Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Types of Thermometer
A thermometer requires some measurable physical property that changes with temperature.
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Liquid-in-glass Thermometer
bulb
glass
The liquid inside the thermometer
expands when it is heated. It’s volume
increases and it rises up the tube.
liquid
(mercury or alcohol) scale narrow tube The liquid expands more than the glass
Clinical thermometer
Measures over a smaller range so it can be
more accurate (35-43oC)
Body temperature
Keeps highest reading for ease of use (the
constriction breaks the thread when the
liquid cools and contracts) Normal body temperature is around 37oC.
Glass tube shaped like a lens to magnify
If body temperature is above 38oC the person
the thin thread of liquid.
has a fever.
Sound can travel through solids, liquids and gases, but not a vacuum
Stethoscope Ultrasound
The stethoscope is a device for listening to Ultrasound is sound with a frequency above
sounds from within a patient’s body. the range of human hearing. (above 20 000 Hz)
The bell collects sounds from the patient. Ultrasonic waves are directed into the patient
(open bell for low frequency heart sounds, and reflect off objects inside the patient. It
closed bell for high frequency lung sounds) takes different times for the sound waves to
return from different depths and so an image of
The tubes carry the sounds to the earpieces.
the patient can be built up using a computer.
The earpieces pass the sounds into the
doctors ears while blocking out background A layer jelly is placed on the skin to prevent
noises. sound waves reflecting off the skin.
Noise Levels
When light passes from air into glass it bends towards the
normal and when it passes from glass into air it bends
away from the normal.
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
lens
Focal length
The power of a lens is measured in dioptres, D, The eye forms an image which is upside-down
and can be calculated using the formula : (inverted) and back-to-front (laterally inverted).
1
power =
focal length
D m
Convex lenses have a positive (+) power. The image is also smaller than the object being
Concave lenses have a negative (-) power. viewed.
Sight Defects
Short-Sight Long-Sight
People with short-sight are unable to focus on People with long-sight are unable to focus on
distant objects clearly. Short-sight can be close objects clearly. Long-sight can be
corrected by using a concave lens. corrected by using a convex lens.
Short-sight occurs because parallel rays of light Long-sight occurs because diverging rays of light
from a distant object are brought to a focus in from a nearby object are brought to a focus
front of the retina. (Image is short of retina) behind the retina (Image is long of retina)
Lasers X-rays
A laser is a very intense beam of light that X-rays can be used to find broken bones.
carries a great deal of energy. It can cut through A beam of X-rays is aimed the patient. Since
human body tissue and seals blood vessels as it bone is more dense than the surrounding tissue
cuts due to the intense heating effect. it absorbs more X-rays. A ‘shadow’ is
Lasers are used in medicine for eye surgery, to therefore cast on the photographic film placed
remove birthmarks and to remove cancerous behind the patient. The X-rays blacken the
tumours. film, so the bones show up white and any
breaks as dark lines.
arm muscle
LASER
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Computerised Tomography
photographic
arm bone plate
In computerised tomography a series of
horizontal X-ray images are taken of the body.
Photographic film is frequently used as a
A computer then uses these ‘slices ‘ to build up
detector of X-rays.
a 3-dimensional (3-D) picture of the body. This
enables small tumours to be found very
accurately and provides more detailed images
than a conventional X-ray pictures.
Infrared
Infrared radiation is simply heat radiation with
a wavelength longer than that of visible light.
Infrared radiation is used by physiotherapists to
Ultraviolet speed up the recovery of injured muscles and
Ultraviolet radiation is radiation with a tissues.
wavelength shorter than that of visible light. Infrared radiation is also used in a thermal
Ultraviolet radiation is used to treat skin imaging camera where objects at different
problems and to sterilise medical instruments. temperatures show up as different colours on a
picture called a thermogram. Tumours are
Excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation (e.g. warmer than surrounding tissue and therefore
from the Sun) can cause skin cancer. show up on a thermogram.
Section 5 - Nuclear Radiation
The Atom
Geiger-Muller tube.
Scintillation
Radiation can cause some materials (e.g. zinc sulphide) to scintillate. In scintillation the material
absorbs the energy of the radiation and re-emits it as light.
Safety
Example 2:
Calculate the half-life of a source that decreases Safety precautions need to be taken when
in activity from 32 kBq to 8 kBq in 24 days. handling radioactive materials. These include :
1 2 • Always handle with forceps
32 16 8
• Point source away from body
2 half-lives = 24 days
• Store in lead container
1 half-life = 12 days
• Label all sources
The half-life of the source is 12 days • Wash hands after use
Equivalent Dose
The equivalent dose of a radioactive source is a
The biological effect of radiation depends on: measure of the biological risk of the source and is
• the type of absorbing tissue measured in Sieverts, Sv.
• the type of radiation
• the total energy absorbed The equivalent dose takes into account the type
of radiation and the total energy absorbed.