting Water Services
The purpose of this document is to outline the procedures that are required to be
developed and put into practice to fulfill the requirements of the Occupational
Health and Safety, Act No. 85 (OH&S Act) of 1993. The NOSA Management
System has been adopted as a framework for this policy.
15
Replaces 2001 Policy and 2005 10 Point Conservation Plan
16
COCT, 2007 WSDP
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2.3.13 Sustainability Reporting
This report, formally know as the State of the Environment Report, tracks the
health of the City in terms of key indicators. Of particular significance to the
water and sanitation sector is the reporting on matters such as health of
rivers, vleis and coastal bathing areas, and access to basic services. The
document provides a means of benchmarking tracking overall progress and
performance of the City.
In the context of this review, the following extracts17 from MDG particularly
significant:
Target 10 has the following two water and sanitation related indicators:
17
From UN Millennium Project website : www.unmillenniumproject.org/index.htm
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and Tourism‟s (DEAT) latest strategy for sustainable development (described
below). At the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg,
the commitment to sustainable development was reaffirmed and poverty
eradication was placed at the centre of its efforts.
The Strategy identifies the following water and sanitation related risks:
The NSSD has identified the following priorities area for strategic intervention:
18
DEAT, 2006 : National Strategy for Sustainable Development. (Draft Integrated Strategy for
Review)
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Enhancing systems for integrated planning
Building capacity for sustainable development
The Freedom Charter and Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South African
paved the way for a water law review process which saw a fundamental shift
in emphasis towards the principles of equity and sustainability. The Preamble
of the National Water Act, 1998 makes the following ultimate recognition19:
At the local government level, the City of Cape Town has made noteworthy
progress in terms of incorporating the concept of sustainable resource
management into their driving policies and strategies. Overarching
documents such as the IDP, MSDF and IMEP set the City wide values and
objectives.
19
DWAF, 1998 National Water Act
20
DWAF 1996 Water Law Principles
21
DWAF 1997 White Paper on National Water Policy for South Africa
22
COCT, 2007(Power Point Presentation) :Water and Sanitation -WSDP Executive Summary
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“To become a leader in the provision of equitable, sustainable, people-
centred, affordable and credible water services to all”.
In their efforts to cut back on printed paper, the City recently compiled a
reference CD, which contains the equivalent of over 800 printed pages of
policy and strategy documents towards sustainable development23.
The City of Cape Town has made great strides towards the development of
sustainable policies, but most citizens who tolerate the risk related realities of
their un-serviced and/or overcrowded dwellings, polluted rivers and oceans
and skylines and the consequences of inappropriate development would
question the extent to which „paper commitments‟ are being met.
The preceding section has highlighted the abundance of water and sanitation
related policy documents and processes. Although South African water law is
at the frontier of international water law development, the realities of past
injustices more often than not, retards the policy implementation process.
The following critical water and sanitation related challenges were identified in
the Cities most recent Water Services Development Plan (WSDP)24 :
Many of the above practice are in direct violation of various tiers of legislation.
23
COCT, 2006 (CD): City of Cape Town policy and strategy documents towards sustainable
development through integrated environmental management
24
COCT, 2007 :WSDP Executive Summary
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23
Services Department is currently only getting approximately R450
million(based on 2006/7 budget). There is a shortfall of R300 million
in capital funds.
Block capital finance to relay water mains was eliminated in 2001/02.
The water reticulation system suffers from budgetary neglect.
In 2005/6 the City eliminated its contribution to the Capital Renewal
Reserve (CRR), which is a fund for the upgrading and replacement of
infrastructure and is funded from the surplus made in previous
financial years.
Finances for the Water and Sanitation Services Department have
been deteriorating due in part to poor revenue collection and
increasing bad debt, and there is currently no funding source through
which to maintain infrastructure.
No funding for the upgrade and replacement of infrastructure was
available up until June 30th, 2007.
25 Della Togna M & Pithey S , 2003 (VIDEO and CD). Improving Services Trough Dialogue. The
Kalkfontein Stormwater Project. Rainbow Circle Films, Cape Town.
26
Scmitz, T, 1999 : Rethinking delivery : A review of efforts of DWAF, CPS Policy Analysis
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24
Affordability of service: capital and long term operational cost (very
important) should be determined and committed over the long term
Ownership and accountability is required throughout the lifetime of a
project
These items are particularly significant to fast tracked water and sanitation
projects in high density/low-income areas, where basic services are often
politicised.
The Water Conservation and Water Demand Strategy placed a high priority
on capacity building. The following extracts indicate progress in this regard:
Hlonipha Amanzi (Respect Water) Programme27
In 2006/07 Water and Sanitation Services launched their “Hlonipha Amanzi”
Programme. The programme covered 30 informal areas.
The project was aimed at informing and educating informal communities on
the basic services provided. The campaign promoted and encouraged
community cooperation to better manage valuable resources such as water,
to help keep the environment and themselves clean and to prevent the spread
of diseases associated with an unhealthy environment. Through this it was
hoped to build better communities.
A series of workshops were held in each area covering topics such as service
delivery elements, vandalism, unhealthy environments, disease/germs and
what the community can do to prevent this. The workshops culminated in
washing of hands, tea/coffee and sandwiches for all and presentation of
certificates for all attendees as well as a bucket, soap, and soap dispenser.
The last workshop in each area also had lucky draws for small prizes, like
retail store vouchers and food hampers.
27
From COCT 2007, WSDP
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2.7 Western Cape Reconciliation Study and Berg River CMA Process
The Reconciliation Study will also be used to launch the process to establish
a Catchment Management Agency (CMA) for the Berg Water Management
Area (WMA). The objective of the Berg CMA will be to manage the water
resources within the Berg WMA and to involve stakeholders in the protection,
use, development, conservation, management and control of these water
resources29. This process is discussed in the next chapter.
The following table provides a list of Water Demand Management and Water
Supply Options to be considered in the Study and should be read in
conjunction with the accompanying map:
28
WCWSS : The system includes five large dams, namely the Upper and Lower Steenbras and the
Wemmershoek Dams owned by the City of Cape Town, and the Voëlvlei and Theewaterskloof Dams owned
by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. In addition, there are a number of smaller dams and weirs
including the Kogelberg, Rockview, Kleinplaas and Misverstand Dams.
29
From DWAF, 2005 Newsletter 1 : Western Cape Reconciliation Study and Berg River CMA
Process
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WS - Wide Spread implementation of options across the system area.
OMA - Outside Map Area
Water Supply Options Water Demand Management Options
SURFACE WATER SCHEMES AGRICULTURAL WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT
Dams: River Release Management:
1 Twenty-Four Rivers 23 Riviersonderend
2 Waterval River 24 Berg River
3 Lower Wit River 25 Voëlvlei/Misverstand
4 Upper Wit River Irrigation Practices:
5 Upper Campanula Scheme WS Canal and Farm Dam Losses
Diversions: WS Crop-Deficit Irrigation
6 Lourens River WS Drip/Microjet /Sprinkler irrigation
7 Eerste River
8 Olifants River (Keerom) TRADING OF EXISTING ALLOCATIONS
9 Upper Wit River 26 Eikenhof Dam
10 Upper Molenaars River 27 Lower Berg River
11 Michells Pass 28 Greater Ceres Dam (Koekedouw Scheme)
12 Voëlvlei Augmentation Phase 1
Dam Raisings: REMOVAL OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANTS
13 Misverstand WS Within catchments
14 Lower Steenbras WS Riparian Zones
15 Theewaterskloof
16 Voëlvlei Augmentation Phases 2 and 3 URBAN WATER-DEMAND MANAGEMENT
Transfers: WS Leak detection and repair
17 Brandvlei to Theewaterskloof Transfer WS Pressure management
WS Use of water-efficient fittings
GROUND WATER SCHEMES WS Metering and plumbing repairs in low income areas
18 Table Mountain Group Aquifer WS Use of grey water
19 Cape Flats Aquifer WS Use of well points and boreholes
20 West Coast Aquifers including recharge WS Metering
21 Newlands Aquifer WS Tariffs and surcharges / credit control
WS Water User education
DESALINATION WS Rainwater tanks
22 Desalination alone/with co-generation of energy
WATER RE-USE
OTHER SCHEMES WS Exchange reclaimed wastewater for commercial irrigation
OMA Congo River Options WS Industrial re-use
OMA WS Reclamation to potable water standards
Tanker /Inflatable bladders
OMA Orange River (Sea/Surface Pipeline) WS Urban irrigation
OMA Towing of Icebergs WS New housing (dual reticulation)
WS Aquifer recharge
Table 2: An initial list of Water Demand Management and Water Supply Options to be
considered in the Western Cape Reconciliation Study.
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Figure 3: Location of initial Water Demand Management and Water Supply Options to be
considered in the Western Cape Reconciliation Study30
30
DWAF 2005 Western Cape Reconciliation Process and Berg River CMA Process, Newsletter
May 2005
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 28
28
3. Regulatory and Institutional Environment
3.1 Regulatory System
The previous chapter lists most of the policies and guidelines which govern
activities in the water and sanitation sector. This report is submitted with a
spreadsheet which provides a summary of the Acts, policies and regulations
and key documents which govern water and sanitation management in the
City of Cape Town.
3.2 Institutions
The following sections will briefly discuss the historical and future institutional
arrangements in the water and sanitation management sector of the City of
Cape Town.
Prior to 1994, the current City of Cape Town area consisted of a large number
of smaller municipalities, or councils. The dominant municipality was the
Cape Town City Council (CCC), which at the time also owned and operated
the bulk water supply system. Outside of the CCC area, the bulk supply
system and the secondary distribution systems of the various municipalities
were separated, with metered bulk off-takes used by the CCC for billing
purposes. Within the CCC area however, the bulk- and secondary systems
were integrated, since all its consumers were billed directly.
With the political changes in 1994, the smaller municipalities in the CMA were
amalgamated into 6 Metropolitan Local Councils (MLC‟s), with the Cape
Metropolitan Council (CMC) as a regional local authority in charge of bulk
services This prompted a separation of the bulk- and secondary systems in
the old CCC area.
In December 2000, the unified City of Cape Town (CCT) was formed, by the
amalgamation of the six short-lived MLC‟s and the former CMC.
31
COCT, 2007: WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 29
29
Currently the Bulk Water Branch within the CCT operates the bulk water
supply system, and supplies water to the Reticulation Branch‟s eight
reticulation districts who in turn distribute the water to the end users. The
number of districts may reduce from eight to four for operational efficiency.
The eight districts are required to interact with 22 sub-councils from a political
perspective to ensure co-ordination and integration at political level.
The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, who are the custodians of
South Africa‟s water resources and the key national department to whom local
government are accountable to.
Technical Services
Wastewater Treatment
32
Figure 4: Water Services Organisational Structure
32
COCT 2007 Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy for Cape Town
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 30
30
Reports on institutional matters are riddled with references to lack of capacity,
significant staff losses, delays in the transformation process and low staff
moral.
Two current institutional reform processes are currently underway and could
have major implications for the future operations and management of water
services in the City of Cape Town:
Cape Town‟s intent follows the national agenda, which is to set up a public
and tariff service for water provision with economic growth and job creation
set as high priorities.
The decision to set up a separate Water Services Authority (WSA) and a ring-
fenced Water Services Provider (WSP) was reconfirmed by Council in June
2004 based on the recommendations of a USAID funded review of potential
business units33. This institutional reform process is also guided by the
Strategic Framework for Water Services (SFWS)34 which provides the
following definitions:
33
ODA, aloeCap and Africon, 2004 : “High level review of the project to establish internal
business units for Electricity, Water and Sanitation and Solid Waste Management Services”
34
DWAF, 2003, Strategic Framework for Water Services
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 31
31
The SFWS sets goals and targets for water services in South Africa and
provides a road map for the establishment of and separation of the authority
and the provider. The process in Cape Town has been delayed due to delays
in the transformation process.
The National Water Act provides for the establishment of CMAs as statutory
bodies to manage water resources within hydrologically defined catchments,
called Water Management Areas. The City of Cape Town falls within the Berg
River (and Breede River) Water Management Area and is one of the key role-
players in the establishment of the Berg River CMA. As established in the
previous chapter, the Berg River CMA process is currently being rolled-out
concurrent with the Western Cape Reconciliation Study.
Each CMA will be responsible for managing water resources within a defined
Water Management Area. The initial functions are36:
35
WRC, 1994 Financial and Institutional Review Survey Report: Palmer Development Group
36
DWAF, 2005 Western Cape Reconciliation Process and Berg River CMA Process, Newsletter
May 2005
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 32
32
To promote co-ordination between the implementation of its catchments
management strategy with the implementation of water services
development plans by water services authorities (municipalities).
”The City of Cape Town has adopted a multimillion rand water savings
strategy for the next ten years.”
37
COCT , 2007
As early as 1995, the City of Cape Town committed to a 10% saving on the
historical demand for water, but only by 2002 did the Integrated Water
Resource Planning (IWRP) study38 provided a comparative evaluation of
various water demand initiatives and supply augmentation schemes that
could assist in developing a strategy.
The implementation of the first strategy was however not sustainable and due
to numerous institutional challenges the initial commitment and resources to
WC/WDM were significantly reduced during 2003/2004 financial year and
again during 2005/2006. Water demand management did not appear to be a
budget priority.
The City of Cape Town has recently adopted a new Water Conservation and
Demand Management Strategy39, which links directly with vision and
principles Water Services Department, and meets the water resource
management, water conservation and water demand management
requirements of the Water Act and the Water Services Act. The most recent
WC/WDM strategy replaces and/or incorporates all previous related plans and
programmes40, and presents a very comprehensive, albeit optimistic, future
commitment for the water service.
37
COCT, 2007 Media Release 11 June 2007, Communications Department
38
COCT, 2001 : Integrated Water Resource Planning study – Main Report
39
COCT, 2007 Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (Final Draft)
40
Replaces 2001 Policy and 2005 10 Point Conservation Plan
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 33
33
“to ensure the long-term balance between available Water Resources
and water demand, to postpone the need for expensive capital
infrastructure projects for as long as it is economically viable and to
minimise water wastage.”
The strategy is divided into 5 goals, which in their turn are divided into 21
objectives. Goals and Objectives fall under two categories:
Implementation Goals and Objectives, which will result in direct
reduction of water demand, and
Enabling Goals and Objectives, which address the institutional and
financial aspects of the strategy.
41
COCT, 2007 WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 34
34
Enabling Goals and Objectives:
Goal D: CCT must adopt WC/WDM as one of the key water service
delivery strategies, and must give priority to its implementation and
ensure an ongoing adequate enabling environment
42
COCT, 2007 :WSDP Executive Summary
43
COCT, 2007 : (Council Report) Adoption of long-term water conservation and water demand
management strategy and financial plan, incorporating adoption of treated effluent strategy and
master plan
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 35
35
Reduction in the normal natural growth rate due to new consumers by
25 % per annum. Reduce growth rate from 3% to 2%. (excluding
reduction of existing water usage)
It is estimated that water demand can potentially be reduced by 323
Ml/day.
WC/WDM strategy, budget summary of key projects (representing 85% of the budget)
The total programme financial requirements for the next ten years are:
Objective Programme Operating Capital Total x 1000
Objective A1 A1.1 Pressure reduction R 1 110.0 R 9 990 R 11 100
A1.2 Establishment of leak detection task teams R 7 560.0 R 3 240 R 10 800
Objective A2 A2.1 Comprehensive water supply management R 80 800.0 R 121 200
projects in previously disadvantaged areas R 202 000
Objective A3 A3.2 Preventative maintenance R 10 200.0 R0 R 10 200
Objective A4 A4.2 Meter management /replacement programme R 0.0 R 37 300
R 37 300
Objective B1 B1.1 Consumer awareness campaign R 24 700.0 R0 R 24 700
B1.2 Consumer education campaign R 15 610.0 R0 R 15 610
B1.3 School education R 21 850.0 R0 R 21 850
B1.4 Special events R 10 000.0 R0 R 10 000
Objective B2 B2.2 enforcement of by-laws R 7 340.0 R0 R 7 340
Objective B5 B5.1 Implement a plumbing retro –fit programme R 37 850.0 R0
R 37 850
B5.4 Implement an on-going support programme for R 7 880.0 R0
large consumers R 7 880
Objective E1 E1 Recycling of water from wastage plants to R 20 569.0 R 185 121
parks & industry R 205 690
Objective E2 E3.1 Support working for water programme R 8 550.0 R0 R 8 550
Objective C1 C1.1 Establish Distircti management areas R 460.0 R 4 140 R 4 600
Objective C2 C2.1 Management Information System R 0.0 R 27 500 R 27 500
C2.2 Upgrading the telemetry system, remote R 0.0 R 27 980
communications (cell) R 27 980
Other Small projects R 70 596.0 R 17 649 R 88 245
Total R 325 075.0 R 434 120.0 R 759 195
Table 3: WC/WDM Budget requirements of key projects (10 year total)
The estimated financial requirement for the next ten years is R 759 million
whereas the benefit of implementing WC/WDM over the next 10 years is
estimated at approximately R 1694 million44.
44
COCT, 2007 : (Council Report) Adoption of long-term water conservation and water demand
management strategy and financial plan, incorporating adoption of treated effluent strategy and
master plan
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 36
36
3.3.2 Case Studies
The following extracts from the latest WSDP45 summarise the findings:
Mfuleni
The average pressure in this township was reduced from 7 to 4 bar,
generating a saving of 36 000 kl (R200 880) per month. The night flows were
significantly reduced by more than 50%. The low project cost of R300 000
yields a very short payback period of only 2 months. Investigations are being
done to further reduce the pressure at night, by means of time-modulated
specialist controllers.
Gugulethu
Further savings can be obtained from the system installed, but current
statistics indicate a saving in the region of 48 180kl (R 268 844) per month.
The payback period is only 1 month. It is estimated that combined reductions
in demand from the projects has already resulted in savings of approximately
2.5 Ml
45
COCT, 2007 WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 37
37
largest-volume users in this category. As an incentive, it is agreed that arrears
will be written off, should the owner keep a leak-free property for 6 months
after the repair is complete. To date 8 000 leak repairs have been completed
at an average saving of 25kl per households per month. It is estimated that an
investment of R95 000 will continue to yield an approximate saving of R558
000 per month
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 38
38
4. Water and Sanitation Infrastructure and Usage
The limited financial situation in the City versus the high demand for new housing
has created a scenario where the City is not in a position to maintain existing
infrastructure and to provide the required bulk infrastructure for connection of
new developments.
WSDP, 2007
47
Table 4: Water and wastewater infrastructure replacement cost
In short, the City has failed keep up with the maintenance and development of
infrastructure, and has contributed to extensive asset stripping. International
good practice dictate that around 2% of expenditure should be directed
toward Operations and Maintenance.
46
Shands, Asch and Africon Engineering : Review of the infrastructure and fixed assets of the
Water and Sanitation Service, 2003
47
COCT, 2007 :WSDP Executive Summary
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 39
39
The following provides a summary of water supply and sanitation
infrastructure and highlight some of the shortcomings identified in the asset
review:
48
Figure 5: Main components of the Water Supply Infrastructure
48
COCT, 2006 WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 40
40
and it forms a part of a large inter-basin water transfer scheme that regulates
the flow from the Sonderend-, Berg- and Eerste rivers. The Voëlvlei dam,
near Gouda relies on diversion works in the Klein Berg, Leeu and 24 Rivers
for its water supply. The Wemmershoek dam is situated in the mountains
near Franschhoek and is supplied from various small rivers in the
Wemmershoek mountains (e.g. Tierkloof- and Olifants rivers). The Steenbras
Upper dam and Steenbras Lower dam are situated inside the COCT
boundary, in the Hottentots-Holland mountain range near Gordon‟s Bay, and
serve a dual purpose of providing an upper reservoir for the Steenbras
Pumped Storage Scheme and for supplying water for domestic/industrial use
to the City. Other smaller dams include the dams on Table Mountain
(Woodhead, De Villiers, Hely Hutchinson, Victoria and Alexandra) which are
used to supply water to the southern suburbs and the Peninsula, and the
dams at Simons Town (Kleinplaas and Lewis Gay) which provide water to the
Peninsula.
The bulk of the Cities water is obtained from surface water, which represents
440,5 Mm3 /year , or 97% of the total yield. This water is stored in dams over
the wet winter months for use during the dry summer months. Groundwater
sources only account for 6,64Mm3/year or 1,46% of the total yield. The
following table provides and overview of the sources, their ownership and
yield.
FIRM YIELD*
APPROXIMATE %
OWNED & CCT Registered
DAMS/RIVERS OF TOTAL SUPPLY (1:50 YEAR)
OPERATED BY Usage
REQUIREMENTS**
3
Mm
3
Major Sources % Mm
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 41
41
FIRM YIELD*
APPROXIMATE %
OWNED & CCT Registered
DAMS/RIVERS OF TOTAL SUPPLY (1:50 YEAR)
OPERATED BY Usage
REQUIREMENTS**
3
Mm
Simon‟s Town:
Kleinplaas
Table Mountain:
Woodhead
Hely-Hutchinson
CCT 0.88% 4 4
De Villiers Dam
Victoria Dam
Alexandra Dam
49
Table 5: Surface Water Resources
The figure shows that the bulk of the water (more than 70 -75%) is obtained
from DWAF owned dams, with the balance provided by the Cities own
sources.
The total yield for the City is estimated at 446.86 Mm3 for a 1:50 year of
rainfall. The following graph, however indicates the fluctuation in % of storage
capacity over a 12 year period. The strained capacity experienced in 2004
and 2005, with dams reaching a 12 year low of 26% full in April 2005, resulted
in accelerated water conservation and demand management strategies, the
details of which are outlined in the previous chapter.
49
COCT, 2007 WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 42
42
CITY OF CAPE TOWN DAMS: 12 YEAR GRAPH INDICATING % OF TOTAL STORAGE CAPACITY
120
100
80
% FULL
60
40
20
05-Jul
18-Jul
10-May
24-May
08-Nov
22-Nov
19-Jan
07-Jun
21-Jun
01-Mar
15-Mar
29-Mar
06-Dec
20-Dec
11-Oct
25-Oct
02-Feb
16-Feb
02-Aug
16-Aug
30-Aug
13-Sep
27-Sep
12-Apr
26-Apr
DATE
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Figure 6 : City of Cape Town dams :12 Year trends in storage capacity
Total 6.64
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 43
43
then pumped directly into the distribution system of the City of Cape Town.
The Atlantis supply scheme comprises of two aquifers, one at Witzands and
one at Silwerstroom, with an estimated 44 boreholes extracting groundwater
from this source. The Cape Flats aquifer sits below the sandy deposits of the
Cape Flats. Its storage capacity is estimated at 128Mm3, but the rate of
natural recharge is estimated at only 18 Mm3/annum50. Use of this aquifer
and the Newlands aquifer, which could yield an estimated 10 Mm3/annum,
has not been developed.
Extracted from the most recent draft WSDP, the total amount of treated water
supplied by the City of Cape Town is summarised as follows:
The total bulk water supplied within the Cape Metropolitan Area for the
financial year ending June 2006 was 272 million cubic meters (average 745
Ml/day). This includes Unaccounted-for-Water (UAW) and bulk losses in bulk
pipelines. The City also supplies approximately 62 Ml/d to Water Services
Authorities and other minor consumers outside its area of jurisdiction, for a
total of 807 Ml/d.
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 44
44
Depots
The water services has 9 operational depots. Replacement value of these
was estimated to be R 58 million.
Pump stations
More than 55 water supply pump stations are operated throughout the City
and have a combined installed power of 46 135 kW. Pump stations have an
estimated replacement value of R 314million.
Water reticulation
The 9 629 273 km of pipeline which is used to convey bulk and treated water,
accounts for 70% of value of the water supply infrastructure. Replacement
value of this asset is estimated at R8 billion. The total replacement value of
all investigated water supply infrastructure is estimated at R11,6 billion.
State of infrastructure
The bulk water system in the northern areas is under stress during peak
periods. The EIA of the augmentation scheme in this area is underway. Most
alarming however the losses are recorded which relate to the state of the
reticulation system.
Future requirement:
This network of pipes and connectors accounts for 70% of the water
supply systems fixed assets and there is an urgent need to survey and
capture the state of this system and programme a plan of remediation.
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 45
45
4.1.4 Alternative Sources of Water
Various studies have indicated that Water Demand Management and Water
Conservation (WC/WDM) initiatives are the most feasible water augmentation
options to meet the growing water demand for the city53.
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 46
46
Water trading
Water trading with other water users in the Western Cape is highlighted as a
feasible option. This could involve the City of Cape Town purchasing water
rights from other users such as agriculture on a temporary or permanent
basis, for their own use. The programme calls for further investigation and
feasibility studies on this matter.
The previous chapter has indicated that for the financial year ending June
2006, the City received 272 000 000m3 /year or 745 Ml/day of water.
The distribution of water demand in the City of Cape Town, from the latest
WSDP is as follows:
Category %age
Commercial & Industrial 15%
Departmental Cluster 2%
Domestic Cluster 6%
Domestic Full 45%
Government 2%
Miscellaneous 5%
Municipal 3%
Schools and Sportsfields 2%
Non-Revenue Demand 21%
Domestic (Residential) use makes up the bulk (51%) of the demand for water.
The second biggest user, Non-Revenue Demand (also known as
Unaccounted for Water), presents an alarming statistic, which due to
discrepancies in calculations, is currently being reviewed 57. Indications are
that this figure may be as high as 23 %. Third biggest water user in the City is
Commerce and Industry (15%).
57
John Frame, (Pers Com) : Ongoing revised calculations of Non-Revenue Demand
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 47
47
The City of Cape Town currently provides a full level of service to
approximately 656 800 formally registered customers. This customer base is
broken down as follows:
600
Low Water Demand
Actual
500 2007/08 IDP
WDM Strategy
400
300
200
100
0
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
Year
BWP= Berg Water Project, with addition of new Skuifraam dam, increasing supply by 81Mm 3
59
Figure 7: Water demand curves against the backdrop of existing supply
The actual demand reduced from 1999 until 2001 due to the drought and
water restrictions. The demand started increasing again from 2001 until 2003
58
COCT, 2007 WSDP
59
COCT, 2007 WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 48
48
but never recovered to the original level achieved in 1999. From 2003 until
now the demand started declining again due to further restrictions.
The current level of 272 million m 3 per annum (745 Ml/day , during 2006) is
64 million m 3 less than the demand of 2000, which was 336 million m3 per
annum(920 Ml/day). We are currently using 14% less water than in 2000.
The trend can be ascribed to the successful restrictions and water
conservation and demand management strategies, discussed in the previous
chapter.
The effectiveness of water demand initiatives and previous and current water
restrictions can be seen in the drop in actual demand since 2003. The risk of
severe restrictions has been reduced and the Berg Water Project, which is
aimed for completion at the end of 2007, brings an additional 81Mm3 of water
into the supply stream. With its Water Demand Strategy and restricted use,
the City has committed itself to minimal growth in water demand (see IDP and
WDM projections), way below the low water demand projections anticipated in
2002.
The low water demand curve, anticipated that further water resources would
be required by 2013. The latest projections based on WDM and IDP however
indicates that the need for new water resources could be postponed until
much later. The City is currently working on figures to update these
projections.
The most recent local information regarding end use is possibly in the Water
Consumption Study for the City of Cape Town60 which conducted an
extensive literature review and published results of an end use survey which
they conducted in the City of Cape Town.
Published values for unit demand indicate that a low, typical and high per
capita demand is considered to be 50-, 300- and 650 liters/capita/day (l/c/d)
respectively, by global standards. The global minimum standard is accepted
to be about 50 l/c/d. The South African studies showed that the low-, typical-
and high demands are 50-, 150- and 300 l/c/d locally.
The study found limited information on end-use share, the difference between
indoor and outdoor use. Garden water demand appears to contribute most to
residential water demand (if a garden were present and were irrigated). The
study found that the share of water used for garden irrigation varies
60
COCT, 2005 Water Consumption Study, Community Engineering Services
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 49
49
considerably from one study to another. It is clear from literature that garden
water demand is hard to predict.
The following (past and projected) population statistics have been extracted:
Avg Avg Avg
City of Cape Growth Growth Growth
Population Population Population Population
Town % 2001 % 2006 % 2016
2001 2006 - 2006 2016 - 2016 2031 - 2031
Cape Town 1,130,175 1,187,229 1.0 1,253,867 0.6 1,280,143 0.1
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 50
50
Tygerberg 976,412 1,075,394 2.0 1,174,194 0.9 1,214,732 0.2
Blaauwberg 173,452 271,370 11.3 374,080 3.8 433,181 1.1
South Peninsula 406,354 437,676 1.5 481,640 1.0 519,724 0.5
Oostenberg 319,710 389,351 4.4 470,436 2.1 525,466 0.8
Helderberg 148,114 186,084 5.1 243,517 3.1 282,601 1.1
Total 3,154,217 3,547,104 2.5 3,997,734 1.3 4,255,847 0.4
The following table summarises the average yearly consumption per area for
the period 1999 - 200662. For further reference, this data contains monthly
usage per MLC are for the period Jan 2004 – December 2006 and yearly total
usage for the period 1999 – 2006.
Average yearly
City of Cape Town Population water usage in % Use
2006 kl
Cape Town 1,187,229 81 578 702 34
Tygerberg 1,075,394 70 279 566 28
Blaauwberg 271,370 24 919 863 10
South Peninsula 437,676 30 501 599 12
Oostenberg 389,351 24 902 349 10
Helderberg 186,084 15 380 471 6
Total 3,547,104 247 562 510 100
Table 10: Water usage per previous MLC boundary billing area
The definition of UAW as used by Water Services is from the South African
Bureau of Standards (SABS) Code of Practice (SABS 0306:1999): The
Management of Potable Water in Distribution Systems. In the code, UAW is
defined as:
61
COCT, 2006 WSDP
62
From King,Peter 2007, Unpublished Water Usage tables
63
COCT, 2007 Understanding Water Losses: Report to Trading Services and Infrastructure
Portfolio Committee
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 51
51
“Unaccounted-for water: the difference between the measured volume
of water put into the supply and distribution system and the total
volume of water measured to authorized consumers whose fixed
property address appears on the official list of the water services
authority”.
The UAW as defined above comprises both physical and non-physical losses.
The components of UAW are:
Physical losses:
o authorised but unmetered consumption
o authorised but unmetered usage
o reservoir overflows and leakage
o distribution main bursts and leakage
Non-physical losses:
o unauthorised unmetered connections
o inaccurate meters
o errors in billing and administrative systems
UAW can be seen as water leaving the system that is not measured in some
way i.e. not accounted for.
A summary of the water balance for the 2005/06 financial year is given below.
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 52
52
UAW 12 Month Moving Average
25.0%
20.0%
15.0%
10.0%
5.0%
0.0%
Nov-05
Jun-05
Jul-05
Jan-06
Jun-06
Mar-06
Aug-05
Sep-05
Dec-05
Feb-06
Apr-06
May-06
Oct-05
The most recent WC/WDM strategy64 indicates that the total unaccounted for
water is estimated at 23.3% or 186 Ml/day.
The strategy explains that statistics on UAW do not necessarily reflect the
quantum of water wasted. The measurement of minimum night flow (MNF), which
is made up of reticulation losses and consumer wastage, is a proposed as an
alternative indicator. In a residential area where there is no industrial water usage
it can be assumed that most of the Minimum Night Flow recorded from data
logging is water wastage made up of the following:
64
COCT, 2007 Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy
65
COCT, 2007 Understanding Water Losses: Report to Trading Services and Infrastructure
Portfolio Committee
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 53
53
Ensuring the accuracy of the water balance by addressing both the accuracy
of measuring devices and the accuracy of the data used in the balance
calculation.
Further planning and creation of distribution system zones to allow problem
areas to be identified.
Ensure a strategy is in place to replace obsolete or inaccurate consumer
meters.
Ensure all authorised but currently unmetered use is reasonably measured.
Ensure all new connections are placed on the billing system.
Audits and investigations done to identify unauthorised consumption like
illegal connections and unauthorised use of hydrants.
Large consumer meter audit and meter sizing analysis.
Further application of pressure management to reduce leakage levels.
Establishment of mains leak detection and repair programme.
The dysfunctional state of the sewage infrastructure in the City of Cape Town
is often front page news. Under the heading “Sewage Shock” the Cape
Times editorial, cited above, furthermore highlights the environmental
consequences and limitations to development caused by the lack of past
investment in the sewage infrastructure. In her 2007/8 budget speech, the
City of Cape Town‟s mayor cautions against the negative impacts on
development, public health and the environment and emphasis the need for
investment in sewage infrastructure67.
66
Cape Times, 3 April 2007 : Editorial
67
Cape Times, 3 April 2007 : Inadequate Management hinders development by Anel Powell
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 54
54
4.2.1 Basic Sanitation
The fate of shack dwellers using buckets for toilets was decided at a City of
Cape Town Council meeting where a call was made to address the housing
backlog of 400 000, before upgrading sanitation services to „informal‟
dwellings. It was argued that proper sanitation services could be provided
once people were moved to areas where this was possible.
The latest WSDP69 reports that approximately 30 000 households do not have
access to basic sanitation, while 17 050 remaining informal households have
a basic service which includes toilet shared at by less than 5 households per
toilet. The households that do not have access to basic sanitation have
access to an emergency level of service, which includes black buckets, of
which 2 857 still need to be replaced.
The WSDP furthermore highlights the lack of sanitation for the current influx
of approximately 7 700 households per annum into the informal settlements.
68
Cape Argus, 3 April 2007: Shack Dwellers stuck with buckets by Lindsay Dentlinger
69
COCT, 2007 WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 55
55
70
Figure 9: Main components of the wastewater treatment infrastructure
70
COCT, 2006 : WSDP
71
COCT,2001 : Bulk Water Infrastructure and Statistics (Internal document)
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 56
56
Approximately 120 km of bulk gravity sewers
In addition to the above, there are approximately 395 smaller pump stations
and associated reticulation networks, responsible for sewage conveyance
across the city. The major portion of the wastewater flow of approximately 567
Mℓ/day generated within the CMA is conveyed through pumping installations
and treated at 20 wastewater treatment works. Only 32, 5 Mℓ/day is disposed
of via the three marine outfall pipelines.
development? (%)
Hydraulic capacity
Discharge volume
Design Capacity -
Design Capacity -
Design Capacity -
Present hydraulic
Present hydraulic
development (%)
Present Organic
loading (Annual
within 5 years?
Hydraulic Load
Organic Load -
loading (Ml pa)
Permit volume
daily average)
(COD kg/day)
Organic Load
loading - pe's
Capacity still
(annual daily
available for
available for
requirement
(Ml/annum)
(Ml/annum)
equivalents
population
Additional
average)
(Ml/day)
WWTW
Type
Athlone AS 73,000 105 106.8 38,982 nil 99,000 900,000 788,527 12.4 38,982 no
Bellville AS 14,691 54.6 51.8 18,907 5.1 63,930 581,182 561,047 3.5 17,837 yes
Borcherds AS 12,045 33 31.1 11,352 5.8 39,600 360,000 400,000 NIL 10,900 no
Quarry
Camps Bay Sea Outfall 2,000 5.5 2.1 767 61.8 4,400 40,000 19,903 50.2 766 no
Cape Flats AS 91,250 200 135.2 49,348 32.4 199,100 1,810,000 1,164,078 35.7 40,000 no
Dover Ox Pond - 0.01 0.005 2 50.0 - - - 50.0 nil no
Gordons Bay AS 1,290 3.1 2.7 986 12.9 1,530 13,909 16,400 NIL 986 yes
Green Point Sea Outfall 10,950 40 26.8 9,782 33.0 25,600 232,727 175,000 24.8 9,782 no
Hout Bay Sea Outfall 3,600 9.8 4.5 1,643 54.1 8,820 80,182 32,762 59.1 1,643 no
Klipheuwel RDU - 0.07 0.1 37 NIL 50 455 750 NIL 0 yes
Kraaifontein AS + BF 2,810 17.5 18.8 6,862 NIL 17,500 159,091 125,415 21.2 6,300 yes
Llandudno RDU 114 0.28 0.19 69 32.1 175 1,591 1,036 34.9 69 no
Macassar AS 13,280 57 36.2 13,213 36.5 40,755 370,500 236,382 36.2 12,920 no
Melbosstran AS 5,475 5.4 2.9 1,059 46.3 2,700 24,545 15,753 35.8 200 yes
d
Millers Point RDU - 0.06 0.06 22 NIL 66 600 600 NIL 22 yes
Mitchells AS 9,024 45 33 12,045 26.7 52,800 480,000 392,895 18.1 12,045 no
Plain
Oudekraal RDU 1.26 0.03 0.03 11 NIL 33 300 300 NIL 11 no
Parow AS 438 1.2 1.0 365 16.7 748 6,800 7,092 NIL 0 yes
Philadelphia Ox Pond - 0.086 0.075 27 12.8 - - - 10.0 0 yes
Potsdam AS + BF 14,700 32 35.5 12,958 NIL 33,600 305,455 385,000 NIL 8,319 at
present
Scottsdene AS 2,140 12 10.3 3,760 14.2 10,200 92,727 68,417 26.2 3,300 yes
Simons BF 730 5 2.3 840 54.0 3,040 27,636 12,710 54.0 840 no
Town
Wesfleur AS 2,372 14 9.8 3,577 30.0 16,800 152,727 87,713 42.6 0 yes
Wildevoelvlei AS 2,555 14 9.9 3,614 29.3 9,460 86,000 73,615 14.4 3,613 yes
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57
development? (%)
Hydraulic capacity
Discharge volume
Design Capacity -
Design Capacity -
Design Capacity -
Present hydraulic
Present hydraulic
development (%)
Present Organic
loading (Annual
within 5 years?
Hydraulic Load
Organic Load -
loading (Ml pa)
Permit volume
daily average)
(COD kg/day)
Organic Load
loading - pe's
Capacity still
(annual daily
available for
available for
requirement
(Ml/annum)
(Ml/annum)
equivalents
population
Additional
average)
(Ml/day)
WWTW
Type
present
Treatment Type : AS= Activated Sludge Ox Pond = Oxidation pond BF = Bio-filter RDU = Rotating Disk Unit
72
Table 11: Wastewater treatment data
Other significant statistics form the same report cited above includes:
Approximately 31,0 Ml/d (5,9%) of wastewater is discharged directly
via marine outfall sewers
53 000 tonnes/annum of dry sludge is estimated to be produced
Approximately 31 Ml/d (6%) of treated effluent is re-used
The total effluent received at the treatment works is given in the table below:
2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06
Total (Ml) 193 453 192 083 195 865 196 214 196 498 198 891
Inc / dec -0.7% +2.0% +0.2% +0.1% +1.2%
Media attention and the latest WSDP continues to highlight the deteriorated
state of infrastructure, particularly the sewer system. This alarming fact is due
to under-provision for essential maintenance and replacement of aging
infrastructure over several years. Major pipe collapses, leakages and
stormwater infiltration requires urgent attention. Many sewer systems are
72
COCT, 2007, WSDP
73
CMC, 1999 : Strategic Assessment of Bulk Wastewater Infrastructure : Study Synopsis
(Ninham Shand and Africon)
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 58
58
running over capacity and discharging sub-standard effluent and sewage
sludge into the receiving water and marine environments. The areas where
water and sewer infrastructure are severely stressed and are in need of
significant upgrades include74:
West Coast / Parklands development corridor
De Grendel / N7 development node
Northern development corridor
Bottelary development corridor
Fast-track housing projects (e.g. N2 Gateway)
Maccassar / AECI development node
4.2.4 Wastewater Effluent and Environmental Impact
The following table provides a summary of the % compliance of WWTW to the
treatment standards prescribed by DWAF.
74
COCT, 2007 WSDP, Executive Summary
75
COCT, 2007 WSDP
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 59
59
The Cities State of the Rivers76 report documenting the health of rivers in the
greater Cape Town area found the ecological health of rivers downstream of
final effluent discharges from Wastewater Treatment Works “poor” to “bad”.
Degradation of the rivers, wetlands and coastal bathing areas, toxic algae
blooms and alien infestation are some of the consequences of polluted
discharges. In addition, altered flows and canalization have diminished the
system‟s capacity to self cleanse, or assimilate pollution. Water Quality
Indicators show severe environmental degradation. The impact on human
health has however not been quantified, and there is an urgent need link
human health issues/quality of life with degraded environments in order to
increase the profile of this issue.
4.2.5. Sewage Sludge
Wastewater treatment has three by products. Wastewater (liquid) and biogas
(gas) and sewage sludge (solid). It is estimated that the City produces 48 415
ton of sewage sludge per year of which 57% was beneficially used in 2006.
QUANTITY
ESTIMATED ANNUAL % MONTHLY
BENEFICIALLY USED
WORKS SLUDGE BENEFICIALLY PRODUCTION
JAN TO DEC 2006 -
PRODUCTION - Tons USED - tons
Tons
Athlone 7,500 0 0.0 625
Bellville 5,250 5,889 112.2 438
Borcherds Quarry 4,000 1,881 47.0 333
Cape Flats 11,000 4,000 36.4 917
Gordon's Bay 140 0 0.0 12
Kraaifontein 1,100 890 80.9 92
Macassar 2,800 2,789 99.6 233
Melkbosstrand 150 150 100.0 13
Mitchells Plain 4,250 104 2.4 354
Potsdam 4,500 4,500 100.0 375
Scottsdene 825 800 97.0 69
Simon's Town 100 0 0.0 8
Wesfleur 1,100 1,100 100.0 92
Wildevoelvlei 800 800 100.0 67
Zandvliet 4,900 4,900 100.0 408
TOTAL 48,415 27,803 57.4 4,035
77
Table 13: Beneficial sludge utilisation
Due to the potential health risks, beneficial use of sewage sludge is governed
by stringent regulations78. Many under utilised opportunities exist for
beneficial use sewage sludge, especially at Athlone wastewater treatment
plant which produced 7,500 tons of sludge per year.
76
Cited in COCT, 2006 WSDP for 2006/7
77
King, P Pers Com and unpublished graph
78
DWAF, 2006/7 Guidelines for Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater sludge (Volume 1-5)
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 60
60
The following disposal processes were considered in an earlier strategic
investigation for bulk wastewater79
Incineration
Composting
High lime process
Drying and pelletisation
Co-disposal on landfill
Direct agricultural use
Manufacture of organic fertilizer
Brick making and allied fields
Co-combustion in coal fired power stations
79
CMC, 1999 : Strategic Investigation of Bulk Wastewater, Study Synopsis, Cape Wastewater
Consultants
80
COCT,2006 Water Services Annual Report 2005/6
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61
A feasibility assessment in 2004 determined that at R2.00 per kilolitre, 23 000
000 kl/year (63 Ml/day) can (in the short term) be recycled to a number of
potential large consumers.
The following financial implications, extracted form the progress report above,
illustrate the financial feasibility:
“To achieve the 63 Ml/day saving of potable water, it will cost the City in the
order of R202M (NPV). At an average R 2 /kl the income generated once
completed will be approximately R 51 million per year. This implies that the
programme will pay itself in approximately four years and will subsequently be
generating an income for CCT.”
The City of Cape Town has identified three main programmes to achieve the
objective of maximizing treated effluent and these are as follows81:
Installations and modifications to infrastructure to the value of R202
million
Operations, maintenance and effective management of the treated
effluent systems
Consumer and financial management
The following table summarises the cost and flow related figures of immediate
“quick win” and longer term effluent reuse opportunities:
81
COCT, 2007 WSDP
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62
The income that could be generated from the immediate works that would
cost R 3.49 million would release 7 Ml of effluent for re-use and generated an
estimated at R 5.2 million per annum.
The Athlone, Bellville, Cape Flats and Potsdam works have the highest
effluent re-use potential and it is estimated that 64.89 Ml of effluent could be
made available for re-use in the long term, at a cost of R202 Million.
The City of Cape Town‟s Greywater guidelines83 define grey water as the
runoff from informal settlements as a result of emergency water supply which
consists of wastewater from the washing of laundry, personal bathing and
cooking activities.
The latest WSDP 84 reports on a pilot grey water management pilot project in
an informal settlement in Khayelitsha. The project aims to establish the
impact of aeration on a stormwater trench which collects grey water. More
information needs to be obtained about the long term objectives and
sustainability of this project.
82
COCT, 2007 WSDP
83
COCT, 2005 : Greywater Guidelines
84
COCT, 2007
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63
Grey water from formal serviced areas is less prone to harmful pathogens and
the nutrients therein offer opportunities for re-use in gardens and/or toilet.
One of the objectives of the City of Cape Town‟s latest Water Conservation
and Water Demand Management Strategy85 is to promote alternative water
resources and technologies which include the following:
The strategy notes the need for to address the health and pollution issues
related to this practice and proposes that the following activities of this
programme that need to be budgeted for:
The following table shows the service levels categories used by the City of
Cape Town:
Category WATER
Inadequate No access to basic water supply as defined below. (Water would generally be obtained at
great difficulty from other residents supplied at an emergency, basic or full level of supply.)
Emergency Partial access to basic water supply, as dictated by site-specific constraints (e.g., high
dwelling densities).
at a ratio of not more than 25 households per tap (based on 25 liters per person per
day at a flow rate of 10 liters per minute);
with an effectiveness of not more than 7 days interruption supply to any consumer
per year; and
85
COCT, 2007 WC/WDM Strategy
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64
SANITATION
Inadequate No access to sanitation as defined below. (Residents would either share with other residents,
supplied at a basic or full level of supply, their sanitation facilities, or would provide for
themselves – often through unhygienic means. In many instances these residents are being
serviced by the CCT through the weekly removal of 20 litres open stercus “black bucket”
containers, a service which is to be replaced.)
Emergency Partial access to sanitation (more than 5 households per toilet), as dictated by site-specific
constraints (e.g., high dwelling densities),
Basic a) The provision of a shared toilet (at a ratio of not more than 5 families per toilet) which is
safe, reliable, environmentally sound, easy to keep clean, provides privacy and
protection against the weather, well ventilated, keeps smells to a minimum and prevents
the entry and exit of flies and other disease-carrying pests; and
86
Table 15: Service level categories
Both existing formal developed and informal areas (excluding rural areas) in
the City of Cape Town generally meet the minimum standards for water
supply as required by the Water Services Act 108 (of 1997) i.e. a communal
standpipe within 200 m walking distance (with a minimum supply rate of 25
litres per person per day at 10 litres per minute).
All of the 847 000 consumer unit‟s formal households have either a metered
water connection to the house or to a yard toilet with water tap (uncontrolled
volume supply). The first 6 kilolitres per month are supplied at no charge (free
basic). Informal areas have communal standpipes and water is provided free.
The latest WSDP87 reports that approximately 30 000 households do not have
access to basic sanitation (inadequate), while 17 050 remaining informal
households have a basic service which includes toilet shared at by less than 5
households per toilet. The households that do not have access to basic
sanitation have access to an emergency level of service, which includes black
buckets, of which 2 857 still need to be replaced. 768 000 Households
discharge to the sewer treatment works.
86
COCT, 2007 WSDP
87
COCT, 2007 WSDP
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65
4.4 Urban Water Cycle
The following useful schematic is from the Water Conservation and Demand
Management Strategy:
88
Figure 10: Urban water cycle in COCT
88
From Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy, COCT 2004
89
COCT, 2005 Project Definition Report for the Asset Management Plan for the Trading Services
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 66
66
Various Water Services reports have acknowledged that the lack of a proper
Asset Management System contributed extensively to the deterioration in
infrastructure and service delivery in the City of Cape Town. A project was
launched in 2003 to develop a Strategic Municipal Asset Management Plan
(AMP) for the Trading Services to ensure that:
Asset requirements and asset management strategies are driven by
defined service levels and performance standards, and are linked to
strategic planning objectives as defined in the Integrated Development
Plan [IDP];
Scarce financial resources are properly allocated and managed to
optimise investment in infrastructure; and
A long-term (life-cycle) approach is taken when determining asset
operations, maintenance, renewal and development strategies.
The project entails a six staged approach:
Stage 1: Improvement Strategy Development
Stage 2: Basic Asset Register
Stage 3: Basic Asset Management
Stage 4: Improved Maintenance Management
Stage 5: Introduce Advanced Asset Management Techniques
Stage 6: System Optimization
To date the programme has been facilitated through an asset care centre and
managed through a bureau arrangement with asset performance
management specialist PRAGMA Africa.
The scoping report uses the GHG contribution statistics from an earlier
survey91 as its point of departure. This study found solid waste land fills sites
are the largest contributor to GHG emissions (tonnes CO2 equivalent) at 37%
and that water and sewerage only contributes 6%.
90
COCT, 2002 : Scoping Investigation Report on Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas
Mitigation Projects for the City of Cape Town
91
Sustainable Energy Africa & COCT, 2002 (Unpublished report): Greenhouse Gas Inventory for
the City of Cape Town
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67
Water & sewerage Waste
6% 37%
Vehicle fleet
15%
Buildings
Street lighting
18%
24%
Water Supply:
The main opportunities for energy efficiency are:
Scheduling of pumps
Use of more efficient pumps and/or technologies such as variable
speed drives (VSD)
Adjusting the diameter of existing pipes to more efficient dimensions
Repairing cracks and leaks in the distribution system
Redirecting water flow more effectively through the installation of new
valves, and
Expanding the volumes of water containment areas and holding tanks
The following feasible projects were recommended for implementation (cost
estimates for 2002):
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68
436. The project payback period was estimated at 1,5 years, which
could result in emissions of 4 660 tonnes CO2 per year, 41 tonnes
SOX emissions, 21 tonnes NOX emissions and 2 tonnes particulate
emissions per year.
Wastewater
The largest WWTW (Athlone, Bellville, Borcherds Quarry and Cape Flats)
already have blower aeration and the following 6 cases were proposed:
Melkbos
Description Macassar Zandvliet Wildevoelvlei Potsdam Gordons Bay
Strand
Annual energy consumption savings [kWh] 3,504 MWh 2,313 MWh 1,226 MWh 1,367 MWh 259 MWh 154 MWh
Annual energy cost of current system [Rand/yr] R1,282,308 R918,877 R567,394 R463,334 R122,003 R53,725
Initial capital investment [Rand] R1,900,000 R1,500,000 R1,200,000 R1,200,000 R400,000 R350,000
Net present value [Rand] R1,584,502 R996,926 R341,818 R59,049 -R68,474.22 -R204,009
Straight payback period [years] 3.7 4.1 5.3 6.5 8.2 16.3
Annual CO2 emission reductions [tonnes/yr] 3,119 2,058 1,091 1,216 231 137
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4.6.1 Biogas
The process of anaerobic digestion (biomethanation) of wastes produces
methane rich biogas and effluent. Biogas mainly consists of methane (60-
75%), carbon dioxide (25-40%) and can be used for cooking/heating or
motive power or electricity through dual-fuel, gas engine, low pressure gas
turbines or steam turbines92.
Athlone wastewater treatment plant which treats 105 Ml of sewage per day,
currently vents over 4 000 000 m3 (1857 tons) of methane to the atmosphere
per year. All eight of its 1000 m3 anaerobic digestors are not capturing
biogas for re-use and indications are they are going to be decommissioned93
in the near future.
In slides94 from his discussions with the COCT, Mark Wells highlights the
following statistics:
There is a need for further investigation into biogas production and re-use
potential at other COCT plants such as Cape Flats (1, 5 times more than
Athlone, some used), Mitchells Plain (1/3 of Athlone, dysfunctional gas
collector), Kraaifontein (vented) and Simonstowns (vented).
92
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India http://mnes.nic.in/u3.htm
93
King, P Pers Com, May 2007
94
Wells, M 2005, (Power Point Presentation) Athlone Biogas and Integrated Farming Systems,
Concept Discussions with the COCT, Agama Energy 6 September 2005
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The City of Cape Town has made great strides towards the development of
sustainable policies, but most citizens who tolerate the risk related realities of
their un-serviced and/or overcrowded dwellings, polluted rivers and oceans
and skylines and the consequences of inappropriate development would
question the extent to which „paper commitments‟ are being met.
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71
River bed and bank alteration: Sewage spills and runoff form urban
areas cause rivers siltation. In order to prevent flooding river need to
be cleared (mostly mechanically) of silt and alien vegetation which
causes bed and bank habitat destruction. Years of digging have also
deepened the profile of many rivers that use to be flatter in profile. In
addition to the loss of habitat, this action also results in dangerously
steep river banks that are often difficult to climb out of, in the event of
an accident.
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72
5. Technological Interventions
Energy represents the largest controllable cost of providing water or
wastewater services to the public.
California Energy Commission95
95
Californa Energy Commission website www.energy.ca.gov
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Storage
Dams H
Reservoirs ▼
Rainwater tanks L
Aquifers
Water purification
Sedimentation/flocculation H
Primary settling ▼
Boiling L
Transportation to end-users
Pump stations H
Water vendors (transportation) ▼
Gravitational flow L
Sewage transportation
Pump stations H
Transportation (conservancy tanks and bucket systems) ▼
Gravitational flow L
Sewage Treatment
Aerobic Treatment (Activated sludge)
Anaerobic treatment H
Primary :Screening (to sea) ▼
On site (e.g. VIP, septic tank) L
None (Greywater)
Disposal
Re-use : Domestic
Re-use : Industrial
Re-use : Recreational (Golf/sportfields/parks) H
Re –Use : Agricultural (Phillipi) ▼
Discharge to rivers/wetlands L
Discharge to groundwater
Discharge to sea
Discharge to stormwater system (Greywater)
Literature reviewed cites the most feasible alternative sources of water for the
City of Cape Town as:
Groundwater
Treated Effluent
Desalinated seawater
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74
The following table, compiled from information in a recent COCT Portfolio
Committee report96 provides an overview of the various alternative sources of
water currently being investigated, together with the status of the
investigation:
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6. Negotiations and incentives to developers
7. Improved reticulation design and plumbing standards
8. A high level of operation and maintenance, with rapid response to bursts
and leaks
The Strategy estimates that increased efficiency of all new consumers can
reduce the growth in water demand 25%. Key issues are selecting
appropriate levels of service for different communities, ensuring efficient
plumbing fittings (such as dual flush toilets), efficient reticulation design
practices and pre-payment meters.
The figure100 is a generalized flow chart of the sewage renovation process used
in on-site treatment. In addition to the processes shown, some removal of
nitrogen, phosphorous, other nutrients, and other contaminants occurs due to
primary and secondary treatment.
99
WRC, 2005 A 3 Step Strategic Approach to sustainable wastewater management
100
Virginia State University website : On site sewage treatment
http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/448-407/448-407.html#L5
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There are various technologies and various biological treatment processes
available101 e.g.:
The anaerobic process has the highest potential to produce energy. Methane
is a by-product of digestion and could be converted to energy, and produce
101
Adapted from “Sewage Treatment Technologies” Juanicó - Environmental Consultants Ltd.
Isreal : http://www.juanico.co.il
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77
and income. A pilot biogas and integrated farming systems project is currently
being proposed for Athlone wastewater treatment plant102. Due to their lower
energy demands, anaerobic processes are cheaper than aerobic processes
(pumping, aeration) and they also produce less sludge.
There is an increasing global trend away form costly high tech solutions to
wastewater management. The UNEP‟s Water and Sanitation programme
have made phytotechnology (using plants) a priority. Low cost solutions such
as constructed wetlands, stabilization ponds and anaerobic baffled reactors
are being looked at as solutions to wastewater problems with specific
reference to grey water and urban sewage.
102
Wells, M 2005 Athlone Biogas and Integrated Farming System
103
LA Renewable Energy Project www.physorg.com
104
UNEP website : http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/WS/publications.asp
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Each technology has its advantages and disadvantages regarding
construction costs, operational costs, energy use, size, operation simplicity,
stability and reliability.
Issues to consider:
Public health and environment protection.
Low construction and operational costs.
Issues which could be more sites specific include:
Availability of land
High cost of conveyance of sewage
Availability of trained operators
Optomising re-use of effluent
An interesting global trend in sewage treatment plant design and water and
wastewater management, is catchment based planning and management.
The approach demands a move away from the design of a treatment plants
as an isolated event, towards design within a broader planning framework.
105
UNEP webpage : www.unep.or.jp/ietc/brochures/iuwm.pdf
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Fragmentation : Water issues, planning issues and socio-
environmental issues are managed as separate entities and are
not sufficiently integrated
Speed of development: There are problems with „developmental
blueprints‟ (what should go where) for the City as a whole and fast
tracked emergency planning is undertaking to meet development
needs. Due processes such as public participation, integration and
investigation of alternative technologies suffers as a result of time
constraints.
The City of Cape Town has a Catchment, Stormwater and River management
department who are responsible for the management of the stormwater
system (including surface water bodies)106. They are however not responsible
for the entire water cycle. Although the water and sanitation service is one of
the largest impactors on the stormwater system (increased flows, Greywater
run-off etc) their planning and operational systems do not adequately
integrate with those of Stormwater.
An innovative new opportunity for the City is to implement the philosophy and
practice of Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM).
The implementation of IUWM could ensure that all water related processes
are planned and managed with a view toward their collective social, economic
and environmental impact. This approach would require a paradigm shift
within the existing water and sanitation sector of the City of Cape Town.
Most of the formal developed areas in Cape Town are served by one of the
20 large (centralised) wastewater treatment plants. By definition a
decentralised wastewater system treats sewage from homes and business
that are not connected to a centralised wastewater treatment plant and
includes on site and cluster system108. A septic tank and soak-away or
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) toilet are typical on-site systems, whereas a
106
COCT, 2002 Catchment, Stormwater and River Management Strategy 2002-2007
107
WRC Website : www.wrc.org.za/downloads/knowledgereview/2002/Integrated.pdf
108
EPA, 2004 : Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems
http://www.epa.gov/OWM/primer.pdf
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plant that treats a small group of houses or a development, relatively near
their location, is typically a cluster system.
This section highlights issues for consideration and emphasises the need for
more research in this field.
109
Sukriti Engineers in : www.tradeindia.com
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Germany: Heidelberg-Neurott110 decentralised membrane sewage treatment
demonstration plant produces wastewater fit to swim in. Each house has a small
pump that leads to an influent storage tank, where mixing occurs before
treatment by the pre-manufactured unit.
Figure 12: Process flow chart for the membrane bioreactor plant in Heidelberg-Neurott 101
There is extensive scope for research into the viability (financial, social and
environmental) of decentralised wastewater treatment, possibly as a potential
solution to the City of Cape Town‟s wastewater treatment crises for new
developments? Opportunities for treated wastewater and sludge re-use closer
to source are also favoured by this approach.
110
Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology
www.igb.fraunhofer.de/start.en.html
111
EPA, 2004 Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems
http://www.epa.gov/OWM/primer.pdf
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6. Financial Aspects112
Over the last decade of the restructuring of Water and Sanitation Services
within the broader context of the restructuring of the City there have been
ongoing annual operating and capital budget cuts. Staff that have left the
service through natural attrition have in many cases not been replaced,
resulting in a critical skills shortage particularly of engineers and project
managers.
The budget cuts have meant that infrastructure expansion and maintenance
have fallen behind. In particular, much of the wastewater treatment and sewer
pipelines and pump stations infrastructure are in critical need of expansion,
upgrading and replacement.
The water tariff is low when compared to other major cities in South Africa.
In addition bad debt has grown to a massive R2.0 billion (R1.5 for water and
R0.5 for sanitation).
112
The chapter was written by John Frame and contains numerous extracts from the COCT
Water Services Development Plan 2007/8 – 2011/12, referenced elsewhere in this document,
which he co-authored and project lead
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The severe drought of 2004/05 resulted in water restrictions at a 20% level of
reduction. In order to maintain the momentum of a water saving culture of the
customers a 10% level of restrictions has been in force since November 2005.
The total amount of water sold (billed) versus what was delivered (water
treated) is given in the table below:
The growth in water demand over the last 5 years has been 2.7% or 0.5% per
annum compared to an historic 3-4% per annum. This reduction in demand
growth has been as a result of increased consumer awareness due to the
severe water restrictions of 2004/05 and water demand management
initiatives.
In the 2005/06 the breakdown of water usage in the different categories was:
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Domestic consumption accounted for 50.7% and non-revenue demand for
19.3 % of the total demand.
The budgeted income for the financial year 2006/07 is given in the table
below:
Item Amount
User Charges for Services -1,598,153,508
Rent of Facilities and Equipment -122,434
Interest earned on Arrears -110,000,000
Operating Grants and Subsidies -170,254,241
Other Income -11,739,398
Internal Charges Revenue -813,340,495
Internal Cross Subsidization Revenue -35,952,000
TOTAL -2,739,562,077
The total water and sewerage expenditure budget for 2006/07 is given in the
table below:
EXPENDITURE 2006/07
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Internal Contribution Expenditure 92,040,000
Activity Based Costs -92,304,405
Corporate Support Services 134,362,233
2,611,941,335
TOTAL
The projected water usage in each category (and each block – e.g. there are
6 blocks for single residential domestic) with the tariff applied to each
determines the “user charge for services”. The volume of sewerage disposed
is based on the water consumption and user charges for sewerage are based
on a fixed and volumetric charge. The fixed charge, which is based on the
value of the property, will no longer apply from 2007/08. Water and sewerage
tariffs are set each year for various levels of water restrictions - 0%, 10%,
20% and 30%.
The average cost of water and sanitation for the financial year 2006/07 is
R7.07 per Kl of water sold. The average cost of water is R4.95 per Kl
consumed and that of wastewater or sewerage is R2.79 per Kl disposed.
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TARIFFS 2006 / 2007 TARIFFS 2007 / 2008
Commercial – Water supplied to R 5.83 Comm / Ind R 6.95
premises predominantly of a
commercial nature
Industrial - Water which is used in
manufacturing, generating electricity,
land-based transport, construction or
any related purpose.
Schools / Sport – Any educational R5.15 Schools / Sport R 6.14
activity / sporting body
Domestic Cluster – Bulk metered R5.47 Dom. Cluster R 6.52
flats, cluster developments including
single title and sectional title units.
An allowance of 6 Kl per unit per
month at zero cost upon submission
of affidavits stating the number of
units.
Government - National and R5.53 Government R 6.59
Provincial Departments
Municipal – Departmental use R5.15 Municipal R 6.14
Homeless people shelters – n/a 0 – 0.75 /person R0
Accredited shelters registered with +0.75 /person R6.14
the City of Cape Town.
Miscellaneous – All consumers who R5.53 Miscellaneous R 6.59
do not fall within the above
categories.
Miscellaneous External - All R6.61 Miscellaneous R 7.88
consumers supplied outside the City External
of Cape Town.
Bulk Tariff - Exclusive of the Water R2.21 Bulk Tariff R 2.37
Research Commission Levy
Only for Bulk Supply to other
Municipalities and for cost recovery
from Water Services Reticulation of
the City of Cape Town
Table 22: Water Tariff
Sewerage (sanitation) tariffs for a 10% restriction level for the financial years
2006/07 and 2007/08 are given in the table below:
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TARIFFS TARIFFS
VOLUMETRIC TARIFFS
2006 / 2007 2007 / 2008
All domestic properties receive 6 kilolitres of water free per month while the
first 4.2 (70% of 6 Kl) per month of sewerage is disposed free of charge.
Effectively consumers that use more water cross subsidize those that use
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less. In addition all properties that are valued at R100 000 or less receive a
R20 Indigent Grant and do not attract a fixed charge for sewerage. At 2006/07
tariffs this Indigent Grant meant that consumers could use 10.695 kilolitres of
water and dispose of 7.487 kilolitres of sewerage per month without attracting
a charges. However, due to the increase in tariffs in 2007/08 the Indigent
Grant has been increased to R30 as is applied to the water account. The
property value that attracts the Indigent Grant has been adjusted to R199
000. Previously a sewerage connection attracted a fixed and volumetric
charge. However, from 2007/08 all sewerage will be charged volumetrically.
The increase over the last 5 years has been low (2.7%) in line with the low
increase in water demand.
The operating and maintenance costs for the wastewater treatment works for
2006/07 is given in the table below:
The cost is therefore R0.80 per Kilolitre (R0.973 including overheads but
excluding capital charges) of wastewater treated. The ratio of water treated to
water supplied to properties is 0.67. Since water ingress into the sewer
system is a problem, all the water treated does not originate as potable water
but a proportion is storm water and ground water. This ingress results in
higher costs of treatment and affects water quality.
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There have not been studies within the city to examine the financial
implications of applying new technologies to new areas. Social acceptance is
considered a major obstacle. The unit costs of other waste processing
systems such as biolytic, multi-system approaches and separation toilets (e.g.
urine diversion) needs further research.
The billing system used to bill users is the SAP system which sends out a
consolidated bill for rates, solid waste, electricity (where conventional meter),
water and sewerage.
The City is divided into 20 billing areas, which coincide with the meter reading
areas. Bills are therefore sent out on a daily basis after the meter reading has
been loaded into the system and verified. There are strict deadlines for the
bills to go out so meter reading runs to a strict schedule.
Currently all users are divided into the following rate categories.
Bulk Water
Bulk Water Other
Departmental Water
Municipal Standpipe
Goverment Water
Miscellaneous External
Miscellaneous Water
Water for Schools
Domestic Water Cluster
Commercial Water
Industrial Water
Water Domestic Full
Water contracts
Citywide Miscellaneous
Municipal Water
Standpipes
Shared Water Meter
Each rate category has a unit rate for the volume of water consumed. Water
availability charges apply where there is no water usage but a connection
exists.
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an inflationary increase. Changes in technology and in the way the plant is
operated is also taken into account. Often, capital budget constraints do not
permit higher expenditure that will result in longer term lower costs or higher
income.
The historical and future capital budgets and the funding sources are given
below:
Capital Budget 2004/05 to 2006/07
2005/06 2006/07
R mil R mil
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R mil R mil R mil R mil R mil
Note: the first 3 years correspond with the 3 year capital budget.
Table 27: Project Capital Budget for 2007/8 – 2011/12
Funding Sources for the years 2007/08 to 2011/12 are projected to be:
The capital budget is set to increase significantly from approximately R400 mil
per annum to over R800 million with EFF set to increase from around R150-
R160 million to R460-R700 million. This is to ensure that the necessary
infrastructure is built to cater for growth in the city and existing infrastructure is
maintained and upgraded or replaced.
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There is currently an initiative that will ensure that all master planning is
based on the same base data for the Bulk Water, Wastewater Treatment,
Reticulation and Water Demand Management. Currently base data is
fragmented and planning is not fully integrated.
On an annual basis, through the IDP and WSDP process, which is guided by
national policies and legislation, goals and objectives are set. The current
situation is assessed and the strategic gap is identified. From this strategies
are developed to ensure that the gap is closed.
Once projects have been identified these are entered into the draft capital
budget. A process of determining the priorities is then followed until a final
capital budget is determined. The process of determining which projects are
priority is not easy despite the IDP and WSDP process. In recent years due to
the tight capital budget the method of determining which projects should go
ahead has been based on a risk analysis that determines that consequences
or impact of not doing the project and the likelihood of these impacts.
The final decision as to what will be submitted to Council rests with the
Directors and Executive Directors in conjunction with the Finance Directorate.
The total capital budget is set based on the impact on the tariffs and the
affordability thereof for the whole municipal account. Theoretically, because
Water and Sanitation Services generates its own income the total budget can
be determined by financial modeling. However, this has not always been the
case and the service often “cross-subsidizes” the rates capital budget. The
high debt of the service has also reduced affordability.
Ultimately the Council decides from what is submitted and within the budget
constraint what projects go ahead.
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6.8 Challenges and Constraints
There are numerous financial challenges that need to be overcome. Probably
the most critical is the high and rising debt (currently R2.0 billion) as it puts
the financial sustainability of the service at risk, increases the cost of
providing the service and affects the service‟s ability to attract much needed
capital to maintain, upgrade and extend infrastructure. The Capital
requirements over the next 5 years are extremely high with EFF set to
increase from around R150-R160 million to R460-R700 million. While the
proper asset management will increase costs in the short term, they will
reduce costs in the longer term and the life cycle costs will be reduced i.e.
assets that are properly maintained last longer. Additional staff are required to
improve the financial management of the service as well as ensuring that
infrastructure is maintained, upgraded and extended.
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7. Constraints and challenges and future recommendations
Findings of this study substantiate the strategic interventions for the water and
sanitation sector, proposed in the National Strategy for Sustainable
Development113. These are:
Sustaining our ecosystems and using natural resources efficiently
Investing in sustainable infrastructure
Creating sustainable communities
Enhancing systems for integrated planning
Building capacity for sustainable development
113
DEAT, 2006 : National Strategy for Sustainable Development. (Draft Integrated Strategy for
Review)
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Capacity: Capacity constraints exist do to long overdue vacancies.
Low staff morale is counter-productive to the high expectations on
service delivery
Integration: Future planning scenarios needs to fast tracked within
the various tiers of government, amongst the various line functions in
within the various departments of the water and sanitation service.
Budget Timeframes: The “pace to deliver”, once financial
commitment is secured, is often driven by financial limitations (spend
the money before we lose it). Sustainability is risked in fast tracked
projects with limited public and other line-functions involvement.
Projects may suffer from lack of ownership by communities and
officials! This is particularly true for service delivery projects in high
density low income areas.
Capacity building: In order to ensure meaningful participation within
and outside Council, the water and sanitation service needs to explore
methods to creating an understanding of the highly technical issues it
deals with.
114
From COCT, 2007 :Executive Summary :Water Services Development Plan
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Making adequate provision for free basic services for the poor, to
ensure that there is no further marginalisation of poorer communities
or individuals through the entrenchment of the indigent policy;
Preparing realistic income budgets with adequate provision for non-
recovery to ensure the expenditure reflected for each year can be fully
covered by cash receipts;
Ensuring that adequate cash reserves are maintained to cover
legislated funds and provisions.
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on “end-use” demand analysis appear to provide a greater level of
confidence.
Water saving devices: The availability and affordability of many of the
water saving devices promoted in the Water Conservation and
Demand Management Strategy needs to be ensured in order for the
strategy to meet its goals.
Alternative technologies: There is an urgent need for a detailed
investigation into alternative technologies for water and wastewater
treatment. The role of technologies such as solar disinfection,
decentralised wastewater treatment and innovative bio-gas sewage
sludge re-use should be explored in new and existing developments.
Greywater: Innovative solutions need to be explored to deal with the
highly polluted run-off from un-serviced and/or poorly serviced
settlements.
Effluent re-use: The City is currently re-using only 7% of the potential
39% of treated effluent available for this purpose. This untapped
resource offers huge opportunities for innovative development.
Guidelines for the re-use of treated effluent within the urban
environment need to be develop as a matter of urgency.
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Amidst the constraints and limitations of restructuring, budgets cuts and staff
losses, the water and sanitation sector has managed to ensure that the
majority of formally housed citizens in Cape Town have reliable access to
clean water and properly functioning sanitation services.
Great strides have been made with by-laws and the development of a service
delivery plan, which aligns with the growth and development objectives of the
City. More recently, the Council committed them selves to a R759 million
strategy which will guide water conservation and demand management over
the next 10 years. The future of water resource management in the City of
Cape Town harbours many untapped opportunities for innovation and
transformation.
8. References
Cape Times, 3 April 2007: Editorial
Cape Argus, 3 April 2007: Shack dwellers stuck with buckets by Lindsay Dentlinger
COCT, 2001: Integrated Water Resource Planning Sudy – Background, Results and
Recommendations (Ninham Shand and Arcuss Gibb)
COCT, 2001: Integrated Environmental Management Policy for the City of Cape Town
Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 99
99
COCT, 2002: Scoping Investigation Report on Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas
Mitigation Projects for the City of Cape Town
COCT, 2005: Integrated Development Plan for the City of Cape Town 2005/6
COCT, 2005: Project Definition Report for the Asset Management Plan for the Trading
Services
COCT, 2005: Safety, Health and Environment Policy and Procedure Manual
COCT, 2006: Water Services Development Plan for the City of Cape Town 2006/7
COCT, 2006 (CD): City of Cape Town policy and strategy documents towards
sustainable development through integrated environmental management
COCT, 2007: Water Services Development Plan for the City of Cape Town 2007/8-
2011/12 (Draft 4)
COCT, 2007: (Unpublished Council Report) An overview of the Western Cape water
supply system reconciliation strategy and the roles and responsibilities of the city in
implementation of the strategy, Report to Utility Services Portfolio Committee
COCT, 2007: Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (Final
Draft)
COCT, 2007: (Media Release 11 June 2007): City Adopts Multimillion Rand Water
Saving Strategy, Communications Department
DEAT, 2006: National Strategy for Sustainable Development. (Draft Integrated Strategy
for Review)
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Della Togna M & Pithey S, 2003: (VIDEO/ CD). Improving Services Trough Dialogue.
The Kalkfontein Stormwater Project. Rainbow Circle Films, Cape Town.
DWAF 1997: White Paper on National Water Policy for South Africa
DWAF, 2004: Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the
Water Services Sector
DWAF 2005 (Newsletter)Western Cape Reconciliation Process and Berg River CMA
Process, Newsletter May 2005
Ninham Shand, Asch and Africon Engineering, 2003: Review of the infrastructure and
fixed assets of the Water and Sanitation Service
ODA, aloeCap and Africon, 2004: High level review of the project to establish internal
business units for Electricity, Water and Sanitation and Solid Waste Management
Services
Scmitz, T, 1999: Rethinking delivery : A review of efforts of DWAF, CPS Policy Analysis
Sustainable Energy Africa & COCT, 2002: (Unpublished report): Greenhouse Gas
Inventory for the City of Cape Town
WRC, 2004: An Assessment of the Water Policy Process in South Africa (1994-2003),
Report No TT232/04,
Referenced Websites:
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Local
International
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